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FEASIBILITY STUDY ON ESTABLISHING OF SHORT ROTATION PLANTATION (SRP) FOR SUSTAINABLE BIOMASS & BIOENERGY SUPPLY IN FOREST AND HILLY AREAS
IN BANGLADESH
A THESIS BY
MAUMITA CHANDRA
Semester: July-December 2010 Examination Roll No. 09 FPM JD-01M
Registration No.: 31489 Session: 2004-2005
MASTER OF SCIENCE (M.S) IN
FARM POWER & MACHINERY (AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING)
DEPARTMENT OF FARM POWER & MACHINERY BANGLADESH AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
MYMENSINGH
December, 2010
2
FEASIBILITY STUDY ON ESTABLISHING OF SHORT ROTATION PLANTATION (SRP) FOR SUSTAINABLE BIOMASS & BIOENERGY SUPPLY IN FOREST AND HILLY AREAS
IN BANGLADESH
A THESIS BY
DILRUBA MAUMITA CHANDRA
Examination Roll No. 09 FPM JD-01M Registration No.: 31489
Session: 2004-2005 Semester: July-December 2010
A thesis submitted to the Department of Farm Power and Machinery
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh in partial fulfillment of
requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE (M.S) IN
FARM POWER & MACHINERY (AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING)
DEPARTMENT OF FARM POWER & MACHINERY BANGLADESH AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
MYMENSINGH
December, 2010
3
FEASIBILITY STUDY ON ESTABLISHING OF SHORT ROTATION PLANTATION (SRP) FOR SUSTAINABLE BIOMASS & BIOENERGY SUPPLY IN FOREST AND HILLY AREAS
IN BANGLADESH
A THESIS
BY
MAUMITA CHANDRA Examination Roll No. 09 FPM JD-01M
Registration No.: 31489 Session: 2004-2005
Semester: July-December 2010
Approved as to style and contents by
-------------------------------------- Prof. Dr. Md. Daulat Hussain
Supervisor
------------------------------------- Dr. Md. Abdus Satter
Co-supervisor
------------------------------------- Dr. Md. Daulat Hussain
Chairman, Examination Committee and
Head, Department of Farm Power & Machinery Bangladesh Agricultural University
Mymensingh-2202
December, 2010
4
Dedicated To
My Beloved
Parents
5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is ever grateful to her creator almighty God for his blessing to enable her to
carry out this research work and complete this thesis.
The author would like to express heartfelt gratitude to her honorable supervisor
Professor Dr. Md. Daulat Hussain, Department of farm power and Machinery,
Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh for his supervision, scholastic
guidance innovative suggestions, constructions criticism, helpful comment, inspiration
and timely instructions throughout the entire period of the research.
The author expresses deep indebtedness to her Co –supervisor, Professor Dr. Md. Abdus
Satter, Department of farm power and machinery, Mymensingh, for his scholastic
guidance untiring assistance and advice in preparing the manuscript of thesis.
The author is honored to express her deepest sense of gratitude and sincere appreciation
to Dr. Md. Daulat Hussain, Head, Department of Farm Power and Machinery, BAU,
Mymensingh for his helpful advice and co-operation in providing facilities to conduct the
experiment.
From the core of heart, the author humbly desires to express profound gratitude and
thanks to her all reverend teachers of the department of the Department of Power and
Machinery, BAU, Mymensingh, for their kind help, co-operation, encouragement and
valuable suggestions.
With due pleasure, the author wishes to acknowledge the healthy working relationship
of the staff of the workshop and Department of Farm Power and Machinery, BAU,
Mymensingh.
6
The author is very much grateful to her beloved mother Bharati Rani Chandra, father
Kalidas Chandra, sister Mahua Chandra, Pampa Chandra and Nairita Chandra for their
patience, sacrifice, continuous encouragement and inspiration to prepare myself for
overcoming the hurdles of examination.
Special thanks are also extended to her dear friends Ankhi, Rawnak, Alice and Taneya
for their kind co-operation and inspiration throughout the work.
Finally the author is very much grateful to Kallyanashis Sardar for his sacrifice,
inspiration, encouragement and endless love and continuous blessing for educating her
self.
The Author
7
CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE
PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGMENT iv
ABSTRACT
vi
CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES
xi
LIST OF APPENDICES xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATION AND SYMBOLS xiii
I INTRODUCTION 1-6
1.1 Short Rotation Plantation
1
1.2 Benefits of Short Rotation Plantation
4
1.3 Biomass, Bio-energy & Food from Short Rotation plantation
4
1.4 Objectives
6
II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 7-11
III METHODOLOGY 12-46
3.1 Survey area -Madhupur Upazila 12
3.2 Climate & Weather conditions 13
3.3 Collection of Information 13
3.4 Short Rotation Plantation System
14
3.4.1 Current Situation
14
3.4.2 Potential SRP Species
16
3.5 Species Used
17
3.5.1 Description of the species
18
3.6 Suitability of Plants 23
3.6.1 Utilized Plants 23
8
CONTENTS (CONT.)
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
3.7 Biomass Production 26
3.7.1 Definition of Biomass
26
3.7.2 Chemical Composition of Biomass
27
3.7.3 Source of Biomass
27
3.7.4 Biomass use in Bangladesh
28
3.7.5 Biomass - Some Basic Data
29
3.7.6 Energy value
30
3.7.7 Benefits of Biomass as Energy Source
30
3.7.8 Environmental Benefits
31
3.7.9 Short Rotation Plants
31
3.8 Bio-energy Production
33
3.8.1 Biomass Fuels in Developing Countries
34
3.8.2 Methods of Generating Energy from Biomass
35
3.8.2.1 Combustion of wood as Biomass 35
3.8.2.2 Effective burning 35
3.8.2.3 Pyrolysis 37
3.8.2.4 Gasification 38
3.8.2.5 Fermentation 38
3.8.3 Efficient Wood Burning Techniques 39
3.8.3.1 Charcoal 40
3.8.3.2 Charcoal Production – Pyrolysis 40
3.8.3.3 Typical Characteristics of Good-Quality 40
9
Charcoal
3.8.3.4 Stages of charcoal production 41
3.8.3.5 Advantages of Charcoal 42
3.8.4 Biogas 42
3.8.4.1 Property of Biogas 43
10
CONTENTS (CONT.)
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
3.8.4.2 Biogas Plant 43
3.8.5 Conversion of Biomass into Electricity 44
3.8.5.1 Gasification 45
IV RESULTS & DISCUSSION 47-54
4.1 Economic analysis of SRP operation 47
4.1.1 Market analysis of SRP biomass products 47
4.1.2 Cost-benefit analysis for SRP operation 49
4.2 Biomass obtainable from Some Selected Species 50
V CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS 55-56 5.1 Conclusions 55
5.2 SRP is feasible for Bangladesh 55
5.3 Recommendations 56
VI REFERENCES 57-64
APPENDICES 65-78
11
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE TITLE PAGE
1.1 Quick growing plant suitable for Bangladesh 5
3.1 Share of biomass on total energy consumption 34
4.1 Source of energy in Bangladesh 47
4.2 Fuel wood consumption of different sector in Bangladesh 48
4.3 Height of the selected Species 50
4.4 Height & Biomass production of the selected Species 50
4.5 Biomass production after 5 year rotation 54
4.6 Calculation of projected area, m2 & no. of trees 54
12
LIST OF FIGURES
TITLE
PAGE
3.1 Map of Madhupur Upazila 12
3.2 Overall SRP system 14
3.3 Moringa oleifera 18
3.4 Coppice ability of Bamboo 19
3.5 Jatrophal Carcus 20
3.6 Bougain Intercropping with Pineapple 21
3.7 Zizyphus Jujuba 22
3.8 Environmental Benefits & SRP system 31
3.9 Biomass to Bio-energy 33
3.10 Wood Burning 39
3.11 Electricity generation process from biomass 44
3.12 Gasification process 46
4.1 Biomass Production from Boroi 51
4.2 Biomass Production from Jatropha 52
4.3 Biomass Production from Agar 53
13
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Forest Area of Bangladesh 65
B Forest situation in Bangladesh 66
C Photographs 68
D Some Important Table 70
E Calculation of Projected Area and Biomass 72
14
LIST OF ABBREVIATION AND SYMBOLS
BAU : Bangladesh Agricultural University
FAO : Food and Agricultural Organization
WHO : World Health Organization
SRP : Short Rotation Plantation
SRF : Short Rotation Forestry
SRC : Short Rotation Coppice
Fig : Figure
No. : Number
% : Percentage
m : Metre
Kg : Kilogram
ha : Hectare
t : Ton
Yr : Year
kj : Kilo Joule
MW : Mega Watt 0C : Degree Celsius
GHG : Greenhouse Gas
BGP : Biogas Plant
15
ABSTRACT A feasibility study has been done on the establishing of short rotation plantation (SRP).
Short rotation plantation is an approach used for biomass and bio-energy production in
cycles. It involves growth of forest species, which give rapid juvenile growth and can be
regrown from harvested stumps. This type of biomass production is suited to a variety of
climate and gives a very high yield. In recent years micro propagation using tissue culture
techniques has proved very useful in propagation of these trees. The present study will
knock at the introduction of valued energy tree crops with traditional cropping system for
better economic return from the forest area and better environmental condition of using
CO2. It means that photosynthesis will occur to produce more wood, fruits, vegetables and
the environment condition will be better. There are so many species of quick growing trees
like bougain, bamboo, Jatrapha, indigo etc. They have coppice ability. All the mentioned
energy trees grow in waste and fallow lands of upland and forest areas. Those are short
rotation trees and are suitable for establishing SRP in the Madhupur or other forest and
hilly areas of Bangladesh. The characteristics of SRP tree is that it grows well and
according to the opinion of the indigenous people that by 3 years time a short rotation tree
like bougain grows upto 10 m in height and about 120 kg biomass can be harvested. After
harvest it gives very rapid coppice and the shootings come out from the portion left out in
the field. The spacing is about 1.5m x 1.5m. and in one acre land more than 1500 plants
can be accommodated. This will give additional income to the growers. Once planted the
system will work for many years without investing money. This system is already
working in the Madhupur area and farmers are getting good returns from biomass. The
same can be obtained from Bamboo, Jatrapha carcus or Murtha plants. There are many
energy producing varieties of short rotation plant as like as Jatrapha Curcas (for bio-
diesel & Biomass), Bougain (Biomass), Shajina (for lubricant & Biomass), Nil (for
indigo), Ber (Carbohydrate plant) which are capable to give food, biomass & bio-energy.
Production of biomass & bio-energy from these varieties can be an effective way to
solution of scarcity of energy and key to development of Bangladesh. A detail study and
field practice are needed to verify the different production parameters for better
understanding of the local people for improving the economic status of the indigenous
people and for afforestation.
16
Chapter I
Introduction
17
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Short Rotation Plantation
Bangladesh is a food and energy deficit area in the world. This scenario is more
problematic in the forest and hilly areas where indigenous people live. The people
in the forest areas have no access for gas, electricity or other sustainable elements.
To minimize the present problems, sustainable energy may be supplied through
Short Rotation Plantation (SRP). SRP is the practice of cultivating fast-growing
trees that reach their economically optimum size within 5-15 years.
