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Effective Schooling is BeingCulturally ResponsiveJohann Le Roux

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To cite this article: Johann Le Roux (2001): Effective Schooling is Being CulturallyResponsive, Intercultural Education, 12:1, 41-50

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Intercultural Education, Vol. 12, No. 1, 2001

Effective Schooling is BeingCulturally ResponsiveJOHANN LE ROUX

ABSTRACT Instead of providing some quick x prescriptive recipes to education forculturally diverse school populations, this paper would argue instead in favour of the

necessity to embrace a philosophy and practice of culturally responsive education in all

schools. Effective education for cultural diversity is thus viewed in terms of successful

classroom practices where all students are sensitively accommodated and thus learn success-

fully. Effective education is particularly directed and relevant to the speci c and unique

learning needs of all students. Theoretical consideration of culturally responsive schooling is

relatively simple, but the practical implementation thereof often gives rise to fundamental

challenges and problems. With the required empathetic understanding, knowledge and

skills, which should be addressed in teacher training, teachers can make an exceptional

contribution towards creating equal education opportunities for all children within a

culturally diverse society. To ensure this, an accommodative, appreciative and a responsive

approach to the reality of cultural diversity is of utmost importance.

Introduction

Instead of providing some quick x prescriptive recipes to education for culturallydiverse school populations, this paper would argue instead in favour of the necessityand urgency to embrace a philosophy and practice of culturally responsive educationin all schools, irrespective of being mono- or multicultural. Instead of being trappedin so-called paradigm wars about educational issues and concepts, most expo-nents of culturally responsive schooling today view effective teaching as a complexprocess of re ective practice, whereby professional teachers plan, prepare andorchestrate in a sensible, sensitive way a variety of methods, strategies, materials andmotivating experiences that successfully meet all students learning needs (Ralphet al., 1998, p. 47). Effective education for cultural diversity is thus viewed in termsof successful classroom practices where all students are sensitively accommodatedand thus learn successfully.In order to manage cultural diversity in school classrooms effectively, such

educational situations need to be inclusive in the true sense of the word. Anunderlying philosophy has to be that diversity is valued and that it strengthensclassroom dynamics and offers greater learning opportunities for all. It needs to beaccepted that all students can learn successfully and indeed belong in the schools

ISSN 1467-5986 print; ISSN 1469-8489 online/01/010041-10 2001 Taylor & Francis LtdDOI: 10.1080/14675980120033957

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42 J. Le Roux

mainstream and community life. Inclusion refers to the accommodation of differ-ences in social class, gender, age, ability, race and interest as useful learningresources (Stainback & Stainback, 1996, p. xi). Within inclusive schools, all studentsare educated in the mainstream and are provided with appropriate educationalopportunities that are challenging yet geared to their capabilities and particularunique needs. In an inclusive school, everybody is accepted, supported, valued andgiven equal opportunities and access to learning sources. While inclusion refers tothe accommodation of diversity in its entirety within common mainstream schoolstructures, the focus of this paper is limited to race and culture as identi able facetsof diversity in schools.

What Is Effective Education?

Today at the dawn of the 21st century countries throughout the world are reorgan-ising their education systems. Everywhere, education is regarded as the main way ofenabling individuals and nations alike to meet the rapid economic and socialchanges in which they are engulfed. Schools are expected to prepare the youth fora world of work and for economic independence; to enable them to live construc-tively in responsible communities; and to empower them to live in a tolerant,culturally diverse and rapidly changing society (Department For Education AndEmployment, 1999).Effective education is a vital source of personal opportunity as well as a means of

supporting economic development. In the future, access to work will dependpredominantly on the individuals interpersonal skills, skills at networking anddigital literacy, ability to engage in critical decision making and problem solving andthe ability to organise and sustain exible life and career contexts. We are enteringan era where knowledge supersedes information and technology transforms long-standing relationships of time and space. In a post-industrial knowledge-based worldthe 3Rs (reading, writing and arithmetic) should be expanded and not replaced.Equally important are critical and creative thinking, problem solving, and thecapacity for life-long learning and civic literacy. More than ever before, teachersresponsibilities in contemporary society are extended to the social development ofstudents in an environment where traditional values and cultures are challenged ona daily basis. Effective education will ensure a socially just and egalitarian society,based on economic prosperity, equality of opportunity and access to availableresources for all its citizens (Beattie, 1999).Effective education, speci cally within the context of this paper, is particularly

