a2-b1 Grammar Lessons

7/25/2019 a2-b1 Grammar Lessons

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After many verbs we use a particular preposition.

The prepositional object always comes just after the preposition.

Will you all listen to me carefully.

They looked after my grandmother very well.

If the preposition is followed by a verb, the verb must be used in

the gerund form ! "ing" form#.

I wouldn"t dream of revealing a secret.

I insist on revising your verbs regularly.

List of common prepositional verbs$

%agree withsomeone

I agree with you.

%believe insomething

I believe in &od.

I believe in being punctual. 'preposition ( verb %) "ing"*

%belong tosomeone

This book belongs to me.

%take care of! look after#

+he takes care of her little sister when her mother goes out.

%die ofan illness

e died of cancer.

%dream aboutwhen asleep#

I often dream about the sea.

%dream ofbeing or doing something ! imagine#

I sometimes dream of going to America.

'preposition ( verb %) "ing"*

%fall offa wall, a horse

-e careful, or you will fall off the horse.

%insist on

The teacher insisted on the importance of prepositions.


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I wrote to 6ohn for his birthday.


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After some verbs we use an object followed by a particular preposition.

e e7plained the instructions to me.

I often borrow books from the library.

If a verb follows the preposition, we must put this verbin the gerund form ! "ing" form#.

e accused the boy of breaking the window.

List of a few common verbs + object + preposition $

%accusesomeoneofdoing# something

e accused me of breaking the window.


%borrowsomethingfromsomeoneI borrowed some moneyfromthe bank.

%explainsomethingtosomeone

Will you e7plain this problemtome 2

%remindsomeoneaboutsomething

8emind meaboutthe party.

-ut $ 8emind meto bring backyour book.

%spendmoney#onsomething

9ou spend a lot of moneyonclothes.


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Aphrasal verbis a verb + a phrasal adverb that modifies the initial

meaning of the verb.

Hecameat six o'clock. [initial verb : to come]

He left for America and nevercame back.[phrasal verb : to come back

= to retrn!

List of a few common intransitive phrasal verbs :

%come back! to return#

What time will you come back from the office 2

%come in! to enter#

/lease come in, the doctor is e7pecting you.

%fall down! to crumble#

The wall of the old church has fallen down.

%get up! to get out of bed#

It"s seven o"clock, it"s time to get up 1

%grow up! to become adult#

&rowing up is not always easy.

%look out/watch out! to be careful#

0ook out before crossing the street 1

%stand up! to rise from sitting to standing#

All the pupils stood up when the teacher came in.

%take off! depart for a plane#

The plane takes off at :.;< a.m.

%wake up! rise from sleep#

I woke up very early this morning.


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When a phrasal verb has an object, theobjectcan be placedbeforeorafterthe phrasal adverb, butpronounsmust comebefore

the phrasal adverb.

5all me back tomorrow.

I called back the bank manager the ne7t day.

With a few transitive phrasal verbs ,theobject, even a pronoun,

must comeafterthe phrasal adverb.

e looks like me.

List of a few common transitive phrasal verbs$

%call/ringsomeone#back! telephone again#

I"ll call him back in the evening.

%findsomething#out! discover#

Try and find out what happened.

%givesomething#up! abandon#

e gave up smoking a month ago.

%look likesomeone ! to resemble#

With this verb the object must come after the phrasal adverb.

e looks like his father.

e doesn"t look like me.

%putsomething#on! to wear#

It"s getting cold, put a pullover on.

%savemoney#up! put money aside#

e"s saving up his pocket money to buy a tennis racket.

%takesomething#off! remove#

Take off your tee%shirt, it"s dirty.

Take your tee%shirt off.

%wakesomeone#up! to raise from sleep#

Will you wake me up at seven o"clock 2

%washthe dishes#up


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I"ll wash up the dishes after dinner.

I"ll wash the dishes up after dinner.