Trees are planted at widths that allow for quick growth and easy harvesting. They
are usually felled when they are around 15cm wide at chest height, this takes from
3 to 5 years. This compares with 60 years or more for standard forestry crops.
When felled, SRP trees are replaced by new planting or, more usually, allowed to
regenerate from the stumps as coppice.
Generally, the following varieties are used for SRP as like as: Jatrapha Curcas (for
bio-diesel & Biomass), Bougain (for very fast growing & Biomass), Shajina (for
lubricant & Biomass), Cassava (for ethanol & Biomass), Krans (for Bio-diesel &
Biomass) etc.
Short Rotation Forestry (SRF) is grown as an energy crop for use in power stations,
alone or in combination with other fuels such as coal. It is similar to historic fuel
wood coppice systems. (source :en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_rotation_forestry)
When certain plants or seedlings are cut from near ground level, they produce a
flush of fresh shoots. These are knows as coppice shoots and the method of
regeneration is coppicing. The coppice may be seeding coppice or stool coppice.
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The factors affecting natural regeneration by coppice are:
- Coppicing power,
- Age of tree: older the tree, lesser the coppicing power.
- Season of coppicing.
- Height of stump.
- Rotation: short rotation coppice is best one.
Short rotation coppice (SRC) is an energy crop which usually consists of densely
planted, high-yielding varieties of quick growing plant. The establishment of SRC
plantations has much in common with agricultural or horticultural crops as well as
forestry. Sustainable managed SRC provides a source of renewable energy with
virtually no net carbon emissions (i.e. no increase in atmospheric carbon). Planting
SRC in place of conventional agricultural crops increases farm diversification and
reduces chemical input.
Stems are usually harvested from SRC plantations every 3–5 years
Coppice stools remain productive for up to 30 years before they require
replacing
Coppice stems are usually cut and chipped by a dedicated SRC harvester in
a single operation.
While short rotation coppicing cuts the tree to a stool to promote growth of multiple
stems, on a regular cycle of roughly 2-4 years, it is also possible to practice
something more closely akin to conventional forestry, though on a shorter
timescale. Short rotation plantation (SRP) consists of planting a site and then
felling the trees when they have reached as size of typically 10-20 cm diameter at
breast height. Depending on tree species this usually takes between 8 and 20 years,
19
and is therefore intermediate in timescale between SRP and conventional forestry.
This has the effect of retaining the high productivity of a young plantation, but
increasing the wood to bark ratio. It is currently proposed that the stem wood only
would be removed from the site, with bark stripped during harvesting and left on
the site with other residues to return nutrients to the soil.In copping whole tree is
cut-off close to ground level. Shoots sprout from the residual stump technically
referred to as the stool. Removal of the trees leading shoots results in hormonal
suppression of lateral growth, which triggers growth of dormant buds on the side of
the trunk. Coppice growth is generally much more vigorous than normal seedlings
growth.
Points to keep in mind during coppice:
♦ Trees should be coppiced only when attains good health and shade effect
is too much on the inter-crops.
♦ Trees should be coppiced when it attains 3 to 5 meter height.
♦ Trees should not be coppiced in dry period or Dry fallow period since
shade of trees help in moisture conservation.
♦ Coppicing should be done one week before the onset of the rains.
♦ The optimum cutting height for most of the copping trees should be kept
in between 30 to 50 cm above the ground level
♦ Initial cut must be angled, to permit rainwater to run off from the cut
surface easily.
♦ In case of poor shoot growth, mature trees should be harvested and
replanted by new seedlings.
Suitable SRP crops –should fulfill the following requirements:
a. Fast growing native tree species (combination with annual crops is possible),
b. Coppice able species tolerant to permanent wet soil conditions and salts ,
c. Species with economic value for SRP end-users, highly resistant to pes
65
1.2 Benefits of Short Rotation Plantation
Benefits of Short Rotations plantation (SRP) are given bellow:
1. Restoration and conservation of available forest & the bio-diversity
resources by SRP,
2. Short Rotation plantation (SRP) contributes to carbon sequestration in both
current and elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations ,
3. Biomass & Bio-energy can be produced from SRP,
4. Planting of associate species, including fruit bearing trees providing food
and shelter to such wildlife species as deer, monkey, rabbit and native birds.
5. It also can be a source of food & shelter to human & other domestic animals,
6. Fuel wood production in the homesteads has been increased and the
households’ fuel-use efficiency has been increased by SRP ,
7. All of the fallow land of forest and hilly area will regain their original status
(afforestation) by SRP,
1.3 Biomass, Bioenergy & Food from Short Rotation plantation
Bangladesh is not an oil producing country. Only a limited source (natural gas &
coal) are available here. Now a days, Bangladesh is facing great energy crisis. It
can not fulfill the needs of the energy from domestic, commertial & electricity
producing sector. A large amount of money has been spent to import energy from
international market in the form of fuel. In fact, Biomass & Bioenergy through
short rotation plantation is an alternative source .There are many varities of Short
Rotation plant as like as Jatrapha Curcas (for bio-diesel & Biomass ), Bougain
(Biomass ), Shajina (for lubricant & Biomass ), Bhrenda (Carbohydrate plant),Nil
(for indigo), Ber (Carbohydrate plant) which are capable to give food, biomass &
bioenergy. Table 1.1 shows a list of quick growing plants suitable for cultivation by
poor farmers in Bangladesh:
66
Table 1.1 Quick growing plant suitable for Bangladesh Local name English name Scientific name Family Habit Jatrapha Jatrapha Jatrapha curces Euphorbiaceae Tree Agar Agar Aquilana Agallocha Thymelacaceae Pitali Trewia polycarpa Euphorbiaceae Tree Sajina Dram Stick Moringa Oleifera Moringaceae Tree Barun Caper Tree Crataeva nurvala Capparaceae Tree Kafila Lannea
coramandelica Anacardiaceae Tree
Palas Bastard plant Butea monospermia Leguminosae Tree Bonkula Pterospermum
lancaefolia Sterculiaceae Tree
KataliBot Banyan Tree Ficus benghalensis Moraceae Tree Asvath Peepul tree Ficus religiosa Moraceae Tree Nil Indigo plant Indigofera tinctoria Leguminosae Shrub Arhar Cajanus cajan Leguminosae Shrub Pitraj Apanamixis
polystachya Meliaceae Tree
Bherenda Ricinus communis Euphorbiaceae Shrub Katshola Sesbania palludosa Leguminosae Shrub Kaichgota Rosary
Pea/woody twiner
Abrus precatorius Leguminosae Climber
Furush Crape-Myztle Lagerstroemia indica Irythraceae Tree Murtha Clinogyne dichotoma Marantaceae Shrub Dolkalmi Ipomoea fistulosa Convovulaceae Climber Chitki Phyllanthus fistulosa Euphorbiaceae Shrub Tamal Diospyros cordifolia Ebenaceae Tree Tunt Morus indica Moraceae Tree Ipil-ipil Ipil-ipil Leucaena
leucocephala Leguminosae Tree
Katamandar Coral tree Erythrina iovalifolia Leguminosae Tree Palita mandar Coral tree Erythrina indica Leguminosae Climber Shak alu Yam bean Pachyrrhizus erosus Leguminosae Climber Katashola Mimosa rubricaulis Leguminosae Tree Mahua Madhuca indica Leguminosae Tree Khair Acacia catechu Leguminosae Tree Ber (Boroi) Indian plum Zizyphus jujuba Rhamnaceae Tree Dhaincha Sesbania esban Leguminosae Shrub Pat Jute Corchorus capsularis Shrub Minjiri Cassia Siamea Leguminosae Tree Bakphul Sesban Sesbania grandiflora Leguminosae Tree Dadraj Candle
tree/ringworm Cassia alata Leguminosae Shrub
Horitaki Terminalia chebula Bansh Bamboo Bambusa indica
67
1.4 Objectives
• To identify the different species of SRP trees
• To study the cultivation process of SRP trees
• To collect information on production of biomass & bio-energy
• To explore the economic potentials of SRP
68
Chapter II
Review of Literature
69
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the available literature related to biomass
and bio-energy production from SRP system. Very limited work has been done in
Bangladesh in this regard. Work relevant to this topics performed by various
researchers are viewed in this section.
Sperandio,-G & Verani,-S in “Short rotation plantations for biomass production for
energy use: elements for a cost analysis”2000, Cost analyze about short rotation
plantation with a mean annual production of 10 t DM/ha, and varying rotation
periods (3-18 years). Establishment and management costs are considered
according to direct costs, and direct costs + land rent + interest. The actual cost
value, annual average costs, and total costs for 1 t/rotation are estimated. The
average production costs/ t chips (including land rent and interest) varied from 345
000 L/t (1st rotation) to 164 000 L/t (6th rotation).
Spinelli,-R et. al., in “Extracting whole short rotation trees with a skidder and a
front-end loader” 2001 studied a Caterpillar 950F front-end loader and a Caterpillar
528 grapple skidder used to extract bunched whole trees to a landing in a short
rotation Eucalyptus plantation. The loader was 40-60% more productive than the
grapple skidder, depending on extraction distance.
Pirazzoli,-C et. al., “Forest plantations on plains for biomass production used for
energy: the case of SRF (short rotation forestry)” 2004 discussed. a cost benefit
analysis of short rotation forestry for energy production .It is based on figures from
a plantation in the Po valley. Problems include storage of the harvested wood (at
the plantation or at the processing plant), transport, drying and lack of appropriate
machinery. Marginal land is unsuitable for this type of crop, which requires deep,
fertile soil. Obtaining financial support under Regulation 1257/99 is complicated.
Given current market prices, short rotation forestry for energy is a risky
undertaking.
70
Danesh Miah, Romel Ahmed and Mohammad Belal Uddin in “Biomass fuel use by
the rural households in Chittagong region, Bangladesh” 2003. An exploratory
survey was carried out to assess biomass fuel use by the rural households in the
Chittagong region, Bangladesh. A multistage random sampling technique was
adopted to perform the study. Based on the monthly income, respondents were
categorized into rich, medium and poor and a total of 45 homesteads, 15 from each
category were selected randomly for the study. The study revealed that stems,
branches, leaves of trees and agricultural residues were the biomass fuel used by
the respondents. Market, homestead, agricultural field, secondary forests/plantation
were the sources of biomass fuel identified. Male and female were identified as the
major collectors of fuelwood from the nearby forests/plantations and homesteads,
respectively. Six fuelwood species were identified as the most preferred in the
study area. The study identified the rainy season as the woodfuel shortage period
spanning between May and August.
Trnka,-M et. al., in “Biomass production and survival rates of selected poplar
clones grown under a short-rotation system on arable land”,2008 wrote about Fast-
growing woody plants that can be grown under short-rotation systems offer an
alternative to food production on arable land, and serve as a potential source of
renewable energy.
Manzone,-M et. al., in “Energy crops: productivity of some planters”2006 write
about short rotation forestry (SRF) & mechanization.
Bergante,-S & Facciotto,-G in “Annual, two-year and five-year plantation.
Productivity in North Italy”. 2006 publish a report about Woody biomass that can
be used in small-scale domestic installations, in wood industries, or in large-scale
district heating of villages and towns to make cogeneration of heat and power.
