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A Study of the Pantheon Through TimeCaitlin Williams

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AStudyofthePantheonThroughTime

By

CaitlinWilliams

*******

Submittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsfor

HonorsintheDepartmentofClassics

UNIONCOLLEGEJune,2018

ii

ABSTRACT

WILLIAMS,CAITLINAStudyofthePantheonThroughTime.DepartmentofClassics,June,2018.

ADVISOR:Hans-FriedrichMueller.

IanalyzethePantheon,oneofthemostwell-preservedbuildingsfrom

antiquity,throughtime.IstartwithAgrippa'sPantheon,theoriginalPantheonthat

isnolongerstanding,whichwasbuiltin27or25BC.Whatdiditlooklikeoriginally

underAugustus?Whywasitbuilt?WethenshifttothePantheonthatstandstoday,

Hadrian-Trajan'sPantheon,whichwascompletedaroundAD125-128,and

representsanexampleofanarchitecturalrevolution.Wasitevenatemple?We

alsolookatthePantheon'sconversiontoachurch,whichhelpsexplainwhyitisso

wellpreserved.MystudyaimsforanunderstandingofthePantheonincontextof

whatitmeantforthepeopleofRome,theempire,andmodernday.

iii

TABLEOFCONTENTS

Abstract..........................................................................ii

Introduction......................................................................1

ChapterI:Agrippa’sPantheon.....................................................4

ChapterII:Hadrian’sPantheon..................................................17

ChapterIII:ThePantheonasaChurchandToday.................................40

Conclusion......................................................................52

Bibliography....................................................................55

1

INTRODUCTION

Asoneofthemostwellpreservedandcontinuallyrestoredbuildingsfrom

antiquity,thePantheonhasbecomeavastsubjectofresearch,yettherearemany

questionsthatsurroundthebuilding.ThePantheon’soriginalpurposeisstill

unknown.Wasitforreligioususe,forgovernmentbusiness,amemorialor

somethingelse?However,lookingatthePantheonthroughtime,beginning27B.C.

or25B.C.tothemoderndaypermitsustoanalyzethePantheontoseewhatthe

purposeofthePantheonwasatdifferentpoints,whyitissowellpreserved,aswell

asitsplaceinantiquityforthepeopleoftheRomanEmpire.

ThebestwaytostartlookingatthisisbylookingatAgrippa’soriginal

Pantheon.EventhoughthisfirstPantheonisnolongerstanding,itwasinthesame

placethecurrentPantheonstandsintheCampusMartius,sowecanexamineits

relationshiptootherbuildings.BylookingatwherethePantheonislocatedandwhy

itwaschosentobeplacedthere,wecananalyzetheimportanceofitslocation.By

lookingatwherethefirstPantheonwasbuiltbyAgrippa,wecanusethelimited

knowledgewegainforanalyzingabuildingthatlaterbecameaveryprominentand

stillwellpreservedpartofantiquity.Thereisalsostillsomeknowledgeaboutthe

PantheonthatcanbefoundbylookingatancientsourcessuchasCassiusDio.Dio

describeswhythePantheoniscalledthePantheon.Thisleadsusintolookingatthe

debateofwhatthePantheonwasforbaseduponthemeaningbehinditsname.In

additiontothis,IwilllookatAgrippa’sroleinbuildingthePantheon,whichwas

almostnamedthe“Augusteum”andwhyitwasnotnamedthis.Inregardtothe

religionoftheimperialcultanditsconnectiontotheassassinationofJuliusCaesar,I

2

amgoingtolookatsuchfeaturesasthealtar,oculus,domeandstatues.Iwillalso

contrasttheoriginalrectangularshapeofthebuildingwiththecurrentPantheon’s

circularform,anddiscussitssignificance.Finally,howdidpeopleinteractwiththe

uniquearchitectureofthePantheon?

Afterthisinitialinvestigation,IwilllookathowandwhorebuiltAgrippa’s

Pantheon,whichburneddowninafirein80A.D.andwhichwasagainstruckby

lightningin110A.D.Inotherwords,whatisthesignificanceofhowthebuilding

keptbeingrebuiltandreplaced?Ialsowilllookatthecontroversyofwhobuiltthe

Pantheonthatisstandingtodaybylookingatthebrickstamps,thebricktypesthat

wereused,andtheinscriptiononthebuilding.Ialsolookathowpeoplewouldhave

feltaboutandinteractedwiththePantheon,dependinguponwhowastheemperor

atthetime.IalsolookathowthearchitectureofthePantheonrepresentsthe

architecturalrevolutionthatoccurredinRomeandthemeaningofthematerials

used.Bylookingatthearchitecture,CassiusDio,andtheHistoriaeAugustaIanalyze

whetherthePantheonwasforpaganworshiporforotherpurposes.

Lastly,IwilllookatthereasonswhythePantheonisstillwellpreserved,

whichIattributetothePantheonhavingbeenconvertedtoaChristianchurch

becausethePopessponsoredrenovationstohelpmaintainandrefurbishmany

partsofthebuildingoveritshistory.Iexplainwhowasbehindtheconversion,when

thistookplace,andwhattypeofChurchthePantheonwasconvertedto.Ialso

describethecelebrationsandeventsthathaveoccurredinthePantheonafterthe

conversion.IwillanalyzethedifferencesinthePantheonfromapaganworshipto

ChristianworshipbylookingatMaryandJesusincomparisonwithVenusandMars.

3

AnotherdifferenceIlookatistheplacementofanaltarinsidethePantheonasa

churchandhowthereisnoevidenceofanaltarforthePantheonthatcanbefound

fromantiquity.IalsolookathowthePantheonhasinfluencedmodernarchitecture

bycomparingittosuchotherbuildingsastheDuomoofFlorence,andIdonot

neglecttodiscusshowthePantheonisusedbypeopletoday.

ThePantheontoday(PhotobyCaitlinWilliams)

4

CHAPTERI:Agrippa’sPantheon

ThefirstPantheonwaspartofamassiveplanthatincluded“Rome’sfirst

publicbathbuilding”byMarcusAgrippa.1Itisbelievedtohavebeencreatedin27

or25B.C.byAgrippa.2Agrippa’sPantheonandthePantheonthatiscurrently

standingtodaywerebothlocatedintheCampusMartius,whichtranslatesto“the

fieldofthewargodMars.”3Thebuilding’splacementontheCampusMartiuscould

havebeenmeanttounderscoreAugustus’sconnectiontoMars,andthiswouldhave

remainedtrueforthePantheonthatreplacedtheoriginalaswell.

In80A.D.theoriginalbuildingwasdestroyedbyafire,itburnedagainin110

A.D.,and,asaresult,theoriginalisnotthebuildingthatcanbeseenstandingtoday

inRome.4ThisfirstfireoccurredduringthereignofDomitian,and“inthetimeof

Trajan[thebuilding]wasstruckbylightningandburnedagain.Therestorationthen

carriedoutbyHadrianseemstohavebeenanentirelynewbuilding,probablyonan

entirelynewplan.”5OurknowledgeofAgrippa’sPantheonisfairlylimited,butithas

beenconcludedthatitwasprobablyalsoarotundaliketheonethatstandstoday.6

Onethingthatcanbetakenawayfromthefactthatthebuildinghasbeenrebuilt

throughouthistoryisthatitalwaysretaineduseandimportancefromthetimeit

wasbuilttopresentday.

TheidentificationofwhobuiltAgrippa’sPantheonandthePantheonthat

standstodayhasbeenthesubjectofdebatesamongscholars;however,thereisa

1 Perkins, 1977, 70. 2 Marder & Jones, 2015, 5. 3 Marder & Jones, 2015, 4. 4 Perkins, 1977, 70. 5 Richardson, 1995, 283 6 Marder & Jones, 2015, 4.

5

memorialtothefirstPantheonthatisretainedonthecurrentPantheonthatcanbe

recognizedasatributetoAgrippa’sPantheon,thepredecessorofHadrian’s

Pantheon,whichisthecurrentonestanding.Theinscriptiononthefacadereads,

“M.AgrippaL.F.Costertiumfecit,”whichmaybetranslatedas,“MarcusAgrippa,

sonofLucius,consulthreetimes,made[this].”7TheheritageofthePantheonhas

beendebatedovertimeandwhothecurrentPantheonwasbuiltbyhasbeenthe

subjectionofexaminationforalongtime.Ithasgenerallybeendecidedthatthe

PantheonthatstandstodaywasbuiltbyHadrian.Thisconclusionhasmainlybeen

cementedbythefactofthepresenceof“brickstamps,excavation,andliterary

sources.”8

ThePantheonisoneofthemostwellpreservedbuildingsfromantiquityand

inGreekmeans“allgods,”whichisnamelyatemplededicatedto“allgods.”9

However,accordingtoCassiusDiowho“providestworeadings”ofthename

Pantheon,“onederivingfromcelestialsymbolism,andtheotherfromstatuesof

multipledivinities,consistentwiththecommonperceptionofthePantheonasa

templetoallgods.”10ThereadingofthePantheonasbeingdedicatedtoallgods

showsRome’sinclusivenessofothergodswithinRome’sstatereligion.

ThroughfurtherexcavationandreadingsofsuchliterarysourcesasDio,

therehavebeenotherpossibilitiesofwhatthebuildingwouldhavebeenusedfor.

Agrippa’sbuildingplan,whichwaspreviouslymentioned,waspartof“Agrippa

7 Boatwright, 2013,19. 8 Boatwright, 2013, 19. 9 Jones, 2000, 179. 10 Jones, 2000, 179.

6

beautif(ying)thecityathisownexpense.”11CassiusDiodescribesthePantheonin

hiswritingswhentalkingabouttheplanandbuildingsthatAgrippahadbuiltfor

Rome.Diostates:

[regarding]thebuildingcalledthePantheon[,i]thasthisname,perhapsbecauseitreceivedamongtheimageswhichdecorateditthestatuesofmanygods,includingMarsandVenus;butmyownopinionofthenameisthat,becauseofitsvaultedroof,itresemblestheheavens.Agrippa,forhispart,wishedtoplaceastatueofAugustustherealsoandtobestowuponhimthehonourofhavingthestructurenamedafterhim;butwhentheemperorwouldn'taccepteitherhonour,heplacedinthetempleitselfastatueoftheformerCaesarandintheante-roomstatuesofAugustusandhimself.Thiswasdone,notoutofanyrivalryorambitiononAgrippa'sparttomakehimselfequaltoAugustus,butfromhisheartyloyaltytohimandhisconstantzealforthepublicgood;henceAugustus,sofarfromcensuringhimforit,honouredthemthemore.12

DioisdetailingtheoriginalPantheonanddiscussesthemeaningofitsname,

whichhasalsobeendebated.Hegivestwopossibilitiesofwhythebuildingwas

calledthePantheon:onepossibilityisbecauseofthenumerousstatuesofdifferent

godswithinthebuildingandtheotherpossibilityisbecauseofthebuilding’sdome

andoculus.HealsoexpressedhispersonalopiniononwhyhethinksthePantheon

gotthisnameandheattributesittothe“vaultedroof,”ratherthanitbeingforall

gods.Thisislikelybecausetherewerenoknowntemplesthatwerebuilttoworship

allgodsinantiquitybecauseeachgodneededtobeworshipedindividually,sothat

responsesfromthegodsintheformofomenscouldbeattributedtothepropergod.

