A view of EFL non-A view of EFL non-proficient readers’ proficient readers’

reading strategies: reading strategies: A basis for optimizing A basis for optimizing

comprehension comprehension instructioninstruction

Dumrong Adunyarittigun, Ph.D.Dumrong Adunyarittigun, Ph.D.

English Department English Department

Faculty of Liberal ArtsFaculty of Liberal Arts

Thammasat UniversityThammasat University

Effective reading is a crucial skill Effective reading is a crucial skill for academic achievement and for academic achievement and career development. career development.

The use of reading strategies is The use of reading strategies is an important factor contributing an important factor contributing to reading success to reading success (Adunyarittigun, 2002; (Adunyarittigun, 2002; Adunyarittigun & Grant, 1999) .Adunyarittigun & Grant, 1999) .

Awareness of strategies Awareness of strategies employed by readers assists employed by readers assists teachers in understanding how teachers in understanding how foreign language readers foreign language readers interact with texts, how they interact with texts, how they solve problems when they solve problems when they encounter difficulties with encounter difficulties with foreign language texts, and why foreign language texts, and why they fail to comprehend foreign they fail to comprehend foreign language texts.language texts.

There has been no study There has been no study conducted to observe conducted to observe unsuccessful EFL readers at unsuccessful EFL readers at college level.college level.

Reading strategiesReading strategies Reading strategies are defined as Reading strategies are defined as

purposeful, deliberate actions which purposeful, deliberate actions which readers employ to construct meaning readers employ to construct meaning from what they are reading, including from what they are reading, including fix-up strategies or actions which fix-up strategies or actions which readers take voluntarily to improve readers take voluntarily to improve their understanding when they their understanding when they struggle to comprehend difficult struggle to comprehend difficult texts. (Harris & Hodges, 1995; texts. (Harris & Hodges, 1995; Afflerbach, P., Pearson, P. D., & Afflerbach, P., Pearson, P. D., & Paris, S. G., 2008)Paris, S. G., 2008)

Research in L1 and L2 Reading Strategies The generalizability of the studies in

L2 reading strategies is very limited for learners of English as a foreign language because the data are derived from a very small number of students.

Data derived from interview or questionnaires is limited in terms revealing the actual use of reading strategies to make meaning from text (See the following studies: Li, 2010; Alhaqbani & Riazi, 2012).

Careful analyses of reading strategies used by English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Thai readers are all too rare.

Purposes of the StudyPurposes of the Study

To investigate what reading To investigate what reading strategies college EFL readers strategies college EFL readers identified as non-proficient identified as non-proficient readers actually use while they readers actually use while they are reading English texts. are reading English texts.

to identify some variables which to identify some variables which could affect those readers' could affect those readers' success in foreign language success in foreign language reading comprehension. reading comprehension.

To enhance teachers’ sensitivity To enhance teachers’ sensitivity to other difficulties of Thai EFL to other difficulties of Thai EFL students with English texts. students with English texts.

Research Questions

What do Thai college-aged non-proficient readers know about reading?

What reading strategies are Thai college-aged non-proficient readers using while they are processing English texts?

What are the factors contributing to their failure to understand English texts?

Participants

The students were administered the Nelson-Denny Reading Test and received a standardized score of 171 or lower or whose score fell at a stanine of 2 or lower.

50 students (10%) were randomly selected from a pool of 498 non-proficient readers.

14 male and 36 female students

Instruments

Nelson-Denny Reading Test: To assess students’ reading ability in English

Instruments

Reading passages: Four reading passages from a series of Daily Comprehension Tests developed by Palincsar (1982).

Each reading consisted of 400-475 words and was considered comparable in terms of the readability.

Reading in English Questionnaire: To measure the participants' metacognitive awareness and use of their reading strategies in English.

This questionnaire was developed from Carrell's Metacognitive Questionnaire (1989).

36 items with a 5-point, Likert-type scale

6 items measuring confidence of their reading abilities;

5 items pertaining to what they do when they do not understand something;

17 items concerning their perception of effective reading strategies; and

8 items regarding their perception of what makes texts difficult to read.

Think Aloud or Verbal ReportThink Aloud or Verbal Report

The verbal reports or the think-alouds are “spoken records of things that readers do and think related to their reading” (Afflerbach & Cho, 2009, p.73).