Sixto,-H et. al., in “Populus genus for the biomass production for energy use: a
review” 2007 wrote about alternative sources of energy.
71
Heinsoo,-K & Koopel,-A in “Choice of willow (Salix spp.) clones for
establishment under short rotation forest plantations in Estonia” 2006 evaluate the
annual yield and suitability of a set of willow clones originating from the Swedish
Energy Forest Programme in Estonia environmental conditions.
Gopichand- in “Influence of irrigation on growth and biomass production of some
short rotation high density energy plantation in North Western Himachal Himalaya
(H.P.) 2006 studies about the agroclimatic conditions of Palampur in the Indian
Western Himalaya. The results revealed that at 12 months after transplanting
significantly highest vertical growth were recorded in Robnia pseudoacacia
followed by Eucalyptus hybrid and Bauhinia variegata while in terms of radial
growth significantly maximum diameter were recorded in Eucalyptus followed by
Robinia, Grevillea and Bauhinia. In first year, irrigation at fortnightly interval
produced better results, while monthly and control irrigation were statistically
comparable.
Gupta,-S-K & Bharadwaj,-S-D in “Biomass and volume predictions in black wattle
through models” 2006 publish about the biomass and volume of black wattle grown
in energy plantation under rainfed conditions of mid-hills of Himachal Pradesh
using some easily measurable attributes. Of the linear and log-linear models,
biomass and volume predictions with diameter at breast height (D) and D2H as
predictor variables were effective and cross validation technique proved to be a
good tool to make the predictions reliable.
Bungart,-R et.al., in “Production of biomass for energy in post-mining landscapes
and nutrient dynamics” 2001 wrote about the production of biomass for energy use
on arable set-aside and post-mining land.
Spinelli,-R & Verani,-S in “Harvesting wood biomass for industrial energy
production”2000 publish a review of harvesting systems and machinery used for
collecting wood biomass from a number of different sources , namely conventional
forestry, riparian stands and short rotation plantation crops. In conventional forests,
both traditional coppice stands and young conifer plantations can provide
72
substantial amounts of biomass. More biomass can be obtained by recovering
residues from standard harvesting operations which aim to produce assortments
other than energy biomass.
Grogan,-P et. al. in A modelling analysis of the potential for soil carbon
sequestration under short rotation coppice willow bioenergy plantations”2002
wrote about rising atmospheric CO< sub>2</ sub> concentrations and their
association with global climate change have led to several major international
initiatives to reduce net CO< sub>2</ sub> emissions, including the promotion of
bioenergy crops such as short rotation coppice (SRC) willow. Although the above-
ground harvested bio-fuel is likely to be the major contributor to the CO< sub>2</
sub> mitigation potential of bio-energy crops, additional carbon may be
sequestered through crop inputs into plantation soils
Hunter,-T et. al. in “Effects of host genotype mixtures on insect and disease
damage and yields in SRC willows”2001 examine the effects of plantation design
on chrysomelid beetle infestation, foliar and stem rust damage, rust hyperparasite
distribution and crop yield. In addition, laboratory studies were done on the effects
of willow genotypes on the performance of Phratora vulgatissima adults and larvae.
Effective reduction in damage from both rust and adult willow beetles was
observed in the mixed plantings compared with monocultures. The hyperparasite,
Sphaerellopsis filum, was able to disperse and effectively colonise rust pustules in
all plantation designs. Yields were greater in mixtures than when the individual
components were grown as monocultures. There were significant differences
between willow genotypes in their effects on fecundity and performance of both
adults and larvae. Within willow cropping systems, genotype mixtures provide the
basis for an integrated approach to control of rust and beetle damage with no
observed yield reduction.
Sajjakulnukit,-B et. al., in “Sustainable biomass production for energy in Thailand”2003 aims to estimate the land availability for biomass production, identify and evaluate the biomass production options by yield per ha and financial
73
viability, estimate the sustainable biomass production for energy, and estimate the energy potential of biomass production.
Elauria,-J-C et. al., in “Sustainable biomass production for energy in the Philippines” 2003 aims to estimate land availability for biomass production, identify and evaluate the biomass production options in terms of yield per hectare and financial viability, estimate sustainable biomass production for energy, and estimate the energy potential of biomass production in the Philippines.
Deckmyn, G; et. al., in “Carbon sequestration following afforestation of agricultural soils: comparing oak/beech forest to short-rotation poplar coppice combining a process and a carbon accounting model” 2004, compare the benefits for carbon (C) sequestration of afforestation with a multifunctional oak-beech forest vs. a poplar short-rotation coppice (SRC), model simulations were run through a serial linkage of a mechanistic model and an accounting model.
Park,-B-B et. al., in “Wood ash effects on plant and soil in a willow bioenergy plantation”2005 wrote about intensive management for biomass production results in high rates of nutrient removal by harvesting. We tested whether wood ash generated when burning wood for energy could be used to ameliorate negative soil effects of short-rotation harvesting practices. We measured the temporal and spatial dynamics of soil nutrient properties after wood ash applications in a willow plantation in central New York State and determined the influence of wood ash application on willow growth. Wood ash was applied annually for 3 years at the rates of 10 and 20 Mg ha-1 to coppiced willow, Salix purpurea, clone SP3. Wood ash application significantly increased soil pH in the 0-10 cm soil layer from 6.1 in the control to 6.9 and 7.1 in the 10 and 20 Mg ha-1 treated plots. Wood ash application significantly increased soil extractable phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium concentrations. Potassium was the element most affected by wood ash treatment at all soil depths. Wood ash had no significant effect on nutrient concentrations of foliar, litter, and stem tissue. Wood ash did not affect either individual plant growth or plot biomass production, which declined over the course of the study; it did increase the size of stems, but this effect was balanced by a decrease in the number of stems. Applying nitrogen as well as wood ash might be required to maintain the productivity of this SRC system.
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Chapter III
Methodology
75
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Survey area - Madhupur Upazila Situated in the Madhupur tract (Mymensingh Forest Division), some 160km north
of the capital city of Dhaka and 32km south-west of Mymensingh Town.
Location: Tangail/Mymensingh District, Dhaka Division, Bangladesh
Fig. 3.1 Map of Madhupur Upazila
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3.2 Climate & Weather conditions:
Temp: 10 0C to 37 0C
Altitude: 15 m
Area: 8436 hectare
It houses a total of 176 species of plants including 73 trees, 22 shrubs, 1 palm, 8
grasses, 27 climbers and 45 herbs. Besides, there are a number of exotic species
planted in the national park area.
Having unique biodiversity, local tribal communities with their cultural heritage
and above all wilderness of the national park seems to be a very suitable destination
of future eco-tourist.
3.3 Collection of Information
• Information About Different Species of Very Fast Growing Plant:
Following information about very fast growing plant was collected from forest
rangers & crop specialists. Local name of different plant, growth cycle, chemical
composition, physical properties, growth environment, benefits of SRP.
• Information About Different Cultivation and Harvesting Techniques of
SRC:
Techniques of cultivation & harvesting of SRC in different environments like forest
& hilly areas have been reviewed from National & International research institutes.
• Composing Information on Biomass:
Biomass, its sources, chemical composition, uses, properties & energy values have
been collected from various experimental studies. Gathering facts about the
methods of bio-energy production from biomass:
Biogas production & electricity generation systems have been gathered form
different laboratory articles & industry publications.
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3.4 Short Rotation Plantation System
Short Rotation Coppice (SRC) is coppice grown as an energy crop. This woody
solid biomass can be used in applications such as brick burning, water heating,
electric power generating stations, alone or in combination with other fuels.
Fig 3.2 Overall SRP system
3.4.1 Current Situation Most farmers in Bangladesh are marginal farmers who own only small pieces of
land, and almost all of them are dependent on traditional field crop cultivation such
as paddy, jute, vegetables etc. The present situation in farming practices is
changing towards the selection of crops with better economic return. Field crop
growers are shifting the cultivation of their traditional crops (rice) to other crops
horticultural corps (e.g. banana), because such new cultivations give more
Planting 1st Year Growth
Crop Rotation
Harvesting
Use as Fuel
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economic return in comparison to traditional paddy cultivation. Farmers in low
lying areas are producing fish because it is more profitable comparing the
production cost against crops cultivated in the same surface area and since they are
not dependent on additionally costly practices, e.g. tillage implement. The
cultivation of woody species that can provide shelter and wood fire is slowly but
steadily becoming more popular due to a series of reasons that are mentioned
below; cultivation of e.g. rain trees, mottra, bamboos etc in the forecourt of their
homestead areas adds extra profit and is starting to be preferred than other
alternatives.
Some 20 years ago, the domestic areas in Bangladesh were in average bigger and
farmers had the habit to plant firewood trees, fruit trees etc. Homestead forests had
been of great importance in Bangladesh since these traditional land use system
provided with around 90% of fuel wood and bamboo consumed in Bangladesh (and
still in a great extend). This phenomenon has dramatically changed and the farmers
are not as willing as in the past to plant tree since the available space has become
limited. Domestic premises have been fragmented with the increase of family
members. Due to the increases of the population everywhere in Bangladesh, the
demand for firewood has dramatically increased both in rural and in urban areas.
Simultaneously, although gas connection from the national grid has started, it is
sufficient and the distribution problematic even in the urban areas.
Therefore, a shift to wood for energy by the public has been initiated and the
demand for firewood is increasing throughout all Bangladesh. To face this alarming
problem in the supply of firewood, actions and programmes that will ensure the
production of adequate amounts of biomass must be undertaken to produce
firewood from fast growing trees of from appropriate short rotation plantations.
Besides, to balance the ecological situation of the country, afforestation should be
started both in inland and in coastal areas. Under this current perspective, it is only
a matter of time since the farmers will realize that the production of firewood by
means of cultivation of e.g. fast growing SRPs could be potentially proved more
profitable than the rice or banana cultivation.
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3.4.2 Potential SRP Species A range of potentially used tree/shrub species could be used in SRP system and
simultaneously the production of biomass for energy. As Bangladesh is a tropical
country, the growth conditions are generally good and the production of biomass of
certain species is very good in comparison to other climates. During the conducted
surveys under the current project with common farmers in different areas of
Bangladesh, a vast series of plant was mentioned, including, besides wood biomass
producing trees, also fruit trees, shrubs and herbs with economical value etc.
Therefore, it became clear that “Conventional” wood species that are usually used
in SRPs should not be the only option in Bangladesh, at least in a preliminary stage
before testing and selection occurs.
Furthermore, the tolerance to wet or anoxic conditions and possibly to certain
hazardous compounds included in the wastewater should be also taken into
account. A range of specie fulfils a number of the characteristics mentioned above.
For instance, some commonly used specie as raintree, bamboo, mottra and jujube
were considered by the locals tolerant to temporary wet conditions in the soil.