Howcouldanomenassociatedwiththetempleof“allgods”havebeenassociated

withthecorrectgod?However,theoverallinconclusivenessaboutwhythe

11 Dio, trans. of 1917, 265. 12 Dio, trans. of 1917, 265.

7

Pantheonhasthisnameispartofitsmysterytoday.Dioalsotalksaboutthe

relevanceoftheAgrippa’sPantheontoAgrippaandAugustus’srelationshipwith

eachother.HedescribesAgrippa’sresponsibilityforhisbuildingprojectandhowhe

alsoincludedAugustusinthatproject.Hewantedto“honor”Augustusbyputtinga

statueofhiminsidePantheon;however,asaresultofthecarefullinethatAugustus

towedasemperorineverywayexceptname,hedeclinedAgrippa’soffer.This

decisionbyAugustusresultedinAgrippainstallingastatueofJuliusCaesarinside.It

alsoresultedin

put[ing]statuesofAugustusandhimselfintheporch.FromthisitappearsthatthedesignofthebuildingwasinhonorofAugustus’sdivineforebears,especiallyMarsandVenus,aforerunneroftheTempleofMarsUltor.13

Lookingfurtherintotherelationshipbetweentheirrelationship.Itisclearthatthe

nowPantheonwasactuallyintendedtobecalledthe“Augusteum”afterastatueof

Augustuswastobeputin,butthiswouldbetoomuchofa“deification.”14

Lookingatthereligiousconnections,onebelievesthatthebuildingnever

becametheAugusteum,becauseAugustuscouldnotacceptabuildingthatinvolved

blatantworshipforhimself.AsaresultofJuliusCaesar’sextensivepowerandrule

overtheRomanEmpirehewasassassinatedbyhissenators.Augustusinresponse

tohisadoptivefather’scruelandunexpecteddeathwasmorecarefulwithhowhe

ruledtheempire.Agrippa,ashistrustedadvisor,wasattemptingtocreateaplaceto

honorAugustus,whilehewasstillalive;however,beinghonoredasagodwhilestill

livingisoneofthereasonsthatCaesarwasassassinated.InthatperiodofRoman

13 Richardson, 1995, 283 14 Goldsworthy, 2015, 259.

8

history,theonlyacceptablewaytobehonoredlikeagodwouldhavebeenafter

one’sdeath.Augustuswasstillabletobeworshipedwhilehewasalive,butonly

hisGeniuswasworshipedinRomeandhereceivedcultichonorsinmanyprovinces,Augustuswasnotformallydeifieduntilafterhisdeathin14CE,whenatempleanddeificationweredecreedinhishonor.15

EventhoughAugustuswaswidelylovedbythecitizensofRomeitwasimportantfor

himnottomakethesamemisstepsthatCaesarmadesothathecouldavoidan

unnaturalandabruptdeathandendofhisreign.

Dioalsobringsuptheconceptofreligiousandimperialcultsinthisperiod.

BasedonDio’sdescriptionofthePantheon,itseemsthatthebuildingwasactually

intendedtobeaplacefortheemperortobealignedwiththegods.Duringthe

lifetimeofanemperortherewouldtypicallybenumerousimperialcultsthatwould

worshiphim.Theseimperialcultswouldmakestatuesoftheemperorandhonor

theemperorinordertousuallygainfavorwithhim;albeit,noneofthesecultplaces

wouldbewithinthecityofRomeitself.Upontheemperor’sdeath,hewouldbe

deifiedandworshippedasagod.Dioalsodescribesimperialcultsandtheirimpact

ontheruleofemperor.AsWarriorsummarizes,

TwocenturieslaterDiocommentsonthebeginningsofimperialcult:AugustusmeanwhileallowedprecintsinEphesosandNicaeatobededicatedtoRomaandtohisfatherCaesar,naminghimtheheroJulius…HeorderedtheRomanslivingtheretohonorthesedivinities.Buthepermittedforeigners,whomhecalledGreeks,toconsecrateprecintstohimself–theAsiansinPergamonandBithyniansatNicomedia.Thatiswherethispracticestartedandhasbeencontinuedunderotheremperors,notonlyamongGreeknations,butamongotherssubjecttoRomanrule.InRomeitselfandtherestofItaly,noemperor,nomatterhowworthyofrenown,hassofardaredtodothis.However,whentheydie,thosethatruledwithintegrityarealso

15 Warrior, 2006, 113.

9

grantedvariousdivinehonorsinRomeandheroa(shrinestoheroes)arebuilttothem.(Dio51.20.6-8)16TheimperialcultwasawayforAugustus,thefirstprinceps,andeveryfuture

princepstomaintainsupportforthemselvesfromRomansubjectsthroughoutthe

empire.ThesecitiesthatDiomentionscreatedtemplesandstatuesofAugustusin

thiscasetoworshiphimandgainfavorwithhim.ItwasimportantforRoman

subjectsoutsidethecityofRometobeabletoshowtheemperorthatthey

supportedhim.Thiswasakeyfactorinpublicworksandacustomarypartofpublic

lifeintheRomanEmpire.Thereasonsthat“noemperor,nomatterhowworthyof

renown”wouldputastatueofhimselfinRomeorhaveanimperialcultwithinthe

citywasbecauseofthelessonallsubsequentemperorshadlearnedfrom“Caesar

[whohad]intendedtobeproclaimedkingofRome.”17Becauseofthesepractical

guidelinesforanimperialcultoftheemperor,itwaspossibleformanycitiesto

“sharetheemperor,andforthecultoftheemperortoendurelongandspread”far,

butnotinthecityofRomeitself.18

Ontheotherhand,Dio’stwodifferentreadingsofthePantheonbringupthe

questionwhetherthiswasinfactatempleforallgodsorwasitinsteadaplacefor

peopletoworshipboththeemperorandgodsorwasitneitherofthese?Evenwith

theinformationthatisavailableandthebuildingitself,wecannotbecertainwhat

thebuildingwasactuallyintendedfor,although,wehave,ofcourse,educated

interpretationsofwhatitspurposewas.19Thereareothertheoriesonwhatthe

16 Warrior, 2006, 113-116. 17 Clifford, 2003, 149. 18 Clifford, 2003, 238. 19 Jenkyns, 2013, 352.

10

namePantheonmeansandwhyitwaschosenforthisbuilding.Becausethestatues

thatarebelievedtohavebeenplacedinthePantheonthatnolongerexist,thename

ishardertoexplain.Peoplearguethatitis“atempleofallthegods,atempleofthe

12Olympiangods,oratempleinwhichtheimageofarulerstoodinthecompanyof

suchdivinities.”20

Includedamongthesestatues,werestatuesofMarsandVenus.TheVenus

statuewaswearingearrings“madeofhalvesofapearl”fromCleopatra.21The

statuesofVenusandMarsaresignificantbecauseAugustusclaimedthesegodstobe

partofhislineage.VenuswasbelievedtobestowcharismaandcharmandMarswas

believedtogivewarintelligence.ThesestatuesunderscoreAugustus’sassociation

withthebuildingandconnecthimevenfurthernotonlywiththebuildingitself,but

alsotohisdivinelineage.InspectingVenusfurther,itisinterestingthatthestatue

woreearringsfromCleopatra.Thiscouldhavebeentohighlightthevictory

AugustushadoverCleopatraandMarkAntonytogainhispositionofprincepsafter

JuliusCaesarwasassassinated.ThiswouldfurtherstrengthenthePantheon’s

connectiontoAugustus,ifAgrippaindeedincludedthesetrophiesofwarasfeatures

inthebuilding.

ManyoftheinterpretationsofthePantheonrevolvearounditsusefor

religiouspurposesandthemainpieceofevidenceforthisisthedomeandoculus.

DuringAugutus’stimeasprincepshisgoalwastoreinstitutetraditionalRoman

valuesbackintotheculture.Partofthisreinstitutionwasbringinga“revivalinthe

20 Marder & Jones, 2015, 4. 21 Richardson, 1995, 283.

11

religiouslife.”22However,inthiscase,sincewearelookingatAgrippa’sPantheon,it

isunclearwhetherthebuildinghadadomeandoculusorexactlyhowmuchit

lookedlikethePantheonthatstandsbeforeeveryonetoday.Nevertheless,itisstill

interestingtolookatthePantheoninareligiousaspectbecauseRomanswere

usuallycarefultomakesuretemplesservedonespecificgod.InRomanreligion,

eachgodwouldrespondtoeachperson’sprayerinhisorherownway,andeach

omenthatwouldpresentitself,whetherthroughasacrifice,birds,lightning,or

someothermethod,meantadifferentanswerfromthespecificgodassociatedwith

anindividualtemple.Becauseeachtemplewasdedicatedtojustonegod,soomens

occurringinatemplecouldbeassociatedwiththecorrectdeity.Theseeventswould

be“opportunitiesfortheexchangeofmessages–prayersfrommentogods,

warningsandmessagesofacceptancefromgodstomenencodedintheentrails.”23

ThisconceptinRomanreligionbecomesimportantwhenapplyingittothe

Pantheonbecauseitbringsupthequestionofhowthistypeofstructurecould

possiblyserveasaspaceofworshipforallgodswhenitwouldbeimpossibleto

identifyanyomensascomingfromaspecificgod?However,asJenkynswrites

wedonotactuallyknowwhatfunctionthebuildinghad.Ontheotherhand,standard,authorities,areconfidentaboutwhatitrepresented:order,harmony,unity,theemperor’suniversalrulewithinacosmosgovernedbythegods.24AnotherinterestingaspecttoconsiderwiththePantheonisthattherewasno

knownaltar.AlthoughitiswidelyperceivedandbelievedthatthePantheonwasa

templefor“allgods”and“therearetextualclues…noaltarhasbeendiscoveredin

22 Simpson, 1997, 171. 23 Beard, North & Price, 1998, Volume I, 37. 24 Jenkyns, 2013, 352.

12

frontofthePantheon.”25Analtarwouldhavebeenusedtoperformsacrifices:

“animalsacrificewasthecentralritualofmanyreligiousoccasions.”26Theseanimal

sacrificeswould“then[be]butchered,cooked,andeventuallyeatenbythe

worshippers”ifthesacrificeshowed“acceptablesigns.”27Itbringsupaninteresting

questionofwhatmakesaRomantempleatemplebecause“Romantemplestypically

hadaltarsinfrontofthem.”28Ifthisbuildingwasinfactatemple,thealtarwould

havebeenoneoftheleastimportantpartsofthepossiblesacredspacearoundthe

Pantheon.ThePantheonitselfwouldhaveonlyhousedcultstatuesandvotive

offerings.Themostimportantaspectofreligiousworshipwouldhaverequired

havinganaltarforofferingsacrificestothegods.Itispossiblethatthelackofan

altarcanbeattributedtothefirethatdestroyedAgrippa’sPantheon,andafterthe

fireperhapsanaltarwasneverrebuilt.Ontheotherhand,thislackofanaltarcould

beattributedtothefactthatPantheonwasneverintendedtobeatempleforall

gods,butinstead,aplaceforAugustustobehonored,butnotworshipped,asan

associateofthegods,andthislackofformalreligiouspurposewouldexplainthe

absenceofanaltar.

Asmuchaswequestionwhetherreligionwasevenpartofthepurposeofthe

buildingwemaypresumethattheuniqueappearanceofthebuilding’sinteriorand

exteriorledpeopletoexperiencethispieceofarchitectureindifferentways.The

Pantheonwasalsoauniquestructurethatwasmadeof“thecombinationofthree

distinctgeometricelements...acircularrotunda,arectangularportico,andafabric

25 Marder & Jones, 2015, 4. 26 Beard, North & Price, 1998, Volume I, 36. 27 Beard, North & Price, 1998, Volume I, 36. 28 Marder & Jones, 2015, 4.