directed and relevant to the speci c and unique learning needs of all students.Because of diverse school populations with diverse backgrounds and unique learningstyles and needs in schools today, effective teaching has to address such diversity oflearning needs through diverse teaching approaches and strategies. The effectiveteacher is at the same time an effective manager of diversity in multicultural schools.Effective education guides students to knowledge about diverse information systems,events and peoples. The importance of schools in addressing the realities of diversity

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Effective Schooling Is Culturally Responsive 43

is highlighted in the International Commissions Report on Education for theTwenty- rst Century (see Delors, 1996, p. 56) presented below:

To show regard for diversity and individuality is a fundamental principlethat should rule out any kind of standardised teaching. Formal educationsystems are often rightly accused of stunting personal ful lment by forcingall children into the same cultural and intellectual mould, without takingsuf cient account of the variety of individual talents. They tend to empha-sise, for example, the development of abstract knowledge to the detrimentof other qualities such as imagination, the ability to communicate, leader-ship, a sense of beauty or the spiritual dimension of existence, or manualskills. Depending on their aptitudes and natural inclinations, which aredifferent from the moment they are born, children do not therefore bene tin exactly the same way from the educational resources of the community.They may even be left stranded if the school is not suited to their talentsand ambitions.

Why Culturally Responsive and not Multicultural Education?

Multicultural education is neither a well-delineated eld, nor a conceptually cleararea, as re ected in numerous, often-confusing de nitions. Because of the confusionand the need for clarity, some researchers have even proposed that the termmulticultural education be replaced by terms such as education for multicultur-alism, intercultural education, etc. Given the controversies surrounding multi-cultural education as a concept, many academic scholars have even argued that theterm is outdated, offensive and politically incorrect (Squelch, 1996). It seems thatthe implementation of multicultural education, as a concept, depends predomi-nantly upon the viewpoints of individual scholars, whether they take an assimilation-ist, cultural pluralist or anti-racist approach. Multicultural education, therefore, hasno clear-cut meaning. The term has dubious and so-called blind-alley implica-tions (compare Modgil et al., 1986), which not only takes us away from moral andsocial realities, but directs us towards conceptual confusion (Verma & Bagley,1984).Often, to the uninitiated, multicultural education simply means teaching children

from different cultural backgrounds in one school or classroom. To others, it meansteaching about people in other countries, which people presume is culturally diverse(Sleeter, 1992, p. 14). After studying approximately 200 articles in academic jour-nals and 68 books on multicultural education, Sleeter and Grant (1987) came to theconclusion that there are almost as many researchers as de nitions in the eld ofmulticultural education! Furthermore, the terminology on multicultural educationand related concepts are not uniform or consistent. In the literature on this topic, thefollowing terms, related to multicultural education, can be found (Ekstrand, 1997)and often have largely the same meaning as multicultural education: multiethniceducation, multilingual education, intercultural education, cross-cultural education,immigrant education bilingual education, community education, minority edu-

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44 J. Le Roux

cation, etc. Some of the criticism (compare critics cited in Le Roux, 1998) leviedagainst multicultural education is a result of a lack of an acceptable and unambigu-ous de nition of this approach to education. Because this concept lends itself todiverse interpretation possibilities, many misconceptions and misinterpretations canbe found in existing literature. Numerous people and schools of thought are of theopinion that multicultural education could merely be equated to mixed education.Multicultural is therefore often viewed as the mere approach pertaining to theeducation offered to various ethnic groups. Consequently, it is regarded as synony-mous with mixed education, intercultural education or multiethnic education. Thisgives rise to much confusion and many misconceptions, while fostering a spirit ofscepticism about it.It is wrong to assume that multicultural education will inevitably be practised in