Think-alouds have been widely used as a means to understand the reading process and to learn more about what is happening in readers' minds and how readers regulate their reading behaviors while they are reading. (Ericsson & Simon, 1993; Afflerbach & Johnston, 1984; Block, 1986; Pritchard, 1990; Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995; Afflerbach, 2000; Sasaki, 2008).

Interview Protocol

Consisted of 7 questions borrowed and developed from Jimenez, Garcia and Pearson's student interview protocol (1996). The questions were used to elicit the students’ view of reading in English.

ProcedureProcedure Administer Nelson-Denny Administer Nelson-Denny

Reading TestReading Test Complete Reading in English Complete Reading in English

QuestionnaireQuestionnaire Demonstrate the think aloudDemonstrate the think aloud Practice the think aloudPractice the think aloud Do the think aloudDo the think aloud Complete comprehension Complete comprehension

questions about the textquestions about the text Interview participantsInterview participants

Data AnalysisData Analysis

Think aloud dataThink aloud dataTranscribe the think aloudTranscribe the think aloud

Read the transcript in order to Read the transcript in order to internalize and become sensitized internalize and become sensitized to the obvious patterns of to the obvious patterns of strategies used by the participants.strategies used by the participants.

Note: Did not force responses into Note: Did not force responses into pre-existing categories generated pre-existing categories generated by previous studiesby previous studies

Validity and ReliabilityValidity and Reliability

Findings from the think alouds Findings from the think alouds were triangulated with the data were triangulated with the data from the questionnaire and from the questionnaire and interview.interview.

Interrater reliabilityInterrater reliability

Correlation coefficients range Correlation coefficients range from .816-.849from .816-.849

Cronbach’s alpha coefficient Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is .9105is .9105

RQ1: What do Thai college-RQ1: What do Thai college-aged non-proficient readers aged non-proficient readers know about reading?know about reading?

View of ReadingView of Reading

Analysis of the interview:Analysis of the interview:

They are aware of reading They are aware of reading strategies.strategies.

a.a. Identifying main idea and Identifying main idea and supporting detailssupporting details

b.b. Understanding the author’s Understanding the author’s writing purposeswriting purposes

c.c. Making use of context clues Making use of context clues to figure out word meaningsto figure out word meanings

d.d. Making use of prior Making use of prior knowledge to make sense of the knowledge to make sense of the texttext

e.e. Making use of grammatical Making use of grammatical structuresstructures

f.f. Making use of text graphical Making use of text graphical features (i.e. heading, title, table features (i.e. heading, title, table of contents, etc.)of contents, etc.)

g.g. Skipping and reading further Skipping and reading further when encountering difficultieswhen encountering difficulties

h.h. Relating what you know Relating what you know about the textabout the text

i.i. Summarizing the textSummarizing the text

Analysis of the questionnaireAnalysis of the questionnaireThey are familiar with fix-up They are familiar with fix-up strategies.strategies.They perceive that these They perceive that these strategies are effective such as strategies are effective such as understanding meaning of each understanding meaning of each word, getting the overall meaning word, getting the overall meaning of the text, focusing onof the text, focusing on

the detail of the content and the organization of the text

RQ2: What reading strategies RQ2: What reading strategies are used by Thai college non-are used by Thai college non-proficient readers while they proficient readers while they are processing English texts?are processing English texts?

3 main categories of reading 3 main categories of reading strategiesstrategies

1.1.Text-based strategiesText-based strategies

2.2.Knowledge-based strategiesKnowledge-based strategies

3.3.Interactive strategiesInteractive strategies

Text-based StrategiesText-based Strategies

Refers to strategies that readers Refers to strategies that readers employ to derive meaning from employ to derive meaning from the text by focusing on sound-the text by focusing on sound-symbol relationship, words, symbol relationship, words, clauses and sentence structures. clauses and sentence structures.

Text-based StrategiesText-based Strategies

1.1. Translation texts from English Translation texts from English into Thai. The readers into Thai. The readers paraphrase or change words, paraphrase or change words, phrases or sentences from phrases or sentences from English into Thai. (47.73%)English into Thai. (47.73%)

a. Reasonably accurate a. Reasonably accurate translation (Tr+). (30.16%)translation (Tr+). (30.16%)

b. Inaccurate translation (Tr-). b. Inaccurate translation (Tr-).