13

thatmediatedbetweenthem.”29AlthoughmostpeopleinRomebelievedinthe

predominantpolytheisticreligion,itisalsoimportanttolookatthePantheonin

termsofhowthepeoplewhoexperienceditarchitecturallyasawaytoanalyzeits

placeinreligionandinsociety.

Romanreligionwaspolytheisticandincludedtheworshipofmanygodsand

goddesses.ThroughthecourseoftheempiretheRomanswereknownforaddingto

theirownreligionadditionalgodsthattheycameacrossthroughtheirconquestof

foreignlands.RomanreligionhaditscoreRomanmythologythat“asRomegrewin

population,size,andwealth,sothenumberoftemplesincreased,eitherbythe

buildingofnewtemplesforolddeities,orfornewdeitiesthathadbeenintroduced

orrecognizedforthefirsttime.”30AstheterritoryoftheRomanEmpireexpanded

sodidthedeitiesthatwereincludedintheRomanreligion.Someofthesecults

wouldadoptgodsfromoutsideRome,includingsuchgodsasIsisandOsris,whose

cultbecame“oneofthemajornewcultsinRome.”31Romanreligion“wasbasedon

traditionthatwentbackearlierthanthefoundationofthecityitself.”32

AgrippawasAugustus’sright-handmanandreceivedthepowerofmaius

imperiumproconsulare(anauthoritythatexceededthatofeveryothermagistrate

outsidethecityofRome)atonepointduringhisserviceunderAugustus.33Hewas

alsoAugustus’sson-in-lawandit“impliedapoliticalcloseness”andgaveAugustus,

29 Marder & Jones, 2015, 4. 30 Beard, North & Price, 1998, Volume I, 87. 31 Beard, North & Price, 1998, Volume I, 264. 32 Beard, North & Price, 1998, Volume I, 2. 33 Goldsworthy, 2015, 353.

14

asfather-in-law,“adegreeofsuperiority”intheirrelationship.”34Aspartofbeing

Augustus’sright-handmanheplayedanimportantroleingovernment.Duringthis

periodofhisactivityingovernmentheworkedonbuildingprojectsthat“provided

plentyofwell-paidemploymentaswellasaconstantadvertisementforthegloryof

Augustusandthepeacehisvictoriesbrought.”35

Agrippa’sbuildingwasoriginallybelievedtohavebeenrectangularandfaced

south;however,morerecentlyitisbelievedthatAgrippa’sPantheonfacednorth

andactuallylookedmuchmoreliketheonethatisstandingtoday.36Through

furtherexaminationitwasfoundthatthecolumnsthatexisttodayarepartofa

preexistingbase,portico,andplatform.37Thefactthatthetemplealwaysfaced

northinsteadofsouthandhavingbeenswitchedinthepastisbackedupbyRoman

religiousbeliefsthatwhenatemplewasinaugurateditslocationwouldbechosen

specificallybysightlinesandsacredspace:switchingorientationswouldhavebeen

incrediblyirreverentaccordingtoRome’sreligiouspractices.38Thisisfurther

supportedbythefactthatafterthedestructionoftheoriginaltemple,thepurposeof

thereconstructedtemplewasnotaltered.Eventhoughitisunclearwhatthe

Pantheonwasfor,itspurposecanbeassumedtohaveremainedthesame,which

supportstheconclusionthatthebuilding’sorientationwasnotchanged.39Thetime

ofthisflipfromsoutherntonorthernorientationwouldhaveoccuredunder

34 Goldsworthy, 2015, 353. 35 Goldsworthy, 2015, 259. 36 Marder & Jones, 2015, 5. 37 Simpson, 1997, 170. 38 Simpson, 1997, 171. 39 Simpson, 1997, 171.

15

Hadrian.40BasedonHadrian’sstyleofrestoringmonumentsandbuildings,he

generallyshowedalotofrestraint,whichcanbenotedintheinscriptionstill“giving

credittotheoriginalbuilderbuttakingnoneforhimself,”hewouldhavenotbeen

“partytosuchadramaticalterationofareligiouselement.”41

Itisimportanttopointoutthatbecauseof“itsnorth-facingorientation,

Agrippa’sPantheonwasalignedaxiallywiththeentrancetotheMausoleumof

Augustusabouthalfamileaway.”42ThiswemayrelatebacktoCassiusDio’swriting

thatdiscusseshowAgrippacreatedthisbuildingforAugustus.Ifthebuildingdid

actuallyfacenorthinsteadofsouth,thesymbolismoftherelationshipbetweenthe

twobuildingswouldshowtheimportanceofAugustusonthelandscapeofRome.

TheMausoleumofAugustusbegantobebuiltin28BC,whichisrightbeforethe

Pantheonwasbuilt.43Thetimelineofthesetwobuildingsbeingsoclosetogether

canimplythattheywereintentionallyplannedtoconnecttoeachothersincethe

PantheonwasoriginallysupposedtobededicatedtoAugustus.

AnotherresultofthenewpossibleconnectionbetweenAgrippa’sPantheon

andtheMausoleumofAugustusistheshapeofthesetwobuildings.Asaresultof

currentscholarship,thebuildingisbelievedtohavealso“combinedaroundspace

withaportico”liketheonethatstandstoday.44Bothareinasimilarshape.The

PantheonisinarotundashapeandtheMausoleumofAugustusisinashapethatis

verysimilartoarotunda,althoughitisnotcompletelyadomeshape;insteaditisa

40 Simpson, 1997, 171. 41 Simpson, 1997, 171. 42 Marder & Jones, 2015, 7. 43 Richardson, 1995, 247. 44 Marder & Jones, 2015, 5.

16

mound.45However,eventhoughtheMausoleumofAugustusisnottechnicallya

rotunda,theresemblanceinshapeisuncanny.SincethePantheonwasoriginally

plannedtobeabuildingdedicatedtoAugustus,andtheMausoleumofAugustusisa

tombforAugustus,wemaywhatthesignificanceoftherotundashapewasto

Augustus’srule.Anothersimilaritythatboththesebuildingsshareisthatbecause

theywerecontinuallyusedfromantiquitytothepresentdaytheyhavebothbeen

preserved.EventhoughAgrippa’sPantheonisnotthecurrentPantheonthatstands

today,themerefactofitsreconstructionshowshowimportantitwastorebuildit

sothatitcouldcontinuetobeused.

WiththemorerecentbeliefthatAgrippa’sPantheonwasarotundainsteadof

arectangle,thisbuildingwouldhavestoodoutamongthearchitectureofRome-

eventhoughAgrippawascreatingmanynewbuildings,including,“hisbaths,the

BasilicaNeptuni,andtheSaeptaIulia.”46Itisimportanttoclarifythat“the

relationshipsamongthesebuildingsarenotatallclear,andtheirfunctionsseemto

havebeenverydifferentfromoneanother,butallseemtohavebeenmajor

monuments.”47NotmanybuildingsatthetimewereshapedlikethePantheon.At

thetime,Agrippawascommissioningmanybuildingprojectstoprovide

employmentforRomansandultimatelycontinuetorallymassivesupportfor

Augustus.

45 Richardson,1995, 247. 46 Richardson, 1995, 283. 47 Richardson, 1995, 283.

17

CHAPTERII:Hadrian’sPantheon

ThePantheonthatstandstodaywhatisknownasPiazzadellaRotunda,was

thePantheonthatisbelievedtohavebeencompletedduringthereignofHadrian

around125-128A.D..48ThroughthePantheon’spresenceinhistory,ithasbeen

rebuiltandrefurbishedmultipletimesbynumerousemperors;however,themost

well-knownanddocumentedisHadrian’srebuildingofthePantheonasaresultofit

burningdownfromalightningstrikein110A.D..Thebuildinghadbeenrebuiltby

Domitianin80A.D.andthenitwasdestroyedagainbylightningin110A.D.andhad

beguntoberebuiltbyTrajan,butwascompletedbyHadrian.Thefullextentto

whichTrajancontributedtotherebuildingofthecurrentPantheonthatis

attributedtoHadrianisunclear.49Untilthelate19thcentury,whenanexcavation

occurred,itwasunknownthatHadrianprovidedsuchalargecontributiontothe

rebuildingofthePantheon.50InthisexcavationRomanbrickstampswereanalyzed

anditwasconcludedthattherebuildingofthePantheonhadbegunwithTrajanin

110A.D.andthatHadriancompletedTrajan’sprojectofrebuildingthePantheon.51

PartofscholarsdifficultywithidentifyingHadrian’sconnectiontothe

buildingisthemodestyhehadwhilerebuildingandrefurbishingmonumentsin

Rome:“Althoughhebuiltinnumerableworkseverywhere,heneverinscribedhis

ownnameexceptonthetempleofTrajan.”52Whenhefinishedtherebuildingofthe

Pantheonherestoredtheoriginalinscriptiononthetempleinsteadofaddinghis

48 Marder & Jones, 2015, 7. 49 Richardson, 1995, 283. 50 Marder & Jones, 2015, 7. 51 Boatwright, 2013, 19. 52 Boatwright, 2013, 21.

18

owninscriptionabouthimself.Hadrianisknownasa“magnanimousrestorers”and

waswellknownforgivingcredittotheoriginalbuilderwhenapplicable.53Another

partofthedifficultyofidentifyingwhorebuiltthePantheonisthattherewasalack

of“procedure”orprotocolthatwasinplacewhenrefurbishingorrebuildingthese

buildings:itwasuptothe“imperialrestorertodecidewhethertoviewthe

structureashisowncreationorasdejurestillthehandiworkofthefounder.”54In

thecaseofthePantheonthisisrelevant.Hadrian,likeAugustus,isknownfor

restoringRome;however,thisrebuildingbyHadrianinvolvedmostlyrestorations,

whichresultedinhimrarelyputtinghisnameonanyofthebuildingstomarkhis

contribution.55IntheHistoriaAugustaitdescribesandlistsallthebuildingsHadrian

iscreditedwithrestoring,andnoteshowhedidnotsignanyofthem:

He[Hadrian]builtpublicbuildingsinallplacesandwithoutnumber,butheinscribedhisnameonnoneofthemexceptthetempleofhisfatherTrajan.AtRomeherestoredthePantheon,theVoting-enclosure,theBasilicaofNeptune,verymanytemples,theForumofAugustus,theBathsofAgrippa,anddedicatedalloftheminthenamesoftheiroriginalbuilders.56Butevenwiththisdifficultytherehaverecentlybeenground-breaking

scholarlystudies.LiseM.Hetlandputstogethermanyofthesestudiestoshowthat

thePantheonwasbegunbyTrajanandfinishedbyHadrian,whichbringsinto

questionhowmuchdidHadrianactuallycontributetotherebuildingofthe

Pantheon.AtonepointHadrian’sPantheonwasdeemedtohaveonlybeenrebuilt

byHadrian;however,thisideahasbeenrefuted.Itisnowbelievedthatwhatis

53 Stuart, 1905, 430. 54 Stuart, 1905, 428. 55 Hetland, 2015, 82. 56 Historia Augusta, 1921, 61.

19

knownasHadrian’sPantheonwasactuallybegunbyTrajan.Thesameresearchthat

determinedHadrian’sPantheontobeexclusivelyHadrian’shasbeenusedasan

argumentagainstit,thatis,onetheevidenceofthebrickstamps.Bricksingeneral

wereacommonandubiquitouspartofthebuildingofimperialbuildings.Theywere

overlaidwithmarble,butindividualbrickwouldhavehadbeenstamped,andthese

stampscanbeusedtodatethem.57HetlandlooksatBloch’sresearchon

brickmakersandhowhecreatesachronologyofbricksbothstampedand

unstamped.58Hisresearchwasusedtocreateastockpilingtheorythatlooksatthe

orderofbricksinbuildingsandwhenabuildinghasusedbricksfromvarioustime

periods.59ThistheorywasthenappliedtothePantheon,whichappearstohave

usedbricksmostlyfromTrajan’stimeperiodratherthanHadrian’s.60Another

possiblepieceofevidencethatcontributestotheargumentthatthePantheonwas

begunduringTrajan’stimeinsteadofexclusivelyinHadrian’sisHellmyer’s

hypothesis.61ThissaysthatthePantheon’sstyleissimilartoApollodorusof

Damascus’sstyle,whowasTrajan’smasterarchitect.62However,itisnotactually

knownwhothearchitectofthePantheonwas.Wehaveonlytheoriesthatare

primarilybasedonstylisticevidence.63Forthepurposesofthispaperwewill

concludethatHadrian’sPantheonwasbegunbyTrajanandfinishedbyHadrian.