a situation where learners of different cultural backgrounds are present in a commonschool or classroom setting. This at best constitutes a mixed class, while multicul-tural education is a unique approach to formal education with its own aims,theoretical basis and practical approach. Advocates argue that this is not the caseand emphasise that the retention of an own cultural identity, as well as therecognition of cultural diversity, in fact forms the cornerstone of this approach.Some other critics are of the opinion that multicultural education is limited tomulticultural schools. In fact, multicultural education can be strongly recommendedfor all schools (including monocultural school settings). All children should beeducated about the cultural diversity outside the school in a world that has becomeincreasingly pluralistic in character. True multicultural education, or to qualify itmore precisely, culturally responsive education, should prevail in the entire spirit orethos present in a particular educational dispensation, whether mono- or multicul-tural in representation.Numerous sceptical critics regard multicultural education as constituting an

idealistic theory, which cannot be attained in practice. It is regarded as only lipservice and tokenism that does not address the actual problems of a heteroge-neous society. It is argued that multicultural education fails dismally to address basichumanistic aspects such as racism and cultural prejudice. However, it needs to bestated that racism and stereotyping are deeply rooted social problems that cannot beresolved by education alone. Reference is often made to practices from the 1960sthrough to the end of the 1990s that have failed and have led to no more thancosmetic add-ons to traditional curriculum content which re ects the dominantgroups values as they existed before. Some people opposed to multicultural edu-cation argue that learners are born into a particular cultural environment. It isargued that children have to be exposed and acquire their own cultural identitybefore being introduced to other cultures. This is in direct contrast to the view thatmulticultural education affords learners the opportunity to understand and mastertheir own cultural identity better while engaging in culturally diverse activities.Some schools of thought opposing multicultural education believe that it will

inevitably give rise to the lowering of standards in this all accommodative approach.The mere presence of students from various ethnic or cultural backgrounds in acommon school setting have to be regarded as a realistic source of friction, stress and

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Effective Schooling Is Culturally Responsive 45

con ict which places tremendous responsibility and unjust demands on the teacher.It is therefore argued that a system of cultural pluralism or separatism might be themost logical way of ensuring peaceful intercultural coexistence in a multiculturalenvironment. However, history presents numerous examples where cultural separ-ation has led to unequal distribution of resources, discriminatory practices andinequality.According to Ladson-Billings (1994, p. 17) effective teachers in culturally diverse

classrooms are those able to provide culturally relevant instruction. In the litera-ture, such teaching relevant to the needs and backgrounds of all students inculturally diverse classrooms is also described as:

culturally responsive teaching (Wlodkowski & Wlodkowski, 1996), culturally responsive instruction (Erikson, 1987), culturally appropriate teaching (Cazden & Legget, 1981), culturally congruent teaching (Mohatt & Erickson, 1981), culturally compatible instruction (Jordan, 1985), or culturally appropriate teaching (Au & Jordan, 1981), to name but a few.

Teachers need to acquire the skill of deeply understanding the cultural norms otherthan their own. This sensitivity needs to be instilled during teacher training. One ofthe most important problems experienced by beginning teachers is the culturalmismatch in background between teachers and students (Boyer, 1996). Differencebetween home and school culture often negatively interferes with effective teachingand learning in classrooms (Hollins, 1995). It could result in students beingconfronted with opposing and con icting views and values, where home and schoolare experienced as opposing or contrasting societal institutions. Teacher educationprogrammes should thus attempt to in uence pre-service teachers perspective andunderstanding of cultural diversity in classrooms (Marshall, 1996) and beyond. Onlythen will schools succeed in effectively preparing students for the realities of adiverse society through culturally responsive teaching.