The physiology of some plants implies tolerance of such plants even or anoxic
conditions, which can be proved very helpful. The evapotranspiration rate and
therefore the water consumption of species while irrigated with wastewater should
be as high as possible. In general, tree species have higher evapotranspiraton rates
than perennial crops. Fast growing trees as eucalyptus, acacia, ipil-ipil and others,
are reported to consume high amounts of water under Bangladesh conditions, and
could be considered appropriate for use as SRPs, from the water consumption point
of view. The coppice ability of a species would be of great importance for the
project’s concept, since the management costs of a plantation would be reduced due
to lack of replanting after harvest. Form the species identified as potential from the
locals, bamboo is known for its coppice ability and for being a fast growing species
which provides much more wood than other species after frequent harvest. Other
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species with coppice ability that were mentioned included tree species as
eucalyptus, acacia species and others, but the high biomass production with coppice
systems should be tested since it is not widely performed in Bangladesh.
The tolerance of tree species to toxic effects due to polluted wastewater or saline
soil was not recognized as potential threat in the survey, probably because soil
salinity in Bangladesh is not a big issue. If SRPs are to be introduced, the existence
of tree nurseries in the different areas for the supply of seedlings is also of
importance. The supply with seedlings could be sufficient for some species thanks
to NGO development projects but can be also restrictive for others, and it seems to
be a decisive factor for the proposal of potential SRP species by the locals under
the survey. Pest attacks to SRPs should also be taken into account while selecting
species, therefore the already used local species should be preferred because of
their better adaptation to the local conditions.
Considering the general characteristics for appropriate as SRPs, and comparing
with the information provided and the opinions of the locals, there is a number of
species that seems to be promising for use in SRPs, although such forestry practices
(short harvest intervals of coppiced stands) are not widely used or known in
Bangladesh. The similarities of cultivating perennial species like bamboo or mottra
and the multi-importance of these crops indicate that not only trees could be
considered as potential used SRPs. Other perennial crops could be also used.
Furthermore, fruit trees could be also used for receiving irrigation of wastewater,
provided that contamination of the use of biomass for other purposes than bio-fuel
can offer is also of importance and is highly evaluated among the locals for the
appropriate SRP species.
3.5 Species Used
SRC uses high yield varieties of quick growing plant. Species are selected for their
acceptance of varying climate and soil conditions, relative insusceptibility to pests
and diseases, ease of propagation and speed of vegetative growth. The management
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of the plantations highly affects the productivity and its success. Our seleted
species are:
Bamboo (Bambusa Indica)
Sajna/dram Stick (Moringa Oleirfera)
Ber/Boroi (Zizyphus Jujuba)
Jatrapha (Jatrapha Curcas)
Agar (Aquilana Agallocha)
Bougain / Neem (Azadirachta indica)
3.5.1 Description of the species
Sajina/Drumsticks
Fig. 3.3 Moringa oleifera
A small to medium tree; bark corky. Leaves tripinnate, leaflets elliptic to obovate.
Flowers white and secnted. Fruits long cylindrical flexible pods, hanging in cluster,
having 9 distinct ribs and rather wavy edges.
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Flowering time: Nov.-Jan.
Fruiting time: April-May.
Propagation: The tree can be easily propagated by branch cuttings and also be
raised from seeds. It coppices and pollards vigorously.
Uses and suitability in Agroforestry systems :
Leaves and branches are used for fodder
Food (pods when young, leaves, roots and flowers)
Suitable for honey & lubricant production
Used as medicine (bark, Fruits and leaves)
Also used as water purification
Suitable for homestead, roadside, rural areas.
Fig. 3.4 Coppice ability of Bamboo
Bamboo DESCRIPTION: A densely tufted, sympodial bamboo with spiny basal branches
forming a densely interlaced thicket. Culms erect, 15-25 m tall, up to about 20 cm ,
wall 0.5-3 cm thick; internodes usually hollow, 25-60 cm long, glaborous, green;
nodes prominent, the lower ones bearing aerial roots.
USE: Young shoots are eaten as a vegetable, usually boiled and shredded. The
culms are used for construction, basketry (baskets are very popular), furniture,
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parquets, concrete reinforcements, kitchen utensils, chopsticks, hats and toys.
Culms are also used as firewood if wood is scarce. The culms are suitable for
making paper. It is often planted along water courses to prevent soil erosion. It is
planted around farmhouses as wind breaks, in fields as living fences or to mark
boundaries.
Growing Period: Perennial. The harvesting of culms may start 5 years after
planting. The shoots emerge during the rainy season and can be harvested for food
after 7-15 days.
Common Names: Spiny bamboo, Thorny bamboo.
Jatrapha
Fig. 3.5 Jatrapha Carcus
Jatropha curcas belongs to the family euphorbiaceae. In Bangladesh it is called
sadamandar/arenda, in India it is called Ratanjut etc. The plant and its seeds are non
edible to animals and are therefore used worldwide as hedges to protect agricultural
fields. Physical description: It is small tree/bush, height upto 6m and lifespan is
more than 30 years. It is called physic nut/poison nut.
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Leaves- 6 x 15 cm. Seed weight per 1000 seeds is about 750 grams which is
equivalent of 1333 seeds per kg on average. Seed contains more than 30% oil by
weight. Normally five roots are formed from seeds: one tap root and 4 lateral roots.
Plants from cuttings do not develop the tap root, only the laterals. Most of the time
the plant lives as dormant position
Fig. 3.6 Bougain Intercropping with Pineapple
Bougain
The characteristics of Bougain tree is that it grows well and according to the
opinion of the indigenous people that by 3 years time a bougain tree grows upto 10
m in height and about 120 kg biomass can be harvested. After harvest it gives very
rapid coppice and the shootings come out from the portion left out in the field. The
spacing is about 1.5m x 1.5m. and in one acre land more than 1500 plants can be
accommodated. Intercropping crops can be planted in between the rows and
columns.
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Ber (Boroi)
Fig. 3.7 Zizyphus jujuba
Ziziphus mauritiana also known as Badari (Sanskrit), Kul or Boroi , Ber (Hindi),
Dongs, Boroi, Bor, Beri, Indian plum, permseret (Anguilla) is a tropical fruit tree
species, belonging to the family Rhamnaceae.
Ziziphus mauritiana is a spiny, evergreen shrub or small tree up to 15 m high, with
trunk 40 cm or more in diameter; spreading crown; stipular spines and many
drooping branches. The fruit is of variable shape and size. It oval, obovate, oblong
or round, and that can be 1-2.5 in (2.5-6.25 cm) long, depending on the variety. The
flesh is white and crisp. When slightly underipe, this fruit is a bit juicy and has a
pleasant aroma. The fruit's skin is smooth, glossy, thin but tight.
It is most commonly found in the tropical and sub-tropical regions. It is a fast
growing tree with a medium lifespan, that can quickly reach up to 10–40 ft (3 to 12
m) tall.
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3.6 Suitability of Plants
3.6.1 Utilized Plants
The main forest types of Bangladesh can be divided into three major categories;
Mangrove forest, mainly located in the south-west region close to the Bengal Bay;
hill forests, mainly located in forest, mainly located in the east; and plain land
forest, which is divided in the Sal forests (tropical moist deciduous forest in the
central and Northwest region), Government forest and village forest ( commonly
named as homestead forest) Bangladesh forest areas are deteriorating and it is
estimated that only about 6-8% of the total land area of Bangladesh is qualified to
use the term “forested”. The high rate of deforestation and landscape conversion
has as a consequence the appearance of other environmental problems such as soil
fertility loss, soil erosion, watershed deterioration, and floods. Main reason for
diminishing forests is the high demand for wood for industry and private
households and land competition for food production.
It is estimated that the potential supply of wood fuels would be considerable lower
than the estimated consumption in Bangladesh by 2010.Homestead forests are the
traditional land use system that provides about 65-70% timber and about 90% of
fuel wood and bamboo consumed in Bangladesh, despite that only 20% of the total
country surface area is homestead forests. Several studies have tried to cover the
variations of tree species cultivated in Bangladesh and have listed them in terms of
planted areas or percentage of abundance. Hocking et al., 1996 mapped the species
used in village forests by randomly selecting 15 homesteads located in the west
northwest part of the country. The species which occurred more frequently was
bamboo (bamboosa spp.). followed by jujube (Zyziphus jujube), hog palm
(Spondias pinnata), pitali (Trewie nudiflora), lemon (Citrus limoni) etc. The
preference for the selected tree species is strongly depended on individual reasons,
which in their turn differ from place to place due to the needs of every family and
to other factors such as supply of seedlings, family tradition, end-product etc.
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Some of the above mentioned special characteristic for appropriate SRP were the
high growth rate, the coppice ability, the tolerance to wet conditions, the pest
tolerance etc. In some cases, the results form the interviews were somewhat
difficult to evaluate concerning questions regarding the selection of potential
species grown as SRPs , since this kind of forestry practice is not widely applied in
Bangladesh, if at all. After the proper explanations by the interviewers, details were
asked concerning the current species that are grown for biomass in the specific
areas, and the possibilities of growing well were also examined. Therefore a list of
plants examining the possibilities of growing in shallow water depths was also
provided. It is interesting to comment that there are great variations among
different people regarding the suitability of different tree species as fast growing or
withstanding flooding conditions and therefore difficult to apply in a broader scale.
In case of bamboo and mottra, we can assume that the local population is used to
harvest these fast growing crops in short intervals, as it is the case for SRPs, and
that is possibly why were chosen as a potential SRP crop. furthermore, bamboo is
widely used as fencing or building material (besides being used as a fuel) and
mottra is wieldy used in handcraft for the manufacture of mats, and therefore can
be used as a source of a potential additional income rather than wood fuel. It should
be mentioned that an alternative use beside the fuel production added to the
suitability (and popularity) for qualification as potential species used as SRP, and
therefore should be taken into account.
To better identify appropriate SRP species suitable for biomass & bio-energy, the
suggested potential for SRP cultivation should be compared with the special
characteristic for the identified socioeconomic factors involved. After discussions
with local farmers and experts, the appropriate SRP species should preferably:
• Produce high biomass and grow fast to produce fast and high income
• Have coppice ability for re-growth to avoid establishment costs after
replanting
• Be tolerant to water-logging and saline conditions
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• Be pest resistant and adapted to the local conditions;
• Used safely avoiding high hygienic risks form spreading of diseases.
For the potential biomass production of different species, detailed description is
included in the following section. Some commonly used species as raintree,
bamboo and mottra were considered by the locals tolerant to temporary wt
conditions in the soil. Furthermore, the evapotranspiration rate and therefore the
water consumption of species while irrigated should be as high as possible. In
general, tree species have higher evapotranspiration rates than perennial corps.
Fast-growing trees as eucalyptus, acacia and others, are reported to consume high
amounts of water under Bangladesh conditions, and could be considered
appropriate for use as SRPs, from the water consumption point of view.
The coppice ability of a species would be of great importance for the project’s
concept, since the management costs of a plantation would be reduced due to lack
of replanting after harvest. Form the species identified as potential from the locals,
bamboo is known for its coppice ability and for being a fast growing species which
provides much more wood than other spices after frequent harvests. Other species
coppice ability that were mentioned included tree species as eucalyptus, acacia
species and others, but the high biomass production with coppice systems should be
tested since it is not wieldy performed in Bangladesh.