(17.12)(17.12)

2. Use of visual information (Vis). 2. Use of visual information (Vis). The readers make use of either a The readers make use of either a few pieces of information or a few pieces of information or a whole context obtained from the whole context obtained from the text to explain or clarify content or text to explain or clarify content or provide support for their provide support for their interpretation. interpretation.

3.3. Rereading (Re). The Rereading (Re). The readers will reread either a readers will reread either a sentence or a whole paragraph sentence or a whole paragraph when they feel uncertain with their when they feel uncertain with their interpretation, when they fail to interpretation, when they fail to comprehend a certain part of the comprehend a certain part of the text or when the interpretation text or when the interpretation does not make sense to them.does not make sense to them.

4.4. Use of grammatical structure Use of grammatical structure (Gram). The readers make use of (Gram). The readers make use of meaning obtained from a meaning obtained from a particular word or a particular particular word or a particular grammatical structure, grammatical structure, typographical features (i.e. bold typographical features (i.e. bold prints or italics) to predict, make prints or italics) to predict, make inferences and/or identify key inferences and/or identify key information. information.

ExampleExample Text: A bird that nests in Alaska Text: A bird that nests in Alaska

and spends the winter in South and spends the winter in South America does not begin the America does not begin the seven-thousand-mile flight over seven-thousand-mile flight over the mountains, seas, and plains the mountains, seas, and plains on the spur of the moment.on the spur of the moment.

Protocol: “Does not” Protocol: “Does not” is the main is the main verb of this sentence and comes verb of this sentence and comes with the subject with the subject “a bird” “a bird” because because that-clause is used to modify the that-clause is used to modify the subject subject (Gram). [Participant 47](Gram). [Participant 47]

5.5. Solving the vocabulary problem Solving the vocabulary problem (Voc). When the readers (Voc). When the readers encounter any unknown word, encounter any unknown word, they will try to figure out word they will try to figure out word meanings by doing the meanings by doing the following things to solve the following things to solve the problem:problem:

Using context clues (i.e. Using context clues (i.e. punctuation, synonym, punctuation, synonym, antonym, etc.) to figure out antonym, etc.) to figure out word meanings. word meanings.

Replacing unknown words with Replacing unknown words with referents in Thai such as referents in Thai such as it, this, it, this, that, these, those, something, that, these, those, something, whateverwhatever or or that thingthat thing..

Text: That’s why a dolphin comes Text: That’s why a dolphin comes to the top of the water so often.to the top of the water so often.

Protocol:Protocol: That’s why “that animal” That’s why “that animal” comes to the top of the water comes to the top of the water quite often. quite often. (Voc) [Participant 15](Voc) [Participant 15]

Using a particular unknown Using a particular unknown word as appeared in the text. word as appeared in the text. When the readers do not know When the readers do not know what an unknown word or what an unknown word or phrase means, they will use that phrase means, they will use that particular unknown word or particular unknown word or phrase to talk about it or to refer phrase to talk about it or to refer to it.to it.

Text: A dolphin can hear all sorts Text: A dolphin can hear all sorts of faint noise in the water—of faint noise in the water—pebbles rolling, sea grasses pebbles rolling, sea grasses rustling … rustling …

Protocol:Protocol: A dolphin A dolphin can hear can hear … … can hear noise can hear noise … sorts of faint … sorts of faint noises (Voc) noises (Voc) andand pebbles rolling, pebbles rolling, sea grasses rustling (Voc). sea grasses rustling (Voc). [Participant 15][Participant 15]

6. Sounding out words (Sound). 6. Sounding out words (Sound). The readers try to sound out an The readers try to sound out an unknown word with a purpose of unknown word with a purpose of figuring out its meaning.figuring out its meaning.

Knowledge-based StrategiesKnowledge-based Strategies

Refer to the strategies that the Refer to the strategies that the readers initiate to draw on their readers initiate to draw on their previously acquired knowledge previously acquired knowledge that has been triggered by the text that has been triggered by the text in order to interact with the text. in order to interact with the text. They also employ the strategies They also employ the strategies for monitoring and assessing their for monitoring and assessing their own comprehension. own comprehension.

Knowledge-based StrategiesKnowledge-based Strategies

1.1. Use of prior knowledge (P/K)Use of prior knowledge (P/K)

2.2. Predicting (Pred)Predicting (Pred)

3.3. Comprehension monitoring Comprehension monitoring (Mo)(Mo)

Interactive StrategiesInteractive Strategies

Refer to the way in which the Refer to the way in which the readers process the text and readers process the text and construct meaning of the text by construct meaning of the text by employing both their previously employing both their previously acquired prior knowledge and acquired prior knowledge and information from the text information from the text simultaneously. simultaneously.