Preparing Teachers for Culturally Responsive Teaching

Teachers are largely responsible for what and how students learn. Therefore, thedegree to which education for cultural diversity is realised in schools depends largelyupon the attitudes, knowledge and behaviour of classroom teachers (Rodriquez,1983). Many identi able factors account for the progress, prospects and perils ofculturally responsive education in primary as well as secondary schools all over theworld today. Essential among these factors are the preconceptions, attitudes, values,skills and commitments of classroom teachers (Rivlin, 1977; Banks and Lynch,1986). Teachers effectiveness or the lack thereof, with a culturally diverse group ofstudents and with multicultural curriculum content, is a direct re ection of thequality of their professional preparation.Today, many teachers realise the mismatch between their own life experiences

and professional training and the cultural backgrounds of most of their students.Almost everywhere in the world, an increasingly diverse school population encoun-

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ters a predominantly white middle-class teaching force that is inadequately preparedto manage the reality of diversity in schools. Internationally, the general tendency(with few exceptions) is for teacher training programmes to neglect or ignorediversity issues in formal education. Effective teacher training provides students withmore exposure to real life issues that exist in schools for diverse student populations.Furthermore, student teachers have to be introduced to complex theoretical ideasrelated to education for diversity (Beynon, 1997). The problem often results inteachers regarding themselves and their own socio-cultural experiences as primarysources of relevant practitioner expertise.Besides being knowledgeable in various subject content areas, future teachers

also have to be trained to become competent in a variety of methodologicaltechniques in order to adapt to the different learning styles that students will have.In a multicultural classroom, cultural background diversity ensures diversity inlearning preferences, perspectives and experiential levels. Although traditionalapproaches to teaching could still be useful to beginning teachers, exibility inthe approaches that are used is required from the beginning teacher (as from allteachers). The reality of classroom diversity needs to be taken into account withrespect to (Garibaldi, 1992):

lesson preparation; organising effective instructional situations; motivating students and managing classrooms; assessing the strengths and weaknesses of all students; and encouraging cooperation between students in class, but also between their re-spective families and the school at large.

However, McDiarmid (1990) warns that student teachers generalisations aboutparticular ethnic and cultural groups, as a result of being exposed during training tomulticultural information, can be a potential danger in itself. It may even strengthenrather than diminish stereotypical beliefs about certain groups of people and thusaffect classroom interaction and the communication of expectations regardingachievement and social behaviour in a negative way. Student teachers need to realisethe importance of treating students as unique individuals rather than attributing aset of general characteristics of the group to each individual. A balanced approachin the presentation of information on multicultural issues is of critical and utmostimportance in all training (pre-service and in-service) courses and seminars designedfor teacher education.Banks and Lynch (1986) make the important point that teachers cant teach

what they dont know. All over the world, the history of cultural diversity manage-ment in schools has proven that the true impediment to cultural pluralism is thatwe have a reality of culturally de cient educators attempting to teach culturallydifferent children (Aragon, 1973). The failure to include multicultural educationin teacher training programmes has been largely responsible for these inadequacies.The limited multicultural experiences and resources available for pre-service andin-service teacher training tend to be sporadic, fragmentary and super cially add-onoptional extras to an already overloaded school curriculum (Craft, 1981).

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Effective Schooling Is Culturally Responsive 47

Research all over the world indicates that initial teacher training, as far asmulticultural education is concerned, is grossly inadequate, or in many instances,non-existent. In many cases, it is today still regarded as a luxury which cannot beafforded in a time of scarcity of resources, or as a contentious politically sensitivearea best avoided. In both initial and in-service training, where multicultural issuesare addressed, the training focus tends to be on multiculturalism, rather than on raceand educational issues. Instead of creating identi able separate slots in the curricu-lum timetable, pre-service training rather has to take account of all multiculturaleducation facets throughout the students curriculum. Sociology of education forinstance could include themes of race relations, psychology of education couldinclude a perspective on the development of prejudice and how it affects emotionsand self-concept formation, while philosophy of education could raise the criticalquestion of whether cross-cultural questions of rationality are identi able. Similarly,professional studies and teaching practices could explore the implications of learningtheories for the multicultural classroom, and the multicultural dimension of eachsubject could be developed. Both pre-service and in-service teacher educationprogrammes should include aspects of individual and institutional racism in a racismawareness initiative. Student teachers have to be sensitised to their prevailing lowexpectations of students from cultures other than their own (Handbook for Teachersin the Multicultural Society AFFOR, 1983). Often they are not aware of these lowerexpectations and of how it affects teaching and learning. Stereotyping and existingpre-suppositions are things we all tend to do and have. During teacher training,students need to be equipped to manage such stereotyping in ways conducive toeffective teaching and learning.Prospective teachers need to learn that multiculturalism is more than a question