The tolerance of tree species to toxic effects that can be caused by irrigation of
highly polluted wastewater or salinity in Bangladesh is not a big issue due to the
dilution with sufficient rainfalls that diminishes saline problems and to the fact that
the awareness for the content of wastewater is usually limited. The existence of tree
nurseries in the different areas for the supply of seedlings for many trees in
Bangladesh could be sufficient for some species thanks to NGO development
projects but can be also restrictive for others, and it seems to be a decisive factor
for the proposal of potential SRP species by the locals under the survey. Pest
attacks to SRPs should also be taken into account while selecting species, therefore
89
the already used local species should be preferred because of their better adaptation
to the local conditions.
Consequently, taking into account the requirements for qualification of species
appropriate as SRPs, and comparing with the information provided and the
opinions of the locals, there is a number of species that seems to be promising for
use in SRPs, despite the fact than such forestry practices (short harvest intervals of
coppiced stands) re not widely used or known in Bangladesh. The similarities of
these crops as valuable and of multi-importance, indicate that not only tree could be
considered as potential used SRPs in Bangladesh.
Other perennial crops as valuable and of multi-importance, indicate that not only
trees could be considered as potential used SRPs in Bangladesh. Other perennial
crops could also that role.The additional profit that the use of biomass for other
purposes than biofuel can offer is also of importance and is highly evaluated among
the locals for the appropriate SRP species. However, in order to decide for the
suitability and certain species used as SRPs, high biomass production should be
aimed, in combination with limited environmental hazard.
3.7 Biomass Production
3.7. 1 Definition of Biomass
Biomass can be understood as regenerative (renewable) organic material that can
be used to produce energy. These sources include aquatic or terrestrial vegetation,
residues from forestry or agriculture, animal waste and municipal waste. In
laymen’s terms, that means biomass is manufactured from crops, wood, manure,
land fill gasses and alcohol fuels. Ethanol is a prime example of biomass alcohol
fuel. Producing fuel and energy from biomass is a complex procedure but the
principle behind it corresponds directly to photosynthesis. This is a chemical
reaction in which carbon dioxide and water are transformed into oxygen gas and
glucose through the input of energy from the sun. Plants become autotrophs
because they use glucose as a source of energy rather than fossil fuels.
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3.7.2 Chemical Composition of Biomass
The chemical composition of biomass varies among species, but plants consists of
about 25% lignin and 75% carbohydrates or sugars. The carbohydrate fraction
consists of many sugar molecules linked together in long chains or polymers. Two
larger carbohydrate categories that have significant value are cellulose and
hemicellulose. The lignin fraction consists of non-sugar type molecules. Nature
uses the long cellulose polymers to build the fibers that give a plant its strength.
The lignin fraction acts like a “glue” that holds the cellulose fibers together.
3.7.3 Source of Biomass
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and water from the earth are combined in the
photosynthetic process to produce carbohydrates (sugars) that form the building
blocks of biomass. The solar energy that drives photosynthesis is stored in the
chemical bonds of the structural components of biomass. If we burn biomass
efficiently (extract the energy stored in the chemical bonds) oxygen from the
atmosphere combines with the carbon in plants to produce carbon dioxide and
water. The process is cyclic because the carbon dioxide is then available to produce
new biomass.
Biomass is basically self-renewing energy. The chemical equation for
photosynthesis is notated as 6CO2 + 6H2O ---> C6H12O6 + 6O2. It shows through
scientific notation that carbon dioxide plus water are converted into glucose and
oxygen gas through the input of energy. With this in mind, harnessing that natural
energy has become the focus of scientists in an effort to reduce the dependence on
fossil fuels and find a safer and cleaner alternative source of energy.
Wood may be the best-known example of biomass. When burned, the wood
releases the energy the tree captured from the sun’s rays. But wood is just one
example of biomass. Various biomass resources such as agricultural residues (e.g.
bagasse from sugarcane, corn fiber, straw and even nutshells), wood waste (e.g.
sawdust, timber slash, and mill scrap), the paper trash and urban yard clippings in
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municipal waste, energy crops (fast growing trees like poplars, willows, and grasses
like switchgrass or elephant grass), and the methane captured from landfills,
municipal waste water treatment, and manure from cattle or poultry, can also be
used.
Biomass is considered to be one of the key renewable resources of the future at
both small- and large-scale levels. It already supplies 14 % of the world’s primary
energy consumption. But for three quarters of the world’s population living in
developing countries biomass is the most important source of energy. With
increases in population and per capita demand, and depletion of fossil-fuel
resources, the demand for biomass is expected to increase rapidly in developing
countries. On average, biomass produces 38 % of the primary energy in developing
countries (90 % in some countries). Biomass is likely to remain an important global
source in developing countries well into the next century.
3.7.4 Biomass use in Bangladesh
Bangladesh is starving for energy supply. As per 2001 statistics the per capita
consumption of energy in Bangladesh was 200 kg oil equivalent, the third lowest in
Asia after Cambodia and Nepal. Most of it (65.5%) is non-commercial energy
mainly composing biomass absorbed in various forms in rural households and
factories. Also many affluent rural people use imported fuel Kerosene, LP gas and
electric heaters (where electricity is available). The vast majority of the country’s
urban and rural households depend on fuel wood, the annual consumption of which
is about 40 million tons, for cooking. This is causing fast depletion of the forest
reserve of the country and has become a threat to ecological balance. (source:
Banglapedia)
Next to food and water, poor rural people struggle for energy for cooking. Biomass
fuel accounts for 76.3% of the total fuel in rural industries such as paddy
parboiling, smithies, potteries, etc. and is the common fuel for the domestic rural
sector (Eusuf, 1997). Wood fuel has become scarce over the last few years through
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deforestation. Its share as a percentage of total biomass fuel had decreased from
63% in 1981 to 22% in 1990 (Douglas, 1981; Islam, 1993). Invasion of the forest
area by people’s housing and demand for wood fuels and products in different
sectors have combined to generate scarcity, and the price of wood fuel increased
from 25 Tk per 100 kg in 1980 to 90 Tk in 1991. Corresponding increases in annual
incomes of poor households have been relatively slow (Islam, 1980, 1987; Eusuf,
1997; Islam and Biswas, 1998), and the rural household budget for this fuel would
now account for about half of the annual income of 50% of rural households.
Consequently, women of these households have to gather lower-grade biomass
fuels in the form of agricultural and animal residues. Use of these fuels has the
following effects:
As the calorific value of these fuels is low, they require a higher quantity to meet
the same energy demand. Therefore, time spent on gathering this fuel is very high:
1–5 h per day (Biswas and Lucas, 1997a; Reddy et al. 1997).
These fuels formerly supplied nutrients to the soil. Increased dependence on them
results in an ecological imbalance. There is a range of health problems associated
with this fuel cycle. The whole family could be vulnerable to indirect health
impacts from lack of fuel for proper cooking (i.e. malnutrition) and for boiling
water (diarrhoea, parasites, etc.).
3.7.5 Biomass - Some Basic Data
• Total world biomass content - 1880 billion tonnes
• Total mass in tropical forests -1030 billion tonnes
• Total mass in temperate forests, savanna and tundra - 790 billion tonnes
• Total marine biomass content - 4 billion tonnes
• Per capita terrestrial biomass - 310 tonnes
• Energy stored in terrestrial biomass - 25 000 EJ
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• Net annual production of terrestrial biomass - 400 billion tonnes
Rate of energy storage by land biomass - 3000 EJ/y
• Total consumption of all forms of energy - 400 EJ/y
• Biomass energy consumption - 55 EJ/y
3.7.6 Energy Value
Biomass (when considering its energy potential) refers to all forms of plant-derived
material that can be used for energy: wood, herbaceous plants, crop and forest
residues, animal wastes etc. Because biomass is a solid fuel it can be compared to
coal. On a dry-weight basis, heating values range from 17.5 GJ/tonne for various
herbaceous crops to about 20 GJ/tonne for wood. The corresponding values for
bituminous coals and lignite are 30 GJ/tonne and 20 GJ/tonne respectively.At the
time of its harvest biomass contains considerable amount of moisture, ranging from
8 to 20 % for wheat straw to 30 to 60 % for woods.In contrast the moisture content
of the most bituminous coals ranges from 2 to 12 %. Thus the energy density for
the biomass at the point of production are lower than those for coal.
3.7.7 Benefits of Biomass as Energy Source
Rural economic development in both developed and developing countries is one of
the major benefits of biomass. Increase in farm income and market diversification,
reduction of agricultural commodity surpluses and derived support payments,
enhancement of international competitiveness, revitalization of retarded rural
economies, reduction of negative environmental impacts are most important issues
related to utilization of biomass as energy source. The new incomes for farmers and
rural population improve the material welfare of rural communities and this might
result in a further activation of the local economy. In the end, this will mean a
reduction in the emigration rates to urban environments, which is very important in
many areas of the world.
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The number of jobs created (for production, harvesting and use) and the industrial
growth (from developing conversion facilities for fuel, industrial feedstocks, and
power) would be enormous.
3.7.8 Environmental Benefits
The use of biomass energy has many unique qualities that provide environmental
benefits. It can help mitigate climate change, reduce acid rain, soil erosion, water
pollution and pressure on landfills, provide wildlife habitat, and help maintain
forest health through better management.
Fig 3.8 Environmental Benefits & SRP system (Source :Matthew,2002)
3.7.9 Short Rotation Plants
Biomass can be produced by short-rotation plantation of trees and other plants All
these plants can be used as fuels like wood with the main advantage of their short
span between plantation and harvesting – typically between three and eight years.
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For some grasses harvesting is taking place every 6 to 12 months. Recently there
are about 100 million hectares of land utilised for tree plantation world-wide. Most
of these trees are used for forest products markets. Parameters which are important
in evaluating species for short rotation plants include availability of planting stock,
ease of propagation, survival ability under adverse conditions and the yield
potential measured as dry matter production per hectare per year (t/ha/y).
Yield is a measure of a plant’s ability to utilize the site resources. It is the most
important factor when considering biomass production due to the need to
optimize/maximize yield from a given area of land within a given time frame at the
least possible cost. High yielding species are therefore preferred for biomass energy
systems.
Some plant communities have shown superiority in dry matter production
compared to others grown under similar conditions. Although reported dry matter
production of different tree species varies over a wide range depending on soil
types and climate, certain species stand out. For Eucalyptus species, yields of up to
65 t/ha/y have been reported, compared to 30 and 43 t/ha/y in Salix and Populous
species respectively.
Despite the fact that biomass plantation can be of great importance for most
developed countries experience has shown it is unlikely to be established on a large
scale in many developing countries, especially in poor rural areas, so long as
biofuels (particularly wood) can be obtained at zero or near zero cost.
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3.8 Bio-energy Production
Fig. 3.9 Biomass to Bioenergy
Plants are the most common source of biomass. They have been used in the form of
wood, peat and straw for thousands of years. Today the western world is far less
reliant on this energy fuel. This is because of the general acceptance that coal, oil,
natural gas and electricity are cleaner, more efficient and more in keeping with
modernisation and technology. However this is not really the right impression.
Plants can either be specially grown for energy production, or they can be harvested
from the natural environment. Plantations tend to use breeds of plant that are to
Fiber Pulp Paper Lumber Plywood Cotton
Materials
Process residues Black liquor Sawdust
Crops Animal
Food
Consumers Construction & demolition wood yard trimmings non-recyclable organics
Bio-energy + Bioproducts
Feed Stock
Agricultural stalks & straws forest small diameter culls forest energy harvest perennial crops
Process residues bagasse dung Energy
Services Heat Electricity
Biofuels Ethanol Biogas Charcoal
BIO
MA
SS
97
produce a lot of biomass quickly in a sustainable fashion. These could be trees or
other high growth rate plants.