Affirmative =egative Affirmative =egative to

I

9ou

esheit

It

We

9ou

They

can cannot

can cannot

can cannot

can cannot

can cannot

can cannot

can cannot

could could not

could could not

could could not

could could not

could could not

could could not

could could not

study

read

dance

write

swim

shave

go

5ontr. can"t couldn"t sleep

...

We use the modal verbcan or can'tto e7pressability ! capacity" or inability to do something in the present#

I can do it.

e can"t drive.

5an you swim 2

% We use the modal verbcould or couldn'tto talk

aboutgeneral ability or inability to do something in the past#

I could swim when I was four.

4y grandmother couldn"t speak >rench.

% >or$uestions in the past, we prefer to use

was/were able to( infinitive.

Were you able to lift the cupboard 2

Was he able to reach the top 2

5an in the future %) "to be able to"

"5an" has no future form $ we use the future formwill be able to

to talk aboutability in the future#

5onjugation of "be able to"
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5onjugation$

Affirmative =egative Inf.

I

9ouesheit

We

9ou

They

will be able to ( inf.

will be able to ( inf. will be able to ( inf.




won"t be able to ( inf.

won"t be able to ( inf.won"t be able to ( inf.




swim

studyread

write

speak

dive

5ontr. "ll be able to ( inf.

see

...

I will soon be able to play again.

e"ll be able to swim after a few lessons.

e won"t be able to learn +panish in ? weeks.

"o can vote #hen $o are %& in elgim.

(he can't leave before six o'clock.

)he$ cold se his tools.

*e coldn't go ot dring the #eek.

..: *hen 'cold' is sed to ask for permission, it is not onl$the past of 'can'- it can also be sed in the present

#ith a more polite meaning.

an / take this chair 0 [= more informal]

"can" or "could" e7press permission

% We usecanorcouldtoask for permission,

but there is a difference $

% "5an" is more common.

% "5ould" is more polite or hesitant.

5an I use your phone 2

'! informal*

5ould I have your car for an hour, please 2

'! more polite*


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% We usecanbut not "could"#to give permission#

We usecan'tbut not "couldn"t"#to refuse permission orto prohibit#

@f course, you can use the phone.=o, you can"t take my car now.

%%anis used to talk about permission in the present#

9ou can drive a car when you are ;.

9ou can"t park your car here.

%%ouldis usedto talk about permission in the past#

When we were children, we could watch TB at the week%end.

9oung women couldn"t go out without a chaperone.

%an and couldare used to makere$uests#

"5ould" is more polite than "can".

%anyou give me the sugar 2 '! informal*

%ouldyou give the sugar 2 '! more polite*

%anyou come and help me, please 2 '! informal*

%ouldyou come and help me, please 2 '! more polite*

/resent (

Affirmative =egative without

I

9ou

esheit

We

9ou

They

may % might may not % might not






smoke

leave

go away

speak

dance

read

5ontr. mightn"t write

=.-. &ightis not the past ofmay. It e7presses a weaker

possibility.

It may rain tonight. '! possible*

It might rain tonight. '! not very likely*

"4ay" and "might" %%) possibility


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"4ay not" and "might not" %%) uncertainty

%&aysuggests astronger possibility#

&ightsuggests aweaker possibility#

They may visit us this year.'! they will probably come*

They might visit us this year.

'! it is possible, but not likely*

%&ay notsuggestsuncertainty#

&ight notsuggestsstronger uncertainty#

They may not be there.

'! it is not certain*

They might not be there.

"4ay" ,"can" and "could"%%%) permission

Asking for permission

&iving permission

Talking about permission

We usemayas well as "can" and "could"# toask for permission#

5ompare $

4ay I have some more jam, please 2

'"may" is the mostformal*

5ould I have the butter, please 2'"could" ispolite*

5an I have some more jam, please 2

'"can" isinformal*

Return to top

We usemayand "can"#to give permission#

We usemay notand "can"t"#to refuse permission or prohibit#

"4ay" and "may not" are more formal, more respectful than "can"and cannot".
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5ompare $

4ay I use the car 2

9es, of course you may. '! formal*9es, of course you can. '! informal*

=o, I"m afraid you may not. '! formal*

=o, I"m afraid you cannotcan"t. '! informal*

% Totalk about permission in the present, we usecan

not "may"#.