of adding speci c aspects to various school subjects. It indeed incorporates anapproach, attitudes, learning material, and the reality of various learning andteaching styles and implicit assumptions. It provides a wider, more realistic andall-inclusive syllabus that has a sensitising effect on students development ofpositive attitudes to cultural diversity. Students at school need to be introduced toand learn from the cultural richness represented in a diverse society. In this process,the classroom teacher plays a pivotal role. But for this role, student teachers have tobe trained and adequately equipped during pre-service and ongoing in-servicetraining programmes.

Conclusion

Theoretical consideration of culturally responsive schooling is relatively simple, butthe practical implementation thereof often gives rise to fundamental challenges andproblems. With the required empathetic understanding, knowledge and skills whichshould be addressed in teacher training, the teaching corps can make an exceptionalcontribution towards creating equal education opportunities for all children withina culturally diverse society. In preparation for this world of complexity and continu-ously rapid change, students need to develop the ability to respond exibly, fosterthe capability to shape the process of change, to assist in building a better future,

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48 J. Le Roux

instead of being launched helplessly or passively into a future they do not want. Toensure this, an accommodative, appreciative and responsive approach to the realityof cultural diversity is of utmost importance:

If you only understand one culture it is like seeing with one eye only, butif you add the dimension of other cultures, you become binocular andthings can be seen in perspective. It allows you to appreciate much more.(Dame Tamsyn Imison in DEE, 1999, p. 50)

Philosophies underlying the following well-known sayings should thus be integratedinto an effective culturally responsive education system for the 21st century:

A journey of a thousand miles begins with the rst step (Chinese saying). Talk does not cook the cabbage (German saying). It is one thing to cackle and another to lay an egg (Ecuador saying). The hardest person to awaken is the one who is already awake (Filipino saying). Birds have nests. People have roots (Vietnamese saying). Know where you came from and you will always know where you are going(African saying).

Culturally responsive teaching entails much more than simply teaching a culturally/ethnically diverse class. It is an active process of thinking, a state of mind, a way ofseeing and learning that is shaped and in uenced by the beliefs about the value ofcultural relationships and cultural competency (Davidman & Davidman, 1997,pp. 2425). Such teachers understand that:

culture, ethnicity, race, gender, religion, socio-economic position and exceptional-ity are potentially powerful variables in the communication and learning processof individuals and groups; to optimally empower all learners, teachers need to lead students to understandthat the construction of knowledge is a social and evolutionary process which isoften distorted by negative aspects such as racism and sexism; it is important to become more culturally competent: a process of becoming moresuccessful in communicating with and helping students who are guided bydifferent cultural habitual modes and norms; useful ideas about teaching and peaceful coexistence can result from cross-culturalstudies and experiences in the multicultural classroom.

The type of students present in the classroom does not determine the multiculturalcharacter of a classroom setting; be it a cosmos of ethnic and/or cultural diversity.Speci cally, the perspective, approach and knowledge base the teacher works with,which guides his thoughts and actions, create it. Monocultural school settings arerare and far between. In fact, about 96% of the global society consists of multicul-tural settings. It therefore seems quite logical to prepare students in schools to oneday enter this diverse society. The normal public or private school setting is far frombeing purely monocultural: girls and boys have their separate cultures, varioussocio-economic sub-cultural groups are represented in one single classroom, whiledifferent religions, family types and ethnic and/or cultures may be present in a

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Effective Schooling Is Culturally Responsive 49

classroom. On top of all this, a teacher as a representative of the professionaleducation culture is present. It therefore stands to reason that culturally responsiveor culturally re ective education would be the most effective educational strategy orapproach to address the educational needs of a culturally diverse classroom popu-lation successfully.

Address for correspondence: Johann Le Roux, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria,

Pretoria 0001, South Africa; e-mail: lerouxjo@hakuna.up.ac.za

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