57 Hetland, 2015, 83. 58 Hetland, 2015, 86. 59 Hetland, 2015, 90. 60 Hetland, 2015, 93. 61 Hetland, 2015, 95. 62 Hetland, 2015, 95. 63 Marder & Jones, 2015, 23.

20

InlightofthedetailedargumentandresearchoverwhobuiltHadrian’s

Pantheon,itisimportanttoacknowledgethatthePantheonwascontinuously

rebuiltandrefurbishedthroughhistoryanytimeitwasdestroyedorsignificantly

damaged.ThisconstantupkeepshowsthesignificanceofthebuildingtotheRoman

people,Rome,andtheemperor.ThePantheonwasinaverypopulatedpartofRome

andthecentralpartofthecapitaloftheRomanEmpire.Thiscentralityispossibly

partofthereasonwhythebuildinghasbeencontinuouslymaintained:itisan

integralpartofthearchitectureofRomeasacity.Itisinterestingtonotethat

despitethisupkeepofthebuilding,ithasneverbeenexplicitlydocumentedwhat

thebuildingwasusedforoverthealmosttwothousandyearsthatithasremained

standing.

BecausethePantheonwasinaverypopulatedpartoftheRomanEmpire,i.e.,

Rome,thequestionarisesofhowpeopleinteractedwithit.Justastoday,notall

citizensareequal,intheRomanempiretherewasevenmorediscrepancybetween

statuesofcitizenshipintheRomanEmpire.Thereweremanyclassesofpeopleand

subdivisionswithinclasses,butwemaysummarize:maleRomancitizens,female

citizens,freeRomansubjectswhowerenotcitizens,slaves,andforeignersfrom

outsidetheempire.Itisimportanttoacknowledgethatwithinthesegroupsthere

weresubdivisionsofpoor,middleclass,andelite.Withdifferentpeopleofdifferent

backgrounds,itmeansthateveryonewouldhavehadtheirownexperiencewithin

thePantheon.

Ifwemakethemostlikelyassumption,thatthePantheonwasatemple,then

wecouldstartpossiblymakingeducatedguessesabouthowdifferentgroupsof

21

peopleinteractedwithitasatemple.ItiseasytoassumethatbeingaRomancitizen

isatwo-dimensionalconcept.BecausetheRomanEmpirewassoexpansive,itis

importanttokeepinmindthattheRomancitizensweremulti-facetedandthat

thereweredifferenttypesofRomancitizens.Thiscanbedescribedas

theexaminationofthecharacteristicsofRomansocietyandlifein‘Roman’communities;[and]…thedefinitionof‘Roman’canbeconstructed,forexample,byreferencetotheforeign,Hellenicmodel,culturalinstitutional,whichtheRomansbothinfiltratedanddominated.64

TherearealsootherwaystodescribeandlookatRomancitizenshipinantiquity,as

inthecontextofpolitics,toinvestigatehowpeoplewouldhaveinteractedwiththis

monument.65

IfweviewthePantheonasatempleforboththegodsandtheemperor,a

personfromalowerclasscouldhavewalkedintothetempletopray.Itisalso

importanttoconsiderthetimeperiodwhenthePantheonwasrebuilt.Trajanand

Hadrianwerebothemperorsthatwerelovedbythepeopleandwereresponsible

formanypublicworks.Theylefttheirmarkhistoricallyasbeing“good”emperorsto

thepeopleandtheempire.Thispersonfromakowerclasswouldhavebeen

swarmedbyimagesofnotonlytheirgods,butalsooftheemperor.Thiscouldhave

instilledpridesincetheemperorcouldbeviewedasagodormaybefear,depending

uponwhotheemperorwasatthetime.Itisimportanttonotethatwhiletheperson

mayhavechosentoprayinatempleofallgodsthispersonwouldhavebeen

constantlyremindedofhisorherplaceinsocietyandwouldhavebeen“watched”

bythedivineemperorduringhisorhertimeofprayer.

64 Gardner, 1993, 1. 65 Gardner, 1993, 1.

22

If,ontheotherhand,anoblepersonwastohavewalkedin,thisperson

wouldstillhavebeenbombardedwithmanydifferentimagesandstatuesofthe

gods.Thisperson,however,maynothavefeltasthreatedbytheimageofthe

emperorbecauseoftheirhighstandingandpoliticalrankinsociety.Ontheother

hand,underatyrannicalemperor,highstatusindividualsmayhavebeenunder

morescrutiny.ObscurityofpersoninRomecouldhaveofferedmoresecuritythan

nobilityinsomecases.Thispersoncouldhavefeltacertainresentmenttothat

emperor.Overall,thenoblepersonwouldhavefeltmorelikeanequaltothe

emperorthanthelowerclasspersonwouldhave.Eachclasswouldhave

experiencedthisbuildingdifferentlyduringdifferentpointsintheempire.Itis

importanttoacknowledgethateachperson’sinteractionwiththebuildingwould

likelychangewithwhotheemperorwasatthetimeinRome.Lateronitwillbe

discussedhowpartofthereasonthePantheonstillremainstodayisbecauseitwas

switchedfrompaganworshiptempletoChristianity,soitcouldbeusedasachurch.

Boththeinteriorandexteriorarearchitecturalfeatsandinteresting

developments.Hadrian’sPantheonfacesnorthandconsistsoffourmajorparts:a

portico,transitionalblock,drumanddome.66Theintermediateblock’sonlypurpose

istoconnectthe“rectilineargeometryoftheporticoandthecirculargeometryof

therotunda;”otherthanthisandcontainingastaircase,itdoesnotactuallyhavea

use.67ThePantheon’sshapeisuniqueinitsappearancebecausethepronaosgives

theappearanceofaclassicaltemplewithitstriangularpediment;however,this

66 Waddell, 2015, 133. 67 Marder & Jones, 2015, 13.

23

pedimentis“exceptionallyhighandshallowtohidethedomebehindit.”68Itisnot

untilyouenterthatthePantheonrevealsitselfasarotunda.69Betweenthepronaos

andtheintermediateblockarelargebronzedoorsforthemainentrance,through

whichonestillenters.Thisintermediateblockalsoplaysanimportantrolewiththe

triangularpedimentinconcealingthedomeshapeofthePantheonfromeveryone

beforetheyenter.70OnceoneenterstherotundaofthePantheononewillseethe

cofferedcementdomeceilingwithanoculusinthemiddle.Thedomeofthe

Pantheonwouldhavebeencoveredinbronzeandtheoutsidebrickwouldhave

beencoveredinamarblesheathing,overall,givingthePantheonanappearanceof

grandeur.71

Theexteriorandinteriorutilizemarbleheavily,whichinthemselvesarevery

interestingtothearchitectureofthePantheonbecausethemarbleusedforthe

columnsandflooringwasshippedfromaroundtheRomanEmpire.Thisaspectof

thePantheonshowsitsconnectivitytotherestoftheRomanEmpirebecausethe

buildingwasbuiltwiththecooperationofotherregionsandthediverseoriginsof

thematerialrepresentsa“visualreminderoftheamplereachofRome’simperial

dominion,itsunity,anditscollectivewealth.”72Thesemarblescamefromthe

moderndayareasofItaly,Egypt,Greece,Turkey,andTunisia.73ThePantheonwas

originallybuiltwhentheRomanRepublichadalreadytransitionedtoanEmpire

withAugustusasthefirstemperor.Itisuncertainwhethermarblewasusedinthe

68 Richardson, 1995, 284. 69 Richardson, 1995, 284. 70 Richardson, 1995, 284. 71 Ward-Perkins, 1977, 152. 72 Marder & Jones, 2015, 17. 73 Marder & Jones, 2015, 17.

24

originalconstructionofthebuilding.UnderAugustus,theEmpirehadexpandedtoa

sizethatAugustusfeltshouldbemaintained,ratherthanfurtherexpanded.

However,duringthetimethePantheonwasrebuiltunderTrajanandHadrian,the

Empirehadexpandeddramatically.This“new”Pantheonvisuallyrepresentsthat

expansioninthearchitectureandthematerialthatwasused,specificallythe

marble.Allthesetypesofmarbleswouldhavebeenvisuallydistinctindifferent

appearancesandcolors,showingluxuryandderivationfromotherareasoutsideof

Italy.

ThecolonnadeintheexteriorofthePantheonconsistsofmarble,Corinthian,

monolithiccolumns.Havingthesemarblesandstonesimportedfromalloverthe

RomanEmpireforatemplewithinthecityofRomeshowstheconnectivitybetween

RomeandtherestofEmpire.ItshowsRome’sgreatpowerovertherestofthe

Empirebecausetheyareabletoimporttheseexpensivepiecesofmarbleandstone

fromallacrosstheMediterranean.EventhoughthePantheonisbelievedtohave

beenaRomantemple,itisdefinedwithresourcesfromareasoutsideofRome,but

withintheEmpire,thuschallengingtheideaofitbeingexclusivelyRoman.The

distancethatthemarbletraveleddisplayedthevastnessoftheRomanEmpire.The

marblewouldhavetraveledmostlikelythroughcoastaltravel,whichcanbe

identifiedthroughlookingatthe“wrecksofshipscarryingstone.”74Shippingstone

wasaveryexpensiveprocessandwouldrequirealotofwealth,whichtheemperor

utilizedinhischoiceofdesigninghowthePantheonwouldlook.TrajanandHadrian

74 Robinson, Damian, & Wilson, 143.

25

choosetoimportmarblefromacrosstheempiretoRomeasadisplayofpowerto

thepeopleofRomewhowouldseethebuildingonaregularbasis.

ThePantheonisnotjustanimpressivefeatthatshowsthereachand

connectivityoftheRomanEmpire,butitalsoisavisualrepresentationofRome’s

architecturalrevolutionintermsofallthetechniquesandskillsthathadtobeused

tocreateabuildingofthiscaliberanddetail.75ThePantheonusesconcreate,which

isatechnologicalfeatfortheRomansingeneral.Thedevelopmentofconcreateis

partiallywhatallowedthePantheontobebuilt,andconcretewasoriginally

developedtomakeproductionofbuildingsmoreefficientandcheaper,anditwas

alsoexploitedformanyprojectsaroundtheempire.76TheconcretethatRomeused

wasexceptionallylightbecauseitusedaspecificmaterialcalledtufa,whichis

volcanicash,tobuildbiggerarchesandbuildings.Thismaterialisalsowhatmade

thePantheonpossible.