The children can go to bed late tonight.

% Totalk about general permission in the past, we only usecould

not "might"#.

In the past girls couldn"t go to parties without a chaperone.

&()

/resent affirm. (*nf# without to

I

9ouesheit

We

9ou

They

must

mustmust

must

must

must

study

be polite help her

go to school

go away

read books

e must go to the doctor"s.

0ike for all modal verbs, we do not use "do" forinterrogative

structures withmust#

4ust he go to the doctor"s 2

ave to%conjugation

ave to%other forms

ave got to%conjugation

ave got to%other forms

HAVE TO

Affirmative /nfin.

/

1resent 1ast 2tre333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333 have to had to #ill have to read
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"oHe4she4it*e"o)he$

have to had to #ill have tohas to had to #ill have tohave to had to #ill have tohave to had to #ill have tohave to had to #ill have to

speak#ritestd$leavehelp

He has to go to the doctor's.

He had to go to the doctor's.

3 2or theinterrogativestrctres ofhave toin the simple presentand the simple past #e se the axiliar$do/does/did.

5oes he have to go to the doctor's 0

*h$ did he have to go to the doctor's 0

3 /nquestion tags#ithhave to, #e onl$ repeat the axiliar$don't,

doesn'tordidn't.

He has to go to the doctor's, doesn't he 0

"o had to call for her, didn't $o 0

HAVE OT TO

1resent affirmative ontracted forms /nfinitive

/"o*e)he$

have got tohave got tohave got tohave got to

've got to've got to've got to've got to

leavepaint it#ritehelp her

He4she4it has got to 's got to go a#a$

He's got to go to the doctor's.

*e've got to hrr$.

3 2or theinterrogativestrctre of'have got to', #e donot use

the axiliar$do.

Have / got to go no# 0

Has she got to post that letter 0

3 /nquestion tags#ithhave got to, #e onl$ repeat the axiliar$'hasn't' or 'haven't'.


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(he has got to post that letter, hasn't she 0

)he$ have got to travel a lot, haven't the$ 0

)o talk abot obligation or necessit$ in the present, #e can semust,

have toorhave got to, bt there is a difference bet#een them :

3 *hen theobligation comes !rom the speaker, #e normall$ semust.

He mst go to the doctor's.[= / think it is necessar$]

"o mst drive carefll$.

[= / insist])he$ mst all come next #eek.[= / #ant them to]

/ mst go no#.[= / don't #ant to be late]

3 *hen theobligation is e"terior to the speaker, #e normall$ sehave to.

He has to go to the doctor's at %6 o'clock.

[= He has an appointment]"o have to drive on the left in ritain.

[= )hat's the la#]*e have to come next #eek.

[= )here is no alternative]/ have to go no#.

[= or /'ll miss the train]

3Have got to # in!initiveis often sed instead ofhave toto talkabotobligation, bt $o shold kno# the follo#ing points :

Have got tois more informal than 'have to'.Have got tois onl$ sed in thesimple present.

Have got tois mostl$ sed in the contracted form.

ompare :

/ have to go no#. [= more formal]

/'ve got to go no#. [= more informal]


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(he has to leave at 7 o'clock. [= more formal]

(he's got to leave at 7 o'clock. [= more informal]

% "4ust" has no past tense.To e7pressobligation in the past, we usehad to + infinitive#

I had to see him yesterday.

9ou had to be there at si7 o"clock.

% Con"t forget to usedidin interrogative and negative sentences.

Cid he have to return the book on 4onday2

I didn"t have to come yesterday.

"4ust" has no future form.>orfuture obligationwe usually useshall/will have to#

Ishall have toorder the book, if I want it.