3.8.1 Biomass Fuels in Developing Countries
Despite its wide use in developing countries, biomass energy is usually used so
inefficiently that only a small percentage of its useful energy is obtained. The
overall efficiency in traditional use is only about 5-15 per cent, and biomass is
often less convenient to use compared with fossil fuels. It can also be a health
hazard in some circumstances, for example, cooking stoves can release particulates,
CO, NOx formaldehyde, and other organic compounds in poorly ventilated homes,
often far exceeding recommended WHO (World health Organisation) levels.
Furthermore, the traditional uses of biomass i.e., burning of wood is often
associated with the increasing scarcity of hand-gathered wood, nutrient depletion,
and the problems of deforestation and desertification. Recently almost 1.3 billion
people is meeting their fuelwood needs by depleting wood reserves.
Table 3.1 Share of biomass on total energy consumption
Nepal 95%
Malawi 94%
Kenya 75%
India 50%
China 33%
Brazil 25%
Egypt 20%
Pakistan 70%
Bhutan 80%
Bangladesh 73%
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There is an enormous biomass potential that can be tapped by improving the
utilization of existing resources and by increasing plant productivity. Bio-energy
can be modernized through the application of advanced technology to convert raw
biomass into modern, easy-to-use carriers (such as electricity, liquid or gaseous
fuels, or processed solid fuels). Therefore, much more useful energy could be
extracted from biomass than at present. This could bring very significant social and
economic benefits to both rural and urban areas. The present lack of access to
convenient sources limits the quality of life of millions of people throughout the
world, particularly in rural areas of developing countries. Growing biomass is a
rural, labour-intensive activity, and can, therefore, create jobs in rural areas and
help stem rural-to-urban migration, whilst, at the same time, providing convenient
carriers to help promote other rural industries.
3.8.2 Methods of Generating Energy from Biomass
Nearly all types of raw biomass decompose rather quickly, so few are very good
long-term energy stores; and because of their relatively low energy densities, they
are likely to be rather expensive to transport over appreciable distances. Recent
years have therefore seen considerable effort devoted to the search for the best
ways to use these potentially valuable sources of energy.
In considering the methods for extracting the energy, it is possible to order them by
the complexity of the processes involved:
Direct combustion of biomass.
Thermochemical processing to upgrade the biofuel. Processes in this
category include pyrolysis, gasification and liquefaction
Biological processing. Natural processes such as anaerobic digestion and
fermentation which lead to a useful gaseous or liquid fuel.
The immediate ‘product, of some of these processes is heat - normally used at place
of production or at not too great a distance, for heating purposes, chemical
processing or to generate steam for power production. For other processes the
99
product is a solid, liquid or gaseous fuel: charcoal, liquid fuel like ethanol as a
petrol substitute or additive, gas for sale or for power generation using either steam
or gas turbines.
3.8.2.1 Combustion of wood as Biomass
Water inside the wood boils off. Even wood that has been dried for ages has
as much as 15 to 20% of water in its cell structure.
Gas content is free from the wood. It is vital that these gases should burn and
not just disappear up the chimney.
The gases emitted mix with atmospheric air and burn at a high temperature
The rest of the wood (mostly carbon) burns. In perfect combustion the entire
energy is utilized and all that is left is a little pile of ashes.
3.8.2.2 Effective burning
High enough temperatures;
Enough air and enough time for full combustion.
If not enough air gets in, combustion is incomplete and the smoke is black from the
unburned carbon. If too much air gets in the temperature drops and the gases escape
unburned, taking the heat with them. The right amount of air gives the best
utilization of fuel. No smell, no smoke, and very little risk of chimney fires.
Regulation of the air supply depends largely on the chimney and the draught it can
put up.
Direct combustion is the simplest and most common method of capturing the
energy contained within biomass. Boiling a pan of water over a wood fire is a
simple process. Unfortunately, it is also very inefficient, as a little elementary
calculation reveals.
100
The energy content of a cubic metre dry wood is 10 GJ, which is 10 million kJ. To
raise the temperature of a litre of water by 1 degree Celsius requires 4,2 kJ of heat
energy.
3.8.2.3 Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is the simplest and almost certainly the oldest method of processing one
fuel in order to produce a better one. A wide range of energy-rich fuels can be
produced by roasting dry wood or even the straw. The process has been used for
producing charcoal. Conventional pyrolysis involves heating the original material
(which is often pulverised or shredded then fed into a reactor vessel) in the near-
absence of air, typically at 300 - 500 °C, until the volatile matter has been driven
off. The residue is then the char - more commonly known as charcoal - a fuel which
has about twice the energy density of the original and burns at a much higher
temperature. For Bangladesh and in much of the world still today, charcoal is
produced by pyrolysis of wood. Depending on the moisture content and the
efficiency of the process, 4-10 tones of wood are required to produce one tone of
charcoal, and if no attempt is made to collect the volatile matter, the charcoal is
obtained at the cost of perhaps two-thirds of the original energy content.
Pyrolysis can also be carried out in the presence of a small quantity of oxygen
(‘gasification’), water (‘steam gasification’) or hydrogen (‘hydrogenation’). One of
the most useful products is methane, which is a suitable fuel for electricity
generation using high-efficiency gas turbines.
With more sophisticated pyrolysis techniques, the volatiles can be collected, and
careful choice of the temperature at which the process takes place allows control of
their composition. Fast pyrolysis of plant material, such as wood or nutshells, at
temperatures of 800-900 degrees Celsius leaves as little as 10% of the material as
solid char and converts some 60% into a gas rich in hydrogen and carbon
monoxide. This makes fast pyrolysis a competitor with conventional gasification
methods, but like the latter, it has yet to be developed as a treatment for biomass on
a commercial scale.
101
At present, conventional pyrolysis is considered the more attractive technology.
The relatively low temperatures mean that fewer potential pollutants are emitted
than in full combustion, giving pyrolysis an environmental advantage in dealing
with certain wastes. There have been some trials with small-scale pyrolysis plants
treating wastes from the plastics industry and also used tyres - a disposal problem
of increasingly urgent concern.
3.8.2.4 Gasification
Gasification based on wood as a fuel produces a flammable gas mixture of
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane and other non flammable by products. This is
done by partially burning and partially heating the biomass (using the heat from the
limited burning) in the presence of charcoal (a natural by-product of burning
biomass). The gas can be used instead of petrol and reduces the power output of the
car by 40%. It is also possible that in the future this fuel could be a major source of
energy for power stations.
3.8.2.5 Fermentation
Fermentation of sugar solution is the way how ethanol (ethyl alcohol) can be
produced. Ethanol is a very high liquid energy fuel which can be used as the
substitute for gasoline in cars. Suitable feed stocks include crushed sugar beet or
fruit. Sugars can also be manufactured from vegetable starches and cellulose by
pulping and cooking, or from cellulose by milling and treatment with hot acid.
After about 30 hours of fermentation, the brew contains 6-10 per cent alcohol,
which can be removed by distillation as a fuel. Fermentation is an anaerobic
biological process in which sugars are converted to alcohol by the action of micro-
organisms, usually yeast. The resulting alcohol is ethanol (C2H3OH) rather than
methanol (CH3OH), but it too can be used in internal combustion engines, either
directly in suitably modified engines or as a gasoline extender in gasohol: gasoline
(petrol) containing up to 20% ethanol.
102
3.8.3 Efficient Wood Burning Techniques
For more than a third of the world’s people, the real energy crisis is a daily
scramble to find the wood they need to cook dinner. Their search for wood, once a
simple task, has changed as forests recede, to a day’s labour in some places.
Reforestation, use of alternative fuels and fuel conservation through improved
stoves are the three methods which offer possible solutions to the firewood crisis.
Reforestation programs have been started in many countries, but the high rate of
growth in demand means that forests are being cut much faster than they are being
replanted. Alternative fuels like biogas and solar energy can be one part of solution.
Another part consists of utilisation of efficient wood burning techniques like
improved cook stoves.
Fig 3.10 Wood Burning
Open fire used for cooking in the millions of rural homes transfers heat to a pot
poorly. As little as 10 percent of the heat goes to the cooking utensil; the rest is
released to the environment. In Bangladesh wood brining involve
Cooking food
Water heating
Brick burning
Charcoal production etc
103
3.8.3.1 Charcoal
Today charcoal is an important household fuel and to a lesser extent, industrial fuel
in many developing countries. It is mainly used in the urban areas where its ease of
storage, high content (30 MJ/kg as compared with 15 MJ/kg in fuelwood), lower
levels of smoke emissions, and, resistance to insect attacks make it more attractive
than fuelwood. In Bangladesh, charcoal is used produce widely. Many fast growing
tree like Agar, Palas, Boroi, Bougain etc can be used for Charcoal production.
3.8.3.2 Charcoal Production – Pyrolysis
The production of charcoal spans a wide range of technologies from simple and
rudimentary earth kilos to complex, large-capacity charcoal retorts. The various
production techniques produce charcoal of varying quality. Improved charcoal
production technologies are largely aimed at attaining increases in the net volume
of charcoal produced as well as at enhancing the quality characteristics of charcoal.
3.8.3.3 Typical Characteristics of Good-Quality Charcoal
Ash content : 5 per cent
Fixed carbon content : 75 per cent
Volatiles content : 20 per cent
Bulk density : 250-300 kg/m3
Physical characteristics : Moderately friable
Efforts to improve charcoal production are largely aimed at optimising the above
characteristics at the lowest possible investment and labour cost while maintaining
a high production volume and weight ratios with respect to the wood feedstock.
104
3.8.3.4 Stages of charcoal production
The Production of Charcoal Consist of Six Major Stages :
1. Preparation of wood
2. Drying - reduction of moisture content
3. Pre-carbonization - reduction of volatiles content
4. Carbonization - further reduction of volatiles content
5. End of carbonization - increasing the carbon content
6. Cooling and stabilization of charcoal
The first stage consists of collection and preparation of wood, the principal raw
material.
The second stage of charcoal production is carried out at temperatures ranging from
110 to 220 degrees Celsius. This stage consists mainly of reducing the water
content by first removing the water stored in the wood pores then the water found
in the cell walls of wood and finally chemically-bound water.
The third stage takes place at higher temperatures of about 170 to 300 degrees and
is often called the pre-carbonization stage. In this stage pyroligneous liquids in the
form of methanol and acetic acids are expelled and a small amount of carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide is emitted.
The fourth stage occurs at 200 to 300 degrees where a substantial proportion of the
light tars and pyroligneous acids are produced. The end of this stage produces
charcoal which is in essence the carbonized residue of wood
The fifth stage takes place at temperatures between 300 degrees and a maximum of
about 500 degrees. This stage drives off the remaining volatiles and increases the
carbon content of the charcoal.
105
The sixth stage involves cooling of charcoal for at least 24 hours to enhance its
stability and reduce the possibility of spontaneous combustion. The final stage
consists of removal of charcoal from the kiln, packing, transporting, bulk and retail
sale to customers. The final stage is a vital component that affects the quality of the
finally-delivered charcoal.