DirectlyinfrontoftheporticoofthePantheonthereisbelievedtohavebeen

anarchcalled“theArchofPiety.”77Itisbelievedthatthisarchwaspossiblypartofa

processionalorder.78Itisbelievedtohavenotbeenatriumphalarch,butrathera

memorialarch.Theplacewherethearchislocatedwasalsoassociatedwithastory

about“whentheemperor[Trajan]waspreparedtogoforthtowarinhischariot,a

poorwidowfellathisfeet,weepingandcrying.”79Thestorygoesontodescribethat

thewidowwantedjusticeforhermurderedsonandwantedtheemperor’shelpin

75 Ward-Perkins, 1977, 142. 76 Ward-Perkins, 1977, 142. 77 Gardiner, 1986, 53. 78 Gardiner, 1986, 53. 79 Gardiner, 1986, 7.

26

gettingthisjustice.80Trajanjumpedoutofhischariotandhelpedthewomanget

justiceandsentencedthemurderertodeath.81Afterthisthewomanaskedifthe

murderercouldnotbekilled,andshetakehiminasasoninstead;Trajanagreed,

andsentherawaywith“richgifts.”82Eventhoughthearchwasnotpartofthe

Pantheoninanydirectway,itisimportanttonotewhatthephysicallandscape

wouldhavelookedlikeforRomancitizensapproachingthePantheon.Therewould

havebeenalargearchthataRomancouldgoaroundorthroughandoneitherside

onthewayleadingtotheentranceofthePantheontherewouldhavebeenbuildings

flankingthesides,allofwhich,almostconcealedthe“surprise”oftherotundashape

thatwasheldinside.

“VirtualreconstructionofthePantheonfromantiquity”(VirtualRomanPantheoninBlueMars/CryEngine)

80 Gardiner, 1986, 7. 81 Gardiner, 1986, 7. 82 Gardiner, 1986, 7.

27

ThePantheonisa“hemisphericaldome,ofwhichacrownwasexactlythe

sameheightabovethepavementastheinternaldiameterofthebuilding.”83The

detailedmeasurementsandintricacyinaccuracyofproducingthisbuildinghadto

beperfectinordertomakeitnotonlystand,butremainstandingthislong.The

Pantheon,isanexceptionalexampleofrepresentingthetechnological

advancementsofantiquity.ThePantheoncanfitaperfectsphereinsideitsrotunda

becauseoftheprecisemeasurementsusedtobuildit.Manytimes,whenlookingat

thePantheon,weperceiveitsseparationintotwoaspectsofarchitecturalanalysis,

ie.,rectangularandsphericalparts:therectangularpartincludestheporch,

intermediateblockandanythingoutsidetherotundawhilethesphericalpart

includesrotundaanddome.

Thehemisphericalshapeofthebuildingcouldbeformedbymakingsurethe

distributionofweightthroughoutthebuildingwasnevertoomuch.Thisbeganby

creatingasturdyfoundation.ThefoundationofthePantheonsitsona“solidringof

concrete,about24ft.,wideatthebaseand15ft.,deep,”andouterringswereadded

foranyadditionalsupportthatthebuildingcalledfor.84Theideaofconstantly

distributingweightcontinuedthroughoutthebuildingofthePantheon.Thedrumof

thePantheoncarriesmostofitsweightatthebottom,andasitgrowsinheightit

useslightermaterialstomakesurethatitdoesnotcollapseonitself:thebottomof

thedrumusestravertinethenprogresstolayersoftravertineandtufatofinallyjust

tufa.85

83 Ward-Perkins, 1977, 152. 84 Ward-Perkins, 1977, 155. 85 Ward-Perkins, 1977, 155.

28

However,becauseofthelargesizeofthePantheon,alternatingthematerial

thatwasusedinbuildingthePantheonwasnotenough.Therewereother

precautionsthatweretakenaswell.Throughoutthedrumtherearesevencavities

inthedrumtoremovesomeoftheweightbycreatingdeadspacewithinthe

interior.86Ontopofthesecavitiesarerelievingarches,whichcanbevisuallyseenin

thebrickworkontheexteriorsideofthedrum.87Relievingarchesworkbycreating

asurfacewhereinsteadofallthepressurehittingonespotinthestructure,it

dispersesthepressureacrosstheentirearch.Thisdevelopmentallowedthe

constructionofbiggerstructurestobeabletobemadebecausetheycouldsupport

morematerial.

“VisualizationofthesequenceofoperationsinbuildingthePantheon.”(Marder&Jones,2015,‘PlatesSection’204)

86 Ward-Perkins, 1977, 155. 87 Ward-Perkins, 1977, 155.

29

TheimageabovefromMarder&Jonesgivesavisualrepresentationofthe

methodusedtobuildthePantheonfromthebottomtothetop.Withinthesesteps,

onecanseetheweightwasafactorbecauseeachoftheselayerswouldhavebeen

builtoflighterandlightermaterialasthebuildingincreasedinheight.The

Pantheon’sthreeprimarylayersinthehemisphericalroundadarealsovery

prominentinthisimage.Theissueofweightcontinuedtobekeptinmindwhen

creatingthedomeaswell.Thecoffersinthedomewereusedtorelievesomeofthe

weightofthedomeitselfsothatitwouldnotcollapse.Thegeometrythatwasused

bythisstructurecreatesaseamlessandharmoniousappearance.88Abovethe

coffering,lighterconcreteinthedomewasalsoused.89

WhenlookingatthePantheoninregardtoitsdome,itisimportantto

acknowledgethatthePantheonisnottheonlydomedbuilding.Mostofthedomed

buildingsthatexistedintheRomanworldweretemples.Theyinclude:TheTemple

ofMercuryinBaiae,theTempleofVenusinBaiae,theTempleofDianainBaiae,the

TempleofApolloatLakeAvernus,andtheCaldariumoftheBathsofCaracalla.90Itis

importanttokeepinmindthatnotallthesebuildingsexistedatthetimethe

Pantheonwasbuilt.Thesedomedbuildingswerenotallthesamestyleasthe

Pantheon,butitisinterestingtolookatwhatothertypesofbuildingsusedasimilar

domeshape.Thisshapewasnotverycommon;however,thebuildingsthatdohave

itaremostlytemplesinBaiae.Thiscouldpossiblybeusedasevidencetojustifythat

88 Marder & Jones, 2015, 9. 89 Marder & Jones, 2015, 21. 90 Martines, 2015, 118.

30

thePantheondoesinsomewayfollowthesamepathasothertemplesbyhavinga

dome.AtthetimethatthePantheonwasbuiltitwasa“novelcombinationof

elementsfromahalf-dozendifferentbuildingtypes:baths,tombs,basilicas,temples,

triumphalarches,andtheaters.”91Someofthepossiblebuildingsthatcouldhave

influencedtheconstructionofthePantheonwereTrajan’sBaths,Trajan’sMarket,

theDomusAureaandthedomedtemplesatBaiae.92Trajan’sBathsfrigidariumisa

triplevaultthatspans85Romanfeetandhasmanyotherdomesandhalfdomes.93

Theselargedomesandvaultscouldhavebeenusedtoinspirethecreationofthe

Pantheon’sdome.Trajan’smarkethas170barrel-vaultedroomsandthisexpansive

techniquecouldhavebeenappliedtothePantheon.94TheDomusAureahadan

octagonaldomedroomandisviewedasaroomtoshowthecapabilityofconcrete.95

Thiscapabilityofusingconcretehasclearlybeenbuiltuponinitsusewithinthe

Pantheonitself.ThelastmajorbuildingsthatpossiblyinfluencedthePantheonwere

thetemplesatBaiae,outsideRome.Thesetempleshad“thinshells”anddidnot

havecoffering,butthesetemplesareexamplesofhowadomewasusedtocovera

buildinglikethePantheon.96

Thesepartsofthearchitectureareinterpretedbyscholarsasdesignedfor

religiouspurposes.ThePantheon’sdomeandoculuswerenotjustto“astoundthe

Romanpopulace,”butalsotorepresent“auniversalcosmology…[or]asDiointuits

91 Waddell, 2015, 132. 92 Waddell, 2015, 136-139. 93 Waddell, 2015, 136. 94 Waddell, 2015, 137, 139. 95 Waddell, 2015, 139. 96 Waddell, 2015, 139.

31

thecelestialhomeofthegods.”97Itis“theonlysourceoflight”anditisalsomeantto

bringthepersonintheoculus“tothecenterofthespace.”98Tobuildonthis,itis

importanttoacknowledgethattherewerenowindowsinthePantheonbecause

“beingdeniedvisualcontactwithsurroundingbuildingsputsthevisitorintherealm

removedfromeverydayreality.”99Aspreviouslydescribedinthefirstchapter,Dio

givesanexplanationforthebuilding’snamethathastodowiththeheavens,and

thisideacanalsobeattributedtotheoculus.Ontheotherhand,theoculuscould

haveworkedintandemwiththecoffersontheceilingtocreateasundial:

thealignmentofthesunbeamonthecoffersabovetheeasternexedrainthelateafternoonatthesummersolsticeanditshighlightingofthetransitionbetweentheperfecthemisphereofthedomeandthecylinderofthedrumatnoonontheequinoxofferstrongindicationsthatthebuildingcouldhavecontinuedtoserveasasundialaftertherebuilding,evenifthisisnotconsistentlyevidentinthepresentstateofthebuilding.100TheideathatthePantheoncouldhavebeenaphysicalsundialisan

interestingtakeontheoculusandthecoffering.Theoculushasbeenmainly

interpretedasanarchitecturalchoicetoconnecttheRomansandallthegods

throughthecenteroftheoculus.TheoculuscausesthePantheontobecomean

openairspacebecauseitallowsforalltheelementstocomeintothedome.Partof

thisunbreakableconnectioncanbeinterpretedtorepresenttheconnection

betweenthepeopleofRomeandthenaturalworld,whichiscontrolledbythegods.

Itisalsointendedtogivetheworshippersacloserpresencetothegodsbyenabling

onetolookuptothesky,whileconfiningonewithinthetemple:“theHadrianic

97 Jones, 2000, 182. 98 Martines, 2015, 100. 99 Jones, 2000, 183. 100 Thomas, 2017, 202.

32

Pantheonevokedthevaultofheavenwiththesun”andcouldbeconsidereda

“denotedareaoftheheavens”with“acosmicorientation.”101

Theoculusisalsobelievedtointeractwiththecofferinginacelestial

aspect.102Thecofferingofthedomeis“dividedintotwenty-eightparts…andtwenty-

eightwasconsidered‘perfect’”becauseitwasoneoftheonlynumbers“thatequal

thesumoftheirfactors”andbecausetwenty-eightwasanapproximateestimation

thattheRomanshadforthenumberofdaysinalunarcycle.103Theideaof

perfection,whichisconnectedwiththefiverowsof28coffersinthedomeofthe

Pantheonalsohasaconnectionwith

atraditiongoingbacktothePythagoreans,itwasinHadrian’stimethatNichomachusofGerasaincludedinthefirstbookofhisinfluentialIntroductiontoArithmeticadiscussionofperfectnumbers…[which]arelike‘bridges’and‘stairways’toknowledge.104

Thecofferingthatbranchesoffthedomeisalsopartofthe“celestialandterrestrial

themes”ofthePantheon,anditsconnectiontothegodswasnotacoincidence.The

Romanswerefamousfortheirmeticulousplanningofbuildings,andthe

overarchingstructureofthePantheonaswellasitsfluidconnectivitytothegods

fromparttopartrepresentadditionalpiecesofevidencethatshowhowPantheon

mayhavebeenplannedtobeusedfortheworshipofsomegods.Thisideaof

perfectionalsobringsuptheconstantconceptofbalancethatwasmaintainedin

classicalarchitecture.105Creatingatempleorbuildingthatwasaesthetically

101 Beard, North & Price, 1998, Volume I, 285. 102 Jones, 2000, 183. 103 Jones, 2000, 183. 104 Martines, 2015, 102-103. 105 Martines, 2015, 103.