9ouwill have tocome later.

Mustn't / Prohibition : conjugation

/resent % negative (*nf# without to

I

9ou

esheit

We

9ou

They

must not

must not

must not

must not

must not

must not

smoke

shout

speak

tell her

watch TB

buy it

5ontr. mustn"t dance

We use the negative form of "must"$ mustn'tormust not

to e7pressprohibitionor theobligation not to do something,

in the present and near future.

9ou mustn"t get up today.

' ! Co not get up*

They mustn"t arrive late.

' ! They are obliged not to arrive late*


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9ou mustn"t drive faster than ;DE km per hour.

' ! It is not allowed*

Don't have to - haven't got to / Absence of obligation : conju

-. )

=egative forms

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% %%%%%%%%%%%

/resent /ast >uture

contracted# contracted# contracted#

Infinitive

I

9ou

esheit

We9ou

They

don"t have to didn"t have to won"t have to


doesn't have todidn"t have to won"t have to

don"t have to didn"t have to won"t have todon"t have to didn"t have to won"t have to


read

speak

study

comeleave

go

5omments

ave got to % conjugation

% comments

*hen'have'is sed #ith the 'to' infinitive to expressobligation,

for thenegative structuresof the simple present and simple past,#e se the axiliar$do/does/did.

)he$ don't have to go $et.

/ didn't have to ct the grass.

3 /nquestion tags, #e onl$ repeat the axiliar$do, doesordid.

/ didn't have to go #ith him, did /0

HAVE OT TO

egative33333333333333 1resent 8contracted!

/nfinitive

/"oHe4she4it*e"o)he$

haven't got tohaven't got to

hasn't got tohaven't got tohaven't got tohaven't got to

give itsho# itsitsa$ itstand#ear it
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/n thenegative structure, #e do not se the axiliar$doordoes.

"o haven't got to #ash $or hair toda$.

(he hasn't got to go to school toda$.

3 /nquestion tags, #e onl$ repeat the axiliar$hasorhave.

He hasn't got to tid$ p, has he 0

*e haven't got to call back, have #e 0

5on't4doesn't have to + infinitiveHaven't4hasn't got to + infinitive

339 absence of obligation.

3 /n thepresent#e sedon't/doesn't have to

to sa$ thatit isn't necessar$ or compulsor$ to do something.

"o don't have to get p earl$ toda$.

[= /t isn't necessar$]

He doesn't have to do it no#.

[= /t isn't complsor$]

3 Haven't/hasn't got toalso expressesabsence o! obligation

in thepresent. /t is a littleless !ormal.

ompare :

"o don't have to eat it all. [= more formal]"o haven't got to eat it all. [= less formal]

3 *e sedidn't have toto express absence of obligationin thepast.

/ didn't have to do it.

[= it #asn't necessar$, so / didn't do it]

3 *e se%on't have toto express absence of obligationin the!uture.


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After $or exams, $o #on't have to #ork an$more

Must / Deduction : use

must ( infinitive $ for deductions in the present

% We usemust + infinitiveto e7presspositive deductions

in the present.

+he must be on holiday.

'+he hasn"t been to the office for three days*

They must be out.

'-ecause they don"t answer the phone*

% >ornegative deductions in the present,

we usecan't + infinitive#

They can"t be hungry.'They finished dinner half an hour ago

Must - have to - have got to / Recapitulation

&ust, have to and have got toare modal verbs used to e7press

obligation, absence of obligation, prohibition or deduction#

%bligation

9ou must be Fuiet.

'! I want you to*

We have to be Fuiet.

'! The baby is asleep*

We have got to be Fuiet.

'! more informal*%bsence of obligation

We don"t have to leave yet. '! more formal*

We haven"t got to leave yet. '! less formal*

%0rohibition

9ou mustn"t make so much noise.

%1eduction

It isn"t mine, so it must be yours.

Should / Conjugation


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in the active.