3.8.3.5 Advantages of Charcoal
• Charcoal can be produced from nearly any kind of plant-derived biomass
material.
• Biomass can be converted to charcoal with conversion yields of 40% to 60%
compared to current yields of 25% to 35%.
• High conversion efficiencies mean less feedstock is required to produce the
same amount of charcoal, or conversely more charcoal is produced from the
same amount of feedstock.
• Charcoal can be produced in 1 to 2 hours compared to days with
conventional systems.
3.8.4 Biogas
Biogas is a valuable fuel which is in many countries produced in purpose built
digesters filled with the feedstock like manure or sewage. Digesters range in size
from one cubic meter for a small ‘household’ unit to more than thousand cubic
meters used in large commercial installation or farm plants. The input may be
continuous or in batches, and digestion is allowed to continue for a period of from
ten days to a few weeks. The bacterial action itself generates heat, but in cold
climates additional heat is normally required to maintain the ideal process
temperature of at least 35 degrees Celsius, and this must be provided from the
biogas. In extreme cases all the gas may be used for this purpose, but although the
net energy output is then zero, the plant may still pay for itself through the saving
in fossil fuel which would have been needed to process the wastes. A well-run
106
digester can produce 200-400 m3 of biogas with a methane content of 50% to 75%
for each dry tone of input.
3.8.4.1 Property of Biogas
Biogas burns with a blue flame. It has a heat value of 23 MJ/m3) when its methane
content is in the range of 60-70%. The value is directly proportional to the amount
of methane content and this depends upon the nature of raw materials used in the
digestion. Since the composition of this gas is different, the burners designed for
coal gas, butane or LPG when used, as ‘biogas burner’ will give much lower
efficiency. Therefore specially designed biogas burners are used which give a
thermal efficiency of 55-65%.
Biogas is a very stable gas, which is a non-toxic, colourless, tasteless and odourless
gas. However, as biogas has a small percentage of Hydrogen Sulphide, the mixture
may very slightly smell of rotten egg, which is not often noticeable especially when
being burned. When the mixture of methane and air (oxygen) burn a blue flame is
emitted, producing large amount of heat energy. Because of the mixture of Carbon
Dioxide in large quantity the biogas becomes a safe fuel in rural homes as will
prevent explosion.
A 1 m3 biogas, when burned, will generate heat energy sufficient to bring approx.
100 litre of water from 20 degrees Celsius to a boil, or light a lamp with a
brightness equivalent to 60-100 Watts for 4-5 hours.
3.8.4.2 Biogas Plant
Biogas Plant (BGP) is an airtight container that facilitates fermentation of material
under anaerobic condition. The other names given to this device are ‘Biogas
Digester’, ‘Biogas Reactor’, ‘Methane Generator’ and ‘Methane Reactor’. The
recycling and treatment of organic wastes (biodegradable material) through
Anaerobic Digestion (Fermentation) Technology not only provides biogas as a
clean and convenient fuel but also an excellent and enriched bio-manure. Thus the
BGP also acts as a miniature Bio-fertilizer Factory hence some people prefer to
107
refer it as ‘Biogas Fertilizer Plant’ or ‘Bio-manure Plant’. The fresh organic
material (generally in a homogenous slurry form) is fed into the digester of the
plant from one end, known as Inlet Pipe or Inlet Tank. The decomposition
(fermentation) takes place inside the digester due to bacterial (microbial) action,
which produces biogas and organic fertilizer (manure) rich in humus & other
nutrients. There is a provision for storing biogas on the upper portion of the BGP.
There are some BGP designs that have Floating Gasholder and others have Fixed
Gas Storage Chamber. On the other end of the digester Outlet Pipe or Outlet Tank
is provided for the automatic discharge of the liquid digested manure.
3.8.5 Conversion of Biomass into Electricity
Usually, electricity from biomass is produced via the condensing steam turbine, in
which the biomass is burned in a boiler to produce steam’ which is expanded
through a turbine driving a generator. The technology is well-established, robust
and can accept a wide variety of feedstocks. However, it has a relatively high unit-
capital cost and low operating efficiency with little prospect of improving either
significantly in the future. There is also the inherent danger in steam. Steam
occupies about 1200 times the volume of water at atmospheric pressure (known as
“gage” pressure). Producing steam requires heating water to above boiling
temperature under pressure. Water boils at 100° C at sea level. By pressurizing the
boiler it is possible to raise the boiling temperature of water much higher. Elevating
steam temperature has to be done to use the generated steam for any useful work
otherwise the steam would condense in the supply lines or inside the cylinder of the
steam engine itself. Electricity generation process from biomass are shown bellow:
Fig. 3.11 Electricity generation process from biomass
Biomass from SRP trees
Biomass burning for boil water with high temperature
Steam production Turbine Driving
Generater Production of
Electricity
108
3.8.5.1 Gasification
Gasification is the newest method to generate electricity from biomass. Instead of
simply burning the fuel, gasification captures about 65-70% of the energy in solid
fuel by converting it first into combustible gases. This gas is then burned as natural
gas is, to create electricity, fuel a vehicle or in industrial applications. Since this is
the latest technology, there is still a lot of researc development going on.
A promising alternative is the gas turbine fuelled by gas produced from biomass by
means of thermochemical decomposition in an atmosphere that has a restricted
supply of air. Gas turbines have lower unit-capital costs, can be considerably more
efficient and have good prospects for improvements of both parameters.
Biomass gasification systems generally have four principal components:
(a) Fuel preparation, handling and feed system;
(b) Gasification reactor vessel;
(c) Gas cleaning, cooling and mixing system;
(d) Energy conversion system (e.g., internal-combustion engine with generator or
pump set, or gas burner coupled to a boiler and kiln)
When gas is used in an internal-combustion engine for electricity production
(power gasifiers), it usually requires elaborate gas cleaning, cooling and mixing
systems with strict quality and reactor design criteria making the technology quite
complicated. Therefore, power gasifiers world-wide have had a historical record of
sensitivity to changes in fuel characteristics, technical hitches, manpower
capabilities and environmental conditions.
Gasifiers used simply for heat generation do not have such complex requirements
and are, therefore, easier to design and operate, less costly and more energy-
efficient Overall gasification process are shown in bellow :
109
Fig. 3.12 Gasification process
Biomass from SRP trees
Gasification of Biomass with high temperature
Combustible Gases
Usable Gases
Electricity Production Fuel for Vehicle Industrial Application
110
Chapter IV
Results and Discussion
111
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS & DISCUSSION
4.1 Economic analysis of SRP operation
4.1.1 Market analysis of SRP biomass products
To examine the possibilities of SRPs and the economic potential of such practices
in Bangladesh a short review of the current situation of the forestry sector and a
description of the governmental future polices for the sector should be given. A
rapid decline of the forest area in Bangladesh is continuing. Bangladesh, the
majority of energy (ca. 73%) comes from biomass, mainly in the from of crop
residues (ca. 60%), cow dung (25%) and fuelwood (ca. 15%) (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1 Source of energy in Bangladesh
Source Energy, %
Biomass 73
Fuel wood 15
Crop Residues 60
Cow dung 25
Fuel wood is the main forest product (61% of total round wood), and the country
annually requires about 9.4 million m3 of fuel wood against supply of about 6.18
million m3. The share of domestic use (like cooking) of the total fuel wood
consumption in the country is up to 75%, with industrial use (like brick burning)
being 23%. The rest is commercial use like in bakeries and restaurants (Table 4.2). .
112
Table 4.2 Fuel wood consumption of different sector in Bangladesh
Sector Fuelwood consumption, %
Domestic use (Cooking) 75
Industrial use (Brick Burning) 23
Commercial use (Bakeries and Restaurants) 2
The consumption is expected to rise to 11.9 million m3 by 2015, while the total
fuel wood production is estimated as 6.8 million m3 in 2000 and it is expected to
rise to 8.5 million m3 by 2010 (FAO, 2000). Therefore a pressure to the existing
forest resources is highly speculated. Presently, the demand of firewood has
increased tremendously due to shortage of other material for fuel in the domestic
areas, as of straw, of tree leaves and of other grasses or herbs. This is a result of the
scarcity of land availability due to rapid increase of population in the country.
Furthermore, the demand for wood material that can be used for furniture, building
brick manufacturing, cooking, and other uses, is currently increasing dramatically.
All the above mentioned facts, considering also the increased population, imply
that the existing forest areas are increasingly under the threat for over exploitation
or extinction and also that the prices of wood can be also increased, contributing to
a decrease to the family income.
Summing up FAO’s report about the situation for the Bangladeshi forest sector on
2000 and the future implications, the country faces increasing shortage of forest
raw material supply for meeting its domestic and industrial needs. Future wood
supplies will rely heavily on plantations and consist of increasingly small
dimensions. Excepting supply of poles all other supplies will be much below the
requirement. This will result in regular decrease in manufactured products available
for export and domestic consumption, and increase in import forest raw material as
well as manufactured products (FAO, 2000).
113
To avoid a further reduction of forest resources due to increased fuel wood
consumption and to avoid the predicted deficit in the import export relation for
forest material, the existing forest resources should at least not be reduced and new
wood sources should be produced. The private land forests (homesteads and village
groves) currently supply with 75% of timber used in the country.
The planting of trees in house premises practices has provided the rich people with
wood for furniture and fuel wood using the branches, and the poor for trading fuel
wood with goods for domestic use in their homes. However, privately owned trees
and not under any scientific management and therefore it is difficult to ensure their
sustainability.
Reforestation efforts for establishing fast-growing energy plantations in degraded
and marginal land in Bangladesh have been reported with the emphasis not only to
the increased wood biomass produced but also to other environmental issues as the
improvement of soil properties, the increase of carbon sink etc. The local
population is involved in such projects by participating in the establishment, the
management and finally the profit after selling the wood products.
4.1.2 Cost-benefit analysis for SRP operation
However, in order to attain the local population’ interest for cultivating, managing
and selling wood coming from SRPs , the benefits in terms of profit-payments that
can be achieved by selling of wood coming after SRP harvest must be competitive
compared to other working non-farm activities as in the garment factories, brick
manufacture factories etc. Furthermore, despite the obvious environmental benefits
by SRP cultivation and the alternative uses of agricultural land for SRPs should be
taken into account to the calculations for a cost-benefit analysis, since people
involved in participatory forestry expect direct benefits in terms of additional
income by selling wood. However, it has to be noted that in almost all cases
114
currently in Bangladesh, collecting and selling wood is only a parallel activity
which contributes partly to the family income combined with agricultural or other
activities, and therefore the income form SRPs should be seen as additional rather
than main. Another factor that can be decisive in the final price of selling wood
from SRPs is the availability of other wood sources in specific areas. For instance,
in some areas there is competition, the benefit form selling wood varies form area
to area and these variations should be taken into account.