33

pleasingandofvastimportanceshowedrespecttothegodsandcouldbean

offering.

TheinteriorofthePantheonspeakstotheinclusivenessofRomanreligion

andoffersananswertothequestionofwhatthebuilding’sfunctionwas.Itcanbe

interpretedasavisualrepresentationoftheinclusionofgodsbothwithinRomeand

outsideRome.Thenookswithintherotundaofthebuildingwouldhavehoused

statuesofdifferentgods.Theinteriorandshapeofthebuildingwasbuiltas“the

celestialhomeofthegods”andthearchitectureisclearlyintendedtocreatea

connectivitybetweenthegodsandtheworshippersofthetemple.106

AlthoughthePantheonisaverywellpreservedbuilding,thecultstatuesthat

werepossiblypresentinthebuildingarenotpreserved,whichaddstotheproblem

offiguringoutwhatthetrueuseofthePantheonwas.Manyofthestatuesarenow

missingbecausetheyhaveeitherbeenrepurposedordestroyedduringthe

building’sconversiontoachurch.107Thereisdiscussionofwhatthestatuesinthe

Pantheonmayhaverepresented:weretheycultimagesorweretheyimagesofthe

emperor,andpartofthisdebatederivesfromourinabilitytoidentifythe

Pantheon’sactualfunction.108

OneofthesetheoriesofwhatcultstatuesinthePantheonrepresentedis

derivedbyretranslatingandlookingatthesyntaxofCassiusDio’sdescriptionof

Agrippa’sPantheon.109AdamZiolkowskilooksatthesyntaxofthepassagethat

describesAgrippa’sPantheonandthepossiblestatuesinitandconcludesthat

106 Jones, 2000, 182. 107 Thomas, 2017, 146. 108 Thomas, 2017, 147. 109 Thomas, 2017, 148.

34

insteadofDiojustreferringtothetwocultstatuesMarsandVenusbeinginthe

Pantheon,hewasactuallyjust“highlighting”thosetwostatuesinanoverall

referencetotheimageofmanygods.110ThisargumentsuggeststhatMarsand

Venuswouldhavejustbeenthemaintwocultstatues,butnottheonlyones.Nissen

goesontomaketheargumentthateachniche,exedraandintermediatetabernacle

wouldhavehelddifferentgodsanddeities,withMarsandVenusinthecentral

niche.111Followingthispossiblereconstructionofcultstatuesliningthewallsofthe

Pantheon,theywouldhavebeenplacedalongthewallsbyclassification.112

Keepinginmindthatthistheorywasbasedentirelyonthedissectionof

syntaxfromDio,itwouldneverthelesssuggestthattherewouldhavebeenasmany

asfifteencultstatuesinAgrippa’sPantheonandthirty-fourinTrajanandHadrian’s

Pantheon.113Intheimageabove,onecanseethesuggestedplacementofthecult

statueswithinthePantheon’sniches,aswellaswhichgodswerebelievedtohave

beendisplayedorhonoredwithinthePantheon.Nissenwasunsureexactlyhowto

choosewhatcultstatueswouldhavelikelybeeninthePantheon,sinceonlyVenus

andMarswereexplicitlymentioned.114However,Nissendidcomeupwithawayto

attempttofigureoutwhatotherstatueswouldhavebeeninthePantheon:

HefilledtheotherexedrasandintermediatetabernacleswithotherdeitiesselectedfromthelistsofgodsintheActsoftheSecularGamesof17B.C.—JupiterOptimusMaximus,JunoRegina,ApolloandDiana—andinthevariousclassificationsoftheRomans’penatesbythelateRepublicanauthorityNigidiusFigulusandtheimperialantiquarian

110 Thomas, 2017, 149. 111 Thomas, 2017, 149. 112 Thomas, 2017, 149. 113 Thomas, 2017, 190. 114 Thomas, 2017, 149.

35

CorneliusLabeo(whoincludeNeptune),Varro(whoaddsMinerva),andtheRepublicanhistorianCassiusHemina(whoidentifiesthemwiththeGreatGodsofSamothrace);andhedrewfurthersupportfromthecombatantsatActiumdescribedbyVirgilontheShieldofAeneas:Neptune,VenusandMinerva;andMarsandApollo.ThestatueofDivusJuliusNissenassignedtothenicheimmediatelytotherightoftheentrance,justifyingthisplacementbytheargumentthatitwouldhavesuitedtheorientationofhiscomet,onthewesternsideofnorth.Otherparticularpositionsaroundtherotundaheassignedonthebasisoforientationorsimplyproximity.Hegavethepositionofprecedence,intheaediculetotheleftasoneenters,tothegoddessSalusbecauseofherimportanceinthesacrificesoftheArvalBrethren.Hewasundecidedwhetherornotminordeitiesstoodbesidetheprincipalones.Mostofthis,ofcourse,waspurespeculation.

Eventhoughthismethodisnotperfectanddoesrelyheavilyondeductive

guessing,itprovidesuswithaninterestingandintellectualwayofanalyzingwhat

possiblecultstatueswereinthePantheon.Itispossiblethateventhoughthis

descriptionofcultstatuesfromDiowasapplicabletoAgrippa’sPantheon,itmay

applytoTrajanandHadrian’sPantheonaswell.Applyingthissimilarmethodto

TrajanandHadrian’sPantheon,theargumentgoesmoreindepthastohowmany

statueswouldhavebeenineachnicheandexedrabaseduponitsspecial

appearance.115Bylookingatthespace,itisclearthatthe“rearexedrawasdesigned

foraspecialpurpose,”possiblytoholdthecultstatuesofVenusandMars.116

115 Thomas, 2017, 190. 116 Thomas, 2017, 195.

36

“ReconstructionofstatuesinPantheonbyNissen.”(Thomas,2017,150)

However,despiteextensivespeculationandscholarlydebatearguingthatthe

Pantheonservedareligiouspurposesasatemple,itisstilluncertainwhatitstrue

purposewas.Aswehavediscussed,thewordPantheonmeans“allgods,”whichis

partofwheretheinterpretationthatthePantheonwasatemplehascomefrom,but,

ifwelookatthephysicalappearanceofthePantheon,itdoesnotlooklikemany

37

othertemples,“butfindsparallelsinimperialbathsandpalaces,andlater

mausolea.”117Typically:

Fewtempleswerecircular,andthosewererelativelysmall.Thequestionofsizeisrelevantsinceinteriorswereintendedprimarilyashomesforcultstatuesratherthanforgroupworship(whichfocusedonthealtaroutside),solargedimensionswerenotinherentlynecessary.Traditiondemandedsingleoccupancy,thatistosayonedivinityperroom,explainingwhytemplestotheCapitolinetriadhavethreeroomsandwhytheTempleofVenusandRomehastwo.SothePantheon,withitssinglevastcanopy,islunlikelytohavebeenatempleinthestrictsenseoftheterm,althoughthisdoesnotruleoutaspiritualrealmofsomekindandtemple-likeassociations…”118ThisaspectofRomantemplesbeingdedicatedtoonlyonegodandthe

specificityofbuildingsisveryimportanttounderstandingthePantheon.Itpresents

theargumentthatthePantheonbeingatempleisactuallyanincorrectwaytolook

atthebuilding,butthatitahybridofexpressingreligiousdevotion,butpossiblynot

toonegodinparticular.Itisimportanttolookatotherbuildingsincomparisonto

thePantheonbecausewhenlookingatthePantheonasapossibletempleitis

importanttolookatwhatatypicaltemplewouldhavelookedlikeandwhat

buildingsthePantheondoesactuallylooklike.TheRomancustomsforcreatinga

templewouldhavebeenstyledtohouseonegodshowingcompletedevotionto

theminthatonebuilding.InrelationtotemplesonCapitolinehill,itisinterestingto

lookattheTerminisTemple.

WhenRomanswerelookingtobuildtheTempleJupiterOptimusMaximus,

theyneededaplacetoputthetemplesoateachcurrenttempletheyaskedeachof

thegodsiftheycouldtakedownthetemple,everygodaccepted,exceptthegod

117 Jones, 2000, 179. 118 Jones, 2000, 179.

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Terminis,whoisthegodofboundaries.Therefore,asaresulttheTempleofJupiter

OptimusMaximuswasbuiltaroundtheTempleofTerminisandthebuildingwas

givenanopenroofsothatthegodcouldbeconnectedtothisbuilding.Thiscaseis

veryrelevanttolookingathowtwogodsarehousedinalmostthesamebuilding,

butgiventworoomsforseparatedevotion.Itisalsorelevantforlookingatan

oculus.TheTempleofTerminisisareligiousbuildingthatisclearlydefinedbythe

factthatithasanaltarandfollowsthetypicaltempleformat,butithasanoculus

likethePantheon.Thereisadistinctconnectionspiritualandarchitecturewiseto

havinganoculusinabuildingtoallowthegodsandnaturetoinhibitaspaceandbe

withtheworshippers.

OneoftheinterestingusesofthePantheonthatisdiscountedmanytimes

whenlookingatwhatthePantheonwasusedforisDioCassius’sdescriptionof

Hadrian’sinteractionwiththePantheon:

He[Hadrian]transactedwiththeaidofthesenatealltheimportantandmosturgentbusinessandheheldcourtwiththeassistanceoftheforemostmen,nowinthePalace,nowintheForumorthePantheonorvariousotherplaces,alwaysbeingseatedonatribunal,sothatwhateverwasdonewasmadeinpublic.119

ManyoftheusesofthePantheonareattributedtoitspossiblereligious

functionasatemple;however,withthisdescriptionbyDioCassius(ascited

byHetland)itisinterestingtolookatthePantheonasapossiblebuilding

thatwaspossiblyrepurposednotjustforreligioususes,butalsofor

governmentproceduresandmeetings.ThePantheon,inarchitecturalterms,

wouldhavebeenbothanimpressiveandspiritualbuildingtoholdmeetings.

119 Hetland, 2015, 81.

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Thebuilding’sarchitecturewouldbeaconstantreminderofthefarreachof

theempireandtheoculuscouldhaveprovidedawayforthegodstoobserve

thepeopleinthemeetingastheywererunningthegovernment.Basedon

this,ithasbeenarguedthatthePantheonwasnotspecificallyatemple,but

ratherfor“atribunalfortheemperor.”120

Asmuchaswequestionwhetheraformalandtraditionalreligiouspurpose

waseverpartofthepurposeofthebuilding,wemaypresumethattheunique

appearanceofthebuilding’sinteriorandexteriorledpeopleexperiencethispieceof

architectureindifferentways.ThePantheonwasalsoauniquestructurethatwas

madeof“thecombinationofthreedistinctgeometricelements...acircularrotunda,a

rectangularportico,andafabricthatmediatedbetweenthem.”121Althoughmost

peopleinRomebelievedinthepredominantpolytheisticreligion,itisalso

importanttolookatthePantheonintermsofhowthepeoplewhoexperiencedit

architecturallytoanalyzeitsplaceinreligionandinsociety.