Interactive StrategiesInteractive Strategies

1. Summarizing (Sum): The 1. Summarizing (Sum): The readers summarize what they readers summarize what they understand from a portion of the understand from a portion of the text or the whole text that they text or the whole text that they have read.have read.

2. Interpreting text: The readers 2. Interpreting text: The readers employ both sources of employ both sources of information (schema and text) information (schema and text) interactively to construct interactively to construct meanings and to draw inferences meanings and to draw inferences of the text. of the text. Reasonably accurate Reasonably accurate interpretation(Interp+) (7.61%)interpretation(Interp+) (7.61%)Inaccurate interpretation Inaccurate interpretation (Interp-) (5.77%)(Interp-) (5.77%)

3.3. Integration of previous Integration of previous information (Intg). The information (Intg). The readers make a connection readers make a connection between new information and between new information and known information which known information which previously appears in the text. previously appears in the text.

Protocol: Protocol: A sick dolphin has a A sick dolphin has a special problem because it is special problem because it is different from human beings. It different from human beings. It can’t sleep as long as it wants. can’t sleep as long as it wants. The sick dolphin needs to sleep, The sick dolphin needs to sleep, but it can’t. OK, I know from the but it can’t. OK, I know from the first paragraph that it has to come first paragraph that it has to come to the top of the water to breathe to the top of the water to breathe every half minuteevery half minute (Intg) (Intg)

4. Questioning the constructed 4. Questioning the constructed meaning of a word, clause or meaning of a word, clause or sentence (Quest): The readers do sentence (Quest): The readers do not understand the meaning of a not understand the meaning of a word or a portion of the text and word or a portion of the text and show their doubt of the accuracy show their doubt of the accuracy of the meaning constructed from of the meaning constructed from the text.the text.

Text: They (dolphins) usually live Text: They (dolphins) usually live in a group called a school. They in a group called a school. They eat together, sleep together, and eat together, sleep together, and travel together in this school. travel together in this school.

Protocol:Protocol: They live in a group or They live in a group or in a schoolin a school (an institution) … (an institution) … They They live in a group. Well, the author live in a group. Well, the author probably wants to make us think probably wants to make us think that the way they live is similar to that the way they live is similar to the way we are in schoolthe way we are in school. . Am I Am I right?right?(Quest) [Participant 03](Quest) [Participant 03]

5.5. Reaction to text (React): The Reaction to text (React): The readers express their thoughts or readers express their thoughts or feelings towards the text. feelings towards the text.

Text:Text: A sick dolphin has a special A sick dolphin has a special problem because unlike a person, problem because unlike a person, it cannot sleep as long as it wants it cannot sleep as long as it wants to when it is sick, or it would to when it is sick, or it would drown. That is why another drown. That is why another dolphin will become the sick dolphin will become the sick dolphin’s nurse and swim with it, dolphin’s nurse and swim with it, ……

Protocol:Protocol: A sick dolphin has a A sick dolphin has a special problem because it can’t special problem because it can’t sleep as long as it wants to sleep as long as it wants to (Tr+). (Tr+). It’s different from human beings. It’s different from human beings. …The reason why a sick dolphin …The reason why a sick dolphin can’t sleep wasn’t explained can’t sleep wasn’t explained (React)… (React)… That’s why another That’s why another dolphin will be its nurse. It’s dolphin will be its nurse. It’s interesting interesting (React). [Participant (React). [Participant 23]23]

6.6. Self-correction (Correct): The Self-correction (Correct): The readers realize that meaning of readers realize that meaning of the text derived from translation or the text derived from translation or interpretation is inaccurate, so interpretation is inaccurate, so they make an alternate translation they make an alternate translation or interpretation in order to or interpretation in order to reconstruct the meaning of the reconstruct the meaning of the text. text.

7. Skipping problematic part 7. Skipping problematic part (Skip): The readers encounter the (Skip): The readers encounter the presence of an obstacle to presence of an obstacle to comprehension. They decide to comprehension. They decide to skip it, read further and hope to skip it, read further and hope to get clarification.get clarification.