4.2 Biomass obtainable from Some Selected Species Personal interview were carried out among the grower of selected areas in order to
identify the different parameters as like height, biomass production projected area
no. of trees per ha etc. about these trees. Table 4.3 shows information about
selected plant heights :
Table 4.3 Height of the selected Species
Name Year, yr Height, m
Boroi 1-2 1-2
Jatrapha 1-2 1-1.5
Agar 1-2 2-3
Table 4.4 Height & Biomass production of the selected Species
Name of the tree Year Height Biomass production, kg
Bamboo 3-5 4-6 120-130
Bougain 3-5 4-5 100-120
115
Fig. 4.1 shows Biomass obtainable from Boroi cultivation. Biomass production
from Boroi cultivation during 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th year is 90-100 kg, 100-120 kg,
120-130 kg and 130-150 kg respectively.This figure also shows biomass production
is increasing with year.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
4th 5th 6th 7th
Year.yr
Bio
mas
s Pr
oduc
tion,
kg
BiomassProduction,kg
Fig. 4.1 Biomass production from Boroi
116
Fig. 4.2 shows Biomass obtainable from Jatrapha cultivation. Biomass production
from Jatrapha cultivation during 4th ,5th ,6th and 7th year is 10-20 kg, 20-25 kg, 25-
30 kg and 30-35 kg respectively.This figure figure also shows biomass production
is increasing with year.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
4th 5th 6th 7th
Year,yr
Bio
mas
s Pr
oduc
tion,
kg
BiomassProduction,kg
Fig. 4.2 Biomass production from Jatrapha
117
Fig. 4.3 shows Biomass obtainable from Agar cultivation. Biomass production
from Agar cultivation during 4th ,5th ,6th and 7th year is 20-30 kg, 30-35 kg, 35-40
kg and 40-45 kg respectively.This figure also shows biomass production is
increasing with year.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
4th 5th 6th 7th
Year,yr
Bio
mas
s Pr
oduc
tion,
kg
BiomassProduction,kg
Fig. 4.3 Biomass production from Agar
118
Table 4.5 Biomass production after 5 year rotation
Name of the tree Year, yr
5 10 15 20
Biomass production, kg
Bamboo 120-130 120-140 120-135 120-150
Bougain 100-120 100-130 100-110 100-140
Table 4.6 Calculation of projected area, m2 & no. of trees
Name of the tree
Projected area, m2
(app.)
No. of trees/ha (app.)
Biomass production,kg/ha/5
yr rotation
Biomass production,
metric ton/ha/5 yr
rotation(app.) Bamboo 5.000 1800 216000 216
Bougain 7.000 1285 128500 128
Boroi 8.000 1125 112500 112
Jatrapha 0.785 9000 180000 180
Agar 3.000 3000 90000 90
119
Chapter V
Conclusions and Recommendations
120
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions
Short rotation plantation for efficient biomass production have the potential to
solve the environmental and social problems arising from power crisis and
deforestation in Bangladesh. The favorable natural conditions for biomass growth,
the suitable species widely grown in the country, the increasing demand for fuel
wood, the available wastewater during dry period and fallow land and the support
to implement existing legislation are very promising aspects for an aimed SRP
implementation.
SRP is one of the promising source for future biomass and bio-energy production.
It is an upcoming renewable source of energy, which would not only help in
fulfilling the demand, but also will reduce pollution. If we can select the most
efficient source of bio-fuel from SRP then cost will be reduced. Energy sector will
be more profitable which can play an important role in the extension of fuel
business. This extension of fuel business is necessary to fulfill the shortage of fuel
energy and offers sound environment.
5.2 SRP is feasible for Bangladesh
This study is done for establishing of SRP in Bangladesh. Testing parameter:
Soil: Soil of madhupur region is suitable for SRP
Climate: Climatic condition is suitable for SRP
Land availability: Land is available in forest and hilly area in Bangladesh
121
Forest fallow land: SRP Practices for utilizing fallow lands of upland and
forest land. In this way, all of the fallow land of forest and hilly area will
regain their original status (afforestation)
Tree selection: Quick growing plants are suitable for SRP. Many species like
Bamboo, Boroi, Shajna, Jatrapha, Agar etc. are very fast growing
Potentiality: Bamboo and Boroi are Specially Cultivated for Biomass. On
the other hand, Shajna, Jatrapha and Agar are cultivated for Bio energy and
Biomass
Utilization of waste water: Short rotation crops are cultivated in waste water.
This waste water source can be local industries and municipal waste
Local interest: Local indigenous people are interested about SRP
5.3 Recommendations
Further feasibility study should be done for verification of information
SRP should be implemented practically
Economic analysis should be done with practical data
Government should take a policy to promote this technology (SRP)
To fill the gap in current SRP knowledge field tests should be accomplished
preferably in region with different climatic conditions, under application of
different promising SRP crop species.
122
Chapter VI
References
123
CHAPTER VI
REFERENCES
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Anon. 1995. Development Perspectives of the Forestry Sector Master Plan. Dhaka
Bajrang-Singh, Behl,-H-M 2001.Scope of Populus deltoides on marginal lands of
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Appendices
132
APPENDIX: A
Forest area of Bangladesh
Appendix: Map of Bangladesh
133
APPENDIX: B
Forest situation in Bangladesh
Bangladesh accounts for 2,230,000 ha of legally declared forest lands. According to
FAO (1981), 8.6 percent of these consisted of woody vegetation, covering 1 240
000 ha. In 1990, 6 percent of the land area had a forest cover accounting for
800 000 ha, FAO 1993).
Attempts to raise plantations in Bangladesh started in 1871 with Tectona grandis
but remained confined to the Chittagong Hill Tracts until 1920. In 1921, plantations
were extended to the Cox´s Bazar and Sylhet Divisions.
Total planted area until 1948 was 4 140 ha with annual planting in the range of 100
to 300 ha. Tectona grandis was the main species planted because of its high value
(MOEF, 1993a). Lagerstroemia speciosa, Swietenia macrophylla, Artocarpus
integrifolia, A. chaplasha, Cedrela toona, and Syzygium grande were introduced in
later years. The planted area gradually reached 72 000 ha in 1968.
The Forest Department started planting fast-growing species such as Gmelina
arborea, Paraserianthes falcataria and Anthocephalus chinensis in 1974. The
plantations were established on a large scale in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and
Sylhet Division to produce fuelwood.
Coastal afforestation was also accelerated in four divisions. Annual planting
continuously increased and reached a peak of 22 800 ha in 1985, of which coastal
plantations were about 10 000 ha (MOEF, 1993b).
Recent inventories and estimates generally note that 20 to 30 percent of all
plantations established during the last 30 years no longer exist. Officially, the
reported total plantation area in the country in 1990 was 332 000 ha of which
113 000 ha were in coastal regions, 21 100 ha in the sal forest zone and the rest,
198 000 ha, in the Hill Forests. Most of the sal, Shorea robusta plantations are non-
existent and only 122 000 ha of other long-rotation plantations are traceable
134
(MOEF, 1993a). Pulpwood, veneerwood and fuelwood plantations have been
established recently. A 1991 inventory of homestead plantations estimated a total of
520 000 000 trees, of which more than 60 percent are below 20 cm diameter. The
estimated volume of wood is about 54 500 000 m3, excluding trees below 20 cm
diameter. (MOEF, 1993b).
Short-rotation species planted for fuelwood and pulp are Acacia auriculiformis, A.
mangium, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Dalbergia sissoo, Gmelina arborea,
Paraserianthes falcataria and Anthocephalus chinensis.
135
Appendix : Matured Bougain tree, farmer standing under neath , Coppice ability of Bougain. It can be used for biomass and production of rural energy
APPENDIX: C
Photographs
Appendix : Bamboo
136
Appendix :Agar
Appendix : Jatropha Carcus
Appendix : Jatropha Carcus
137
APPENDIX: D
Some Important Table A. Biomass production of different species of plant
• Biomass obtainable from Boroi
Year, yr Biomass Production, kg
4th 90-100
5th 100-120
6th 120-130
7th 130-150
• Biomass obtainable from Jatrapha
Year, yr Biomass Production, kg
4th 10-20
5th 20-25
6th 25-30
7th 30-35
• Biomass obtainable from Agar
Year,yr Biomass Production,kg
4th 20-30
5th 30-35
6th 35-40
7th 40-45
138
B. Calorific value of some tree species
Sl. No.
Species Calorific value (Kcal/kg)
1. Acacia auriculiformis 4800-4900
2. Acacia catechu 1542-5244
3. Acacia nilotica 4870-4950
4. Albizia lebbek 5163-5166
5. Ablzia chinensis 4865-4870
6. Anthocephalus cadamba 4800
7. Butea monosperma 4909
8. Bischofla javanica 5162
9. Cassia siamea 4100
10. Casuarina equiselifolia 4950
11. Dalbergia sisoo 4908-5181
12. Emblica officinalis 5200
13. Eucalyptus spp. 3172-5680
14. Gemelina arborea 4763-4800
15. Lonnea coromandelica 4933
16. Leucaena leuococephala 4200-4600
17. Morus alba 4371-4773
18. Shorea robusta 5095-5433
19. Syzygium cumini 4834
20. Tamarindus indica 4909-4969
21. Tectona zinandis 4989-5535
22. Zizyphus mauritiana 4878
139
B
C
APPENDIX: E
Calculation of Projected Area and Biomass Some example of tree structure:
A
140
D E
F
141
Projected area calculation method: Projected area = Πd2/4 Tree capacity calculation method:
Tree capacity = h × w
142
For Jatropha, Considering the shape of plant as a circle rotated around its major axis, the average
diameter 1m. If the length of the plot is 10 m and width of the plant is 5 m, then
total no of plant can be accommodated in a row is 10m/1m or 10 and the will be
5m/1m or 5. So in a 10m × 5m or 50 m2 plant can be planted is 10 × 5= 50 as
shown in fig.
Projected area (PA) = Π r2
= 3.14 × 0.52
= 0.785m2
No. of tree per ha = 10000.785
× .90 = 11464
Biomass Production, kg/ha/5yr Rotation = 11464 × 20 = 229280
Fig. For Jatropha, Plant Density in a 10m × 5m Plot
10 m
5 m
1 m
143
For Bamboo,
Projected area (PA) = Π r2
= 3.14 × 1.32
= 5.306 m2 = 5.000 m2
No. of tree per ha = 100005.000
Fig. Canopy Structure of Bougain Projected area (PA) = Π r2
= 3.14 × 1.52
= 7.065m2 = 7.000 m2
No. of tree per ha =
× .90 = 1800
Biomass Production, kg/ha/5yr Rotation = 1800 × 120 = 216000 For Bougain,
100007.000 × .90 = 1285
Biomass Production, kg/ha/5yr Rotation = 1285 × 100 = 128500 For Boroi,
r =1.5m
Ground
144
Fig. Canopy Structure of Boroi Projected area (PA) = Π r2
= 3.14 × 1.62
= 8.0384m2
= 8.000 m2
No. of tree per ha = 100008.000 × .90 = 1125
Biomass Production, kg/ha/5yr Rotation = 1125 × 100
= 112500
r = 1.6m
Ground
145
For Agar,
Fig. Canopy Structure of Agar Projected area (PA) = Π r2
= 3.14 × 12
= 3.14 m2
= 3.000 m2
No. of tree per ha = 100003.000 × .90 = 3000
Biomass Production, kg/ha/5yr Rotation = 3000 × 30
= 90000
r = 1m
Ground
146
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