120 Thomas, 2017, 147. 121 Marder & Jones, 2015, 4.

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CHAPTERIII:ThePantheonasaChurchandToday

ThePantheonwasbelievedthroughoutantiquitytohavebeenalocationfor

paganworshiporatempletothegods.Today,however,itisachurch.Hadrian’s

Pantheonisoneofthemostwell-preservedbuildingsfromantiquityandpartofthis

longhistorycanbeattributedtothefactthatitwasconvertedtoachurch.The

Pantheon’sconversionintoachurchcanalsobeviewedasareflectionofthecityof

Romeitself,whichbecameChristian.Thebuildingwas,however,convertedtoa

churchmuchlaterthanthecitywas.IntheEarlyChristianperiodor“sub-phaseof

thelaterimperialage,thetemple-frontporch,withitsuncompromisinglypagan

associations,hadtogo.”122PartofthereasonthePantheonisbelievedtohavebeen

convertedtoachurchsubsequently,however,inspiteofthisearlierdestructive

urge,isbecause“thedesireofthepopestomakeRomeamonumentalcapitalagain,

broughtaboutthesecond,Renaissancephaseofhistory.”123

ThePantheonwasconvertedtoachurchinthemiddleagesbythedecision

ofBonifaceIV,whoaskedtheemperorPhocasinConstantinopletomakethis

changetothePantheon.124PopeBoniface’srequesttoappropriatethePantheonto

makeitachurchisfoundintheLiberPontificalis:

HeaskedtheemperorPhocasforthetemplecalledthePantheon,andinithemadethechurchoftheever-virginStMaryandallmartyrs;inthischurchtheemperorpresentedmanygifts125

Throughthiswefindoutthathe,beingBoniface,hadrequestedtheconversionof

thePantheonfrom,mostlikelyitsstatusasatemple,toachurch.Thisconversion

122 MacDonald, 1976, 104. 123 MacDonald, 1976, 108. 124 Thunø, 2015, 233. 125 Davis, 2010, 62

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wasacceptedandbylookingatmedievalliturgicalcalendarsitcanbedetermined

“thattheChristianconsecrationofthePantheontookplaceonMay13of613.”126

Theyearoftheconversionislikely613;however,somescholarsarguethatit

occurredin609or610.127ThefactthatthePantheonwasonceapagantemplewas

somethingthatpeoplewantedtopushundertherug:

ThecollectivededicationofthePantheonto“allthemartyrs”meantthattheannualcelebrationofS.MaraeandmartyresonMay13alsobecametheoriginoftheRomanfeastinhonorofallsaints.AstheEnglishhistoriantheVenerableBededeclaredaboutacenturylater,thecollectivededicationwasaimedatreplacingtheearlierdedicationofthebuildingstothepantheonofthepagangodsandthusatsubstitutingsaintsfordemons,aclaimthatwasrepeatedthroughouttheMiddleAges.Theoft-repeatedstorythatPopeBonifacehad28cartloadsofmartyrs’bonestransferredherefromthecatacombsoutsidethewallsofRomewasprobablyinventedduringtheCounterReformationamillenniumlaterthantheChristianconsecrationandbearslittleresemblancetotheseventeenthcenturycultofrelicsinRome.

ThisbuildsontheobservationearlierthattheRomansaswellasotherEuropeans

weremakinganactiveefforttoalmosterasethememoryofthetimewhenapagan

religionwascelebrated.Theextraefforttocreateacelebrationaroundthe

consecrationofthePantheonbecomingachurchistomakesurethatthepublic's

attentionandbeliefssurroundingthebuildingareallChristian.Thecelebrationof

thefoundingofthePantheonisnolongerpracticedtoday;however,thereisstill

celebratedonSaturdaynightandSundaymorning.128Thechurchdoesputonanew

spectacleofcelebrationcalledthePentecostmass.129Thiscelebrationisnotforthe

consecrationofthechurch;instead,it“celebratesthedescendingoftheHolySpirit

126 Thunø, 2015, 234. 127 Thunø, 2015, 234. 128 Events at the Pantheon, 2018. 129 Events at the Pantheon, 2018.

42

ofthedisciplesofJesusChristafterhisascension.”130Thecelebrationisvery

differentfromthefirstyearlycelebrationthatwasheldtherebecausethis

celebrationnolongertriestoprovethePantheonisachurch,butinsteadembraces

itsstatisbycelebratingimportantChristianholidays.However,thecelebrationis

stillahugespectacle:firemengotothetopofthedomeanddroptonsofrosepetals

throughtheoculussymbolizinghow“theholyspirit[came]toearthandtherose

remindsushowJesusChristshedbloodforthepeople.”131

Rosepetalsfallingfromtheoculusat44meterstocelebratePentecostmass.(“RosePetalRainfallatthePantheon,Rome,”LuxeAssociatesTravel)

ItisinterestingtolookatthePantheonbeingembracedasachurchbecause

itisbelievedtohaveoncebeenaplaceofworshipforVenusandMars,andthe

emperors,butisnowaplaceofworshipforJesus,Mary,andmartyrs.Thechangeis

drasticwhenlookedatbeyondthescopeofa“centralizedsinglevolumetricspace”

130 Events at the Pantheon, 2018. 131 Events at the Pantheon, 2018

43

forChristianstousetoworship.”132ThetwomainRomangodsthatwere

worshippedtheretogetherwiththeemperorsareironicallyoppositesofthe

divinitiesthatarenowworshippedinthespace.Venus,thegodessesofsex,Mars,

thegodofwar,andtheemperors,havenorelationtoMary,Jesus,andthemartyrs.

Ontheotherhand,doestheoppositenatureofthenewdivinitieshelpusconfirm

thatVenus,Mars,andtheemperorswereindeedthemainfocusofthePantheon

beforeitsconversion?Notnecessarily,butthedifferenceinwhowasworshipped

underthesamedomeshouldnotbeoverlookedeither.Oneofthestarkest

differencesisthatVenus,goddessofsexisreplacedbyMary,thevirgin.Thisclear

oppositionbetweenfiguresisinterestingtoconsiderincomparingthepaganand

Christianreligions.Mars,whowasthegodofwar,isreplacedbyJesus,thePrinceof

Peace,andthemartyrs,whowerecommonChristianswhodiedfortheirbeliefs,

replacetheemperors,whoseauthoritycommandedtheirexecutions.The

conversionofthePantheonhelpsconfirmChristianity’scompleteoppositionto

paganism.

Preservationasachurchwouldbethe“salvation”forthePantheonandkeep

itfromfallingvictimtomostotherdamageandpillaging,andwouldalsoprovideit

withrestorationsandrepairs.133Itisimportanttopointoutthateventhoughthe

consecrationofthePantheonhelpedpreventthepillaginganddestructionofthe

Pantheon.Conversionwasnottotallyitssalvation.Conversionprovided,however,

anotherlayerofprotectioninkeepingthePantheonintact.Oneofthebestexamples

ofthisprotectionisintheneoclassicalperiodwhenamajorremodelingofthe

132 MacDonald, 1976, 104. 133 Joost-Gaugier, 1998, 27, 28.

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buildingoccurred.134Therenovationcommencedbecauseinthespringof1705a

smallareaofacolumnwascleanedrevealinga“gleamingsurface”andPope

ClementXIAlbaniandthecardinals“gaveanordertoextendtheworktotheentire

innercircleoftherotunda,uptothefirstcornice.”135Thisrestorationcostan

unspecifiedamount;however,itisdescribedas“considerable.”136Theeffectsofthe

restorationcampaignthatPopeClementXIpromotedandinitiatedarestillvisible

todayinthePantheon:itis“thefruitofthisextensiveprogramofworkscarriedout

lessthan300yearsago”thathasallowedthePantheontostaysowellpreserved.137

Theprogramincludedreplacingmissingcolumns,re-facingtheexedras,restoring

altarsandchapels,andmajorrestorationofthemainChristianaltarofthe

Pantheon.

Without“papal-sponsoredproject[s]governingtherestoration”ofthe

Pantheon,itwouldhavefallenbackintoalesspreservedcondition.138Becauseof

thePantheon’sstatusasachurchitwasgivenmoreattentionforrenovations.

Anotheroneofthelargerenovationprojectswasthatofthedomeandattic.139In

1756theceilingandatticofthePantheonwererepaired.140

Someofthepillagingthatoccurred,evenafterthePantheonwasdeclareda

church,beganundertheEmperorConstantiniusII.In663thebronzerooftileswere

134 Pasquali, 2015, 337. 135 Pasquali, 2015, 337. 136 Pasquali, 2015, 338. 137 Pasquali, 2015, 338. 138 Pasquali, 2015, 343. 139 Pasquali, 2015, 342. 140 Pasquali, 2015, 344.

45

removedfromthedome.141Eventhoughtherewassomepillagingthatoccurredon

thePantheon,“atthebeginningoftheMiddleAgesthePantheonmusthavebeen

oneofthefewmonumentalbuildingsofImperialRometohavesurvivedthe

barbarianinvasionsintact.”142

Becauseofitsstatusasachurch,thePantheonunderwentmanydifferent

restorationsandembellishments,notallofwhichlasted.143Thesechangesbeganin

theMiddleAgesandprogressedthroughtheRenaissanceperiodthrough

seventeenthcenturyandsoonuntiltoday.ThechangespromotedthePantheon’s

embraceofitsidentityasachurchinsteadofaPagantemple:

Insomesense,thefrequencywithwhichtheinteriorofthePantheonwasremodeledandrefurnishedasachurchcouldbeconstruedasantitheticaltotheidealizeddescriptionsandrepresentationsthatRenaissanceartistshaveleftintheirvedute,surveys,anddrawings.Indeed,someofthesamearchitects,sculptors,andpainterswhorecorded“reconstructed”theancientbuildingandthepiazzainfrontofitalsoparticipatedinorcontributedtotheirremodelingduringthisperiod.YetitbecomesevidentthatreflectionsonthepaganbuildingwerecombinedwiththeconsciousnessoftheChristianalterationsmadetoitovertimeandthatbothcametobearonattemptstounderstandthePantheon.Thus,inastonishinglydifferentiatedknowledgeofthebuildingwasobviouslyavailableinwhichbothertraditions–PaganandChristian–wereanalyzed.144

Theserestorationsandembellishmentsincludedthedomebeingrecoveredwith

sheetsofleadin1580,buildingthreenewcolumnsinredgranitein1662,restoring

themarblefacingoftheinterior,andoneofthemostnotableembellishmentswas

twobelltowers.145Thesebelltowerswerebuiltin1270andUrbanVIIIhadBernini

141 Joost-Gaugier, 1998, 27. 142 Vighi, 1962, 14. 143 Vighi, 1962, 16. 144 Nesselrath, 2015, 281-283 145 Vighi, 1962, 16.

46

buildthetwobelltowersthatbecamenicknamed“theass’sears;”theywere

removedin1883.146ThisrestorationswereundertakenbytheDirectionGeneralof

AntiquitiesandFineArts“torestoretheinteriorofthemonumenttoitsproper

simplicityanddignity.”147

“ThePantheonafterthe17thcenturyrestorations.”(Vighi,1962,17)

ThechangeofthePantheon’spurposetoservingasachurchitresultedin

newsculpturesandtheplacementofadditionalitemsinthebuilding:

fromthesixteenthcenturyonwardsthePantheonservedasaplaceofburialforfamouspersons,andinparticularofartists,followingtheexampleofRaphaelthefirsttowishtobeburiedthere.AftertheunificationofItalyitwasdestinedtoreceivetheremainsofRoyalty,andinitwereburiedVictorEmmanuelII,UmbertoI,venerationwithinthetemple.148

146 Marder, 2015, 296.; Vighi, 1962, 16. 147 Vighi, 1962, 17 148 Vighi, 1962, 16.

47

Raphael’srequesttobeburiedinthePantheonresultedinatimeperiodwhen

“friends,disciples,assistants,andfollowers”wereburiedinthePantheonwithhim,

whichinturnresultedin“[creating]themetaphoricalmeaningofpantheonasa

buildingservingasthememorialofthefamousdead:ashrinehonoringgreatmen

andwomen.”149

“InteriorviewfeaturingpierwitRaphael’stombandflankingniches.”(Marder&Jones,2015,211)

TheimageaboveshowsRaphael’stomb,whichwaspartofanewshiftfromusing

theexedraofthePantheonforcultstatuestousingthemforburialstructures,andis

animportantchangeofidentityforthePantheon.WhoisburiedinthePantheonhas

changedovertime.Raphaelisstillincluded,butitisnolongerincludespeoplewho

149 Nesselrath, 2015, 257.

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wereassociatedwithhim.RaphaelwaslikelynotthefirstburialinthePantheon:

“thereisgoodevidenceofearlierburials…forwhichmedievalandearly

Renaissancetombslabsarestillpreserved,havingbeenremovedfromthefloor

duringrestorations.”150The“decorations”orornamentsaroundthePantheon’s

exedraandnicheschangedovertime.Theyalsoincludedburials,likeRaphael’s,as

wellasaltarsandfrescos.