Percentage of strategies used

Text-based strategies

Accurate translation

30.61%

71.02%

Inaccurate translation

17.12%

Vocabulary 16.05% Rereading 3.91% Use of visual information

2.27%

Lexical meaning and grammar

0.93%

Sounding out 0.13% Knowledge-based strategies

Prior knowledge 1.37%

6.41% Comprehension monitoring

4.61%

Predicting 0.43% Interactive strategies

Summarizing 0.43%

22.55%

Accurate interpretation

7.61%

Inaccurate interpretation

5.77%

Integration 1.13% Questioning 2.17% Reacting to text 0.33% Correction 2.34% Skipping 2.77%

Model of Applying Reading Model of Applying Reading Strategies by Nonproficient Strategies by Nonproficient ReadersReaders

MeaningRereading

English Thai

RQ3: What are factors RQ3: What are factors contributing to their failure to contributing to their failure to understand English texts?understand English texts? The majority of the readers The majority of the readers

agreed that sound-letter aspect agreed that sound-letter aspect of decoding, syntactic decoding, of decoding, syntactic decoding, background knowledge, global background knowledge, global aspect of textual meaning and aspect of textual meaning and textual organization made textual organization made English reading difficult. English reading difficult.

The readers appeared to be The readers appeared to be confident in their English confident in their English reading ability. reading ability.

1. Word recognition1. Word recognition

2. Complex syntactic structure.2. Complex syntactic structure.

3. Ineffective regulation of reading 3. Ineffective regulation of reading strategies. strategies.

Text:Text: Most dolphins are very Most dolphins are very friendly animals. They usually live friendly animals. They usually live in a group called a school. They in a group called a school. They eat together, sleep together, travel eat together, sleep together, travel together in this school. together in this school.

Protocol:Protocol: Dolphins are friendly Dolphins are friendly animals. They live in a group, live animals. They live in a group, live together, travel together. It’s together, travel together. It’s similar to the situation that they similar to the situation that they live in a school live in a school (an institution). (an institution). [Participant 13][Participant 13]

Text:Text: …, but the bird traveler must …, but the bird traveler must still make some preparations for still make some preparations for the journey. A bird that nests in the journey. A bird that nests in Alaska and spends the winter Alaska and spends the winter in in South America does not begin the South America does not begin the seven-thousand-mile flight over seven-thousand-mile flight over the mountains, seas, and plains the mountains, seas, and plains on the spur of the moment. on the spur of the moment.

Protocol:Protocol: ……But the bird that is a But the bird that is a traveler umm … must still must traveler umm … must still must still… preparation prepare itself. still… preparation prepare itself. Journey means traveling. A bird Journey means traveling. A bird that nests in Alaska … This clause that nests in Alaska … This clause “That nests in Alaska” “That nests in Alaska” is used to is used to modify the word modify the word “a bird”. “a bird”. The The clause probably means living in clause probably means living in Alaska. The word Alaska. The word “nests” “nests” has an has an s-ending, so a bird should be one s-ending, so a bird should be one bird. And the wordbird. And the word “word” “word” has an has an article in front of it too. article in front of it too. [Participant 47][Participant 47]

4. Misconception of reading. 4. Misconception of reading.

Implications for InstructionImplications for Instruction

1.1. Providing the nonproficient Providing the nonproficient readers with instruction on how readers with instruction on how to implement reading strategies to implement reading strategies effectively. effectively.

Paris and his colleagues (1983) Paris and his colleagues (1983) stated that “it is not sufficient to stated that “it is not sufficient to know about strategies, but a know about strategies, but a reader must also be able to reader must also be able to apply them strategically” (p. apply them strategically” (p. 19). 19).

Providing strategy instruction Providing strategy instruction through think aloudsthrough think alouds

2. Teachers need to consider 2. Teachers need to consider using their students’ first language using their students’ first language as a tool for modeling and as a tool for modeling and demonstrating how to implement demonstrating how to implement reading strategies. reading strategies.

3. Teachers should encourage 3. Teachers should encourage discussion as a part of the reading discussion as a part of the reading process.process.

Disproof of common Disproof of common assumption about FL learnersassumption about FL learners

Wenden (1985). She stated that Wenden (1985). She stated that “ineffective learners are inactive “ineffective learners are inactive learners” and that “their apparent learners” and that “their apparent inability to learn is, in fact, due to inability to learn is, in fact, due to their not having an appropriate their not having an appropriate repertoire of learning strategies” repertoire of learning strategies” (p. 7). (p. 7).