Becauseofthesechanges,thePantheonisnowaveryelaboratehybridof

bothChristianandpaganelements.ItcontainsboththehistoryofChristianityas

wellasantiquity’spaganhistory.Itisimportanttonotethatinthescopeof

alterations,thereweresomemajorones,butnonethatcouldalteritsfundamental

shape:“thecylindricalspaceabsorbeditsnewreligiousfunctionswithoutany

seriousalterationsofthelayoutbyHadrian’sarchitects.”151

Anotheroneofthesekeychangesincludestheadditionofanaltar.Oneofthe

mainreasonsthatitisnotconfirmedthathePantheonwasoriginallyinfacta

templeisthelackofevidenceforanaltaroutsidethePantheon.Thereareother

reasonshistoriansarenottotallysurethePantheonwasatemple,includingits

unusualshapecomparedtoothertemples,buttheabsenceofanalaroutsidethe

templeisahugepieceofevidence.Itsunusualshapeissomethingthatstandsoutin

itsuseasaChristianchurchaswell,astheshapeofmostChristianchurcheswasnot

traditionallydomedlikethisone.Tohaveachurch,aswithatemple,oneneedsan

altar,whichtheChurchinstalledinthePantheon.Intheplaceofthecultstatuethat

wouldhavebeendirectlyoppositethemain,analtarwithacanopywasinstalledin

150 Marder & Jones, 2015, 28. 151 Thunø, 2015, 241.

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theMiddleAges.152IntheMiddleAges,itisalsobelievedthatfourothersidealtars

wereinstalledinniches.153Intheneoclassicalperiod,thealtarbecameapointof

focusduringtherestorations,specificallytheurnthat“heldtheremainsoftheholy

martyrs.”154Theissueoftheurn’splacementinrelationtothealtarwasto“[recall]

theChurch’sdefinitivevictoryoverthepaganworldbytheconversionoftheurnto

Christianuse.”155

ThePantheonisstillaverypopularmodernattraction.Todaytouristscan

frequentthebuildingwhileitisopen,andthebuildingisstillanactivechurch.

TouristsorpeoplewhowanttoexperiencemassatthePantheoncanalsoattend

Christianservices.TheexactnumberofvisitorsthePantheonreceivesforboth

touristicandreligiouspurposesisunknown,butthePantheonwasuntilrecently

oneofthelastfreemonumentsinRomethatcouldbeexplored.ThePantheonwill

sooncharge2europerentry,startingsometimein2018,forpatronstoenterthe

temple,andexperiencetheuniquerotundaanddomeshape.156Theticketrevenue

willbeusedtomaintainthePantheonandpossiblyalsoforfuturerestorationsof

thebuilding,ifneeded.157

Whentouristsvisitthisbuilding,itisnotlikelythattheirthoughtsaboutthe

shapeofthebuildinggomuchbeyondthinkingthat“itisamazing,”orthatthey

analyzeitatadeeperlevel.Lookingbeyondthesurfaceofthisimpressivefeatofthe

RomansincreatingthePantheon,thePantheonhasalsohadahugeimpacton

152 Thunø, 2015, 243-244. 153 Thunø, 2015, 243. 154 Pasquali, 2015, 341. 155 Pasquali, 2015, 340-341. 156 Binnie, 2017. 157 Binnie, 2017

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buildingshapesinlaterhistory.Manybuildingsthatareiconsofdifferentcities

aroundtheworldtodaywereinfluencedbytheshapeofthePantheon,itsbuilding

techniques,anditssize,includingtheDomeoftheRock,St.Paul’sCathedral,theU.S.

CapitolBuilding,numerousarenas,HagiaSophia,theDuomoinFlorence,andeven

theNottMemorialatUnionCollege.Thesebuildingsareveryimportantlandmarks

fortheircities,andtheyalloweadebttothepowerandreligiousimplications

associatedwiththeshapeofthePantheon.

Oneofthebestcomparisonsonemaymake,Ithink,isofthePantheontothe

DuomoinFlorence,whichisregardedasanotherimpressivearcheologicalfeat.The

DuomocanbeveryconnectedtothePantheon:

Florentinesassociatedthem[selves]withadistinguishedpast.TheyunderstoodthePantheoninRometobeatypicaltemple…inacityincreasinglyfascinatedbyantiquity,adomedcathedralofferedameansofcreatingadistinctivelyItalianalternative.158

TheconnectionbetweenFlorenceandRomeisalsoprominentbecause“theRomans

foundedFlorence.”159FlippoBrunelleschiiswhodesignedthedomeanditwasa

technologicalfeatbecauseitwasthelargestgroinvaulteverbuilt.160Brunelleschi

solvedthemysteryofhowtomakethedomebycreatingatwoshelleddome:“a

lightoutershellencasedathickinnershell.”161ThePantheonitselfdoesnothavea

groinvaultdome;however,theinspirationfortheDuomocanneverthelessbe

attributedtothePantheonbothbecauseofitsassociationwithRomeandbecauseit

hasthesameshape.Bothdomeswereconstructedusingplatforms,scaffolding,and

158 James-Chakraborty, 2014, 32. 159 James-Chakraborty, 2014, 32. 160 James-Chakraborty, 2014, 33. 161 James-Chakraborty, 2014, 33-34.

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bothweretechnologicallyadvancedforthetimethattheywerebuilt.162The

Pantheonhasnotonlysurvivedmoreorlessintactphysically,butitsarchitectural

formcontinuestoinspireaswell.

162 James-Chakraborty, 2014, 34.

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CONCLUSION

BecausethePantheonisoneofthemostwellpreservedbuildingsfrom

antiquity,itisimportanttolookatthePantheon’splaceacrosshistory.Whatever

thePantheon’soriginalpurpose,whichisstillamystery,itsmeaninghaschanged

overtime.ThemainpurposeofthePantheonisbelievedtohavebeenasatempleor

placeofpaganworshipthatwasthenconvertedtoaspaceforChristianworship.

ThefirstPantheonwasbuiltatthebeginningoftheRomanEmpireby

Agrippa.Itwasburntdownbyafirein80A.D.,andstruckbylightningin110A.D.

BecausethefirstPantheonwasburntdown,thereislimitedknowledgeknown

aboutitsoriginalpurpose,eventhoughitisnowsuchaprominentbuildinginRome.

Aswehaveobserved,however,thelocationofthefirstPantheonwasthesameas

thelocationthatithashadthroughoutitssubsequenthistory.Itscentrallocationon

theCampusMartiusallowedforittohavemaximuminteractionwiththepeopleof

Rome.CassiusDioexplainsthatthewordPantheonmeans,“allgods,”andwhathe

believesthePantheonwaslikelyaplaceforworshippingallgods,becauseofits

celestialsymbolismandthemultitudeofstatuesinit.Forthisreason,Ilookedatthe

argumentsforwhetherthePantheonwasinfactatemple.Dio,asanancientsource,

providesastrongpieceofevidenceforthePantheonhavingbeenatemple,butI

comparedthistohowRomanreligionwaspracticedandhowitwouldhavebeen

impossibletoidentifyomensasderivingfromspecificgodsifmultiplegodswere

housedandworshippedthere.IalsodiscussedhowthePantheonwasa

representationofaturningpointinRome’sancienthistory,becauseitwasbuilt

underAugustus,specificallybyAgrippa,aspartofhiswiderbuildingprogram.This

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buildingprojecthelpedraisemoraleamongthepeopleandthereasonwhythe

Pantheoncouldnotbecalledthe“Augusteum”wasbecauseoftheimpactJulius

Caesar’sassassinationhadonthepresentationofRomanrulersinthecityofRome.

Overall,thePantheonplayedalargeroleinsymbolizingashiftingovernmentfor

thepeopleofRome,andthereis,asaresult,evidenceforbothandagainstitsstatus

asatemple.

Followingthisdiscussion,Ilookedatthearguablythemostprominent

periodinthePantheon’shistory,whichiswhenthePantheonthatisstillstanding

todaywasbuilt.BylookingatthePantheon’sreconstructionandrefurbishmentby

multipleemperors,wewereabletoobservetheimportantandcriticalplacethatthe

Pantheonhadinhistory.Inlightofthis,itisindeedinterestingthatthereareno

writtenrecordsofwhatthePantheonwasusedforinhistory.Inparticular,Ilooked

atthedebatethatsurroundswhobuiltthePantheonthatstandstodayandconclude

thatithadbeenbegunbyTrajanandfinishedbyHadrian.Ialsobuiltonthe

argumentofwhetherthePantheonwasatempleornotbylookingatthe

architectureofthebuilding.Thedome,oculus,andoverallvastsizeofthebuilding

representanarchitecturalfeatofthetimeandanadvancementfortheRomans.I

alsofoundthatthematerialsused,specifically,themarble,representedthevastsize

oftheempireandservedtodemonstratethewealthandpowerRomeheldoverits

territories.LookingatthearchitecturalaspectsofthePantheon,Iconcludedthat

theyappeartohavehadreligiouselements,buttheabsenceofanaltar,whichisone

ofthepiecesthatpreventsusfromprovingthatthePantheonwasoriginally

constructedasatemple.Tobalancethisargument,Ilookedatotherancientsources

54

thatdescribethatthebuilding’suseforgovernmentpurposesbyHadrian.Ialso

talkedabouthowinspirationforthePantheon’suniqueappearancewasdrawnfrom

manydifferentbuildingsandhowRomanswouldhaveinteractedwiththePantheon

indifferentways,dependinguponwhowasemperoratthetime.

Toconcludeourhistoricaltour,IanalyzedhowthePantheonisoneofthe

mostwell-preservedbuildingsfromantiquitybecauseitwasconvertedtoachurch.

ThebuildingwasconvertedbyBonifaceIVtotheChurchofVirginStMaryandAll

Martyrs.EventhoughthePantheonwasstilllootedattimesafteritsconversiontoa

church,itsconversionprovidedalayerofprotectiontothebuilding.Asachurch,the

Pantheonwasrestoredmultipletimesthroughouthistoryundertheguidanceof

Popes.IalsolookedattheimportantdifferencesbetweenthePantheoninantiquity,

asalikelyPagantemple,comparedtoitsusenowasaChristianchurch.Ilookedat

howMaryandJesus,ontheonehand,VenusandMars,ontheother,arealmost

completeoppositesofeachother,andhowthealtar,thatwouldhavebeenoutside

thePantheoninantiquity,iftherehadbeenone,isnowinsidethePantheonfor

Christianworship.And,finally,ItalkedabouthowthePantheon,asthelargest

concretedomeeverbuilt,hascontinuedtoliveonandserveasaninspiration.Ithas

isanarchitecturalfeatthathasinfluencednotonlybuildingsinantiquity,but

buildingsthroughouthistorytothepresentday.Itsshapeisarepresentationof

power,andinmanyrespectsapowerthatcarrieswithitareligiousaspect.

55

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