G7amples

xamples:

3 )o talk abot something #hich is in progress no#,#e se thepresent continuous.

(omeone is painting the hose at the moment.

[= active]39 )he hose is being painted no#.

[= passive]

3 )o speak abot a past event, #e se thesimple past.

*e expected the prime minister to resign $esterda$.

[= active]39 )he prime minister #as expected to resign.

[= passive]

he passive / Su!!ar" table of active and passive verb for

Berb tense Active form /assive form

simple present

present continuous

simple past

past continuous

present perfect

past perfect

future simple

present infinitive

au7iliary ( inf.

%ing form

writes

is writing

wrote

was writing

has written

had written

will write

to# write

should write

writing

is written

is being written

was written

was being written

has been written

had been written

will be written

to" be written

should be written

being written

he passive / Passive structures for verbs #ith a direct obj
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%))he drug2dealerwas caught in a night%club.

+omeone has at last discovereda curefor AIC+.

%) curefor AIC+ has at last been discovered.

he passive / Passive structures for verbs #ith an indirect o

When the active verb form is followed by anindirect object,

this indirect object becomes thesubjectof the passive sentence.

They askedmeto do it.

%)*was asked to do it.

he passive / Passive structures #ith direct and indirect obj

% If an active verb is followed by both adirect and an indirect object,

it is more usual in Gnglish to make thepersonalobject the subject

of the passive verb.

They have given 4ary a book.

;. %) 4ary has been given a book.

'! usual structure*

D. %) A book has been given to 4arry.

'! not the usual structure*

+he promised 6ohn HDEE.

;. %) 6ohn was promised HDEE.

'! usual structure*

D. %) HDEE were promised to 6ohn.

'! not the usual structure*

% This structure is particularly true, if the personal object is

a pronoun, and the other object is a noun.

Theobject form of the pronounwill of course be replaced by

thesubject form $

me %) I

you %) you

him %) he

her %) she

it %) it

us %) we

them %) they

/eople sendhimpostcards by the do3en.%)eis sent postcards by the do3en.


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They have shownmethe latest model.

%)*have been shown the latest model.

% This structure is especially common with $

ask %tell %give%offer %send %show %pay %promise#

+omebody offered mysistera free ticket.

%)&y sisterwas offered a free ticket.

They promised thechildrenan ice%cream.

%) Thechildrenwere promised an ice%cream.

he passive / Passive structures #ith phrasal and prepositiona

% +ome verbs in Gnglish reFuire a special preposition or phrasal

adverb $

to take care of % to laugh at % to find out ...

% With phrasal or prepositional verbs, theprepositional object

becomes thesubjectof the passive sentence.

The preposition or adverb particle remains immediately after

the verb.

They have turned off the radio.%%))he radiohas been turnedoff#

We can rely on him.%%)ecan be reliedon#

he passive / Passive interrogative sentences

/assiveinterrogativesentences are formed byinverting the subjectandthe first auxiliary verb#

Affirmative Interrogative

JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ

This seat is taken. Is this seat taken 2

The house has been sold. as the house been sold 2

e was seen in Cublin last week. Where was he seen last week 2

The concert can be organi3ed soon. When can the concert be

organi3ed 2

he passive / Passive negative sentences


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/assivenegativesentences are formed by usingnotor the contractedformn'tafter thefirst auxiliary verb#

Affirmative =egative

JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ

This seat is taken. This seat isn"t taken.

The house has been sold. The house hasn"t been sold.

This meeting can be postponed. This meeting can"t be

postponed.

he passive / he agent of a passive structure

To mention theagentof a passive verb, we useby + agent#

This poem was written by Keats.

The car was driven by a stuntman.

The match was spoilt by hooligans.

he passive / $se : #hen to use the passive for! %

We use the passive when $

% Whenwe do not knowwho or what completes the action.

+omeone has stolen my car.

%%) 4y car has been stolen.

'I don"t know who stole it*

% When we want toemphasi3e the actionand not who completes it.

/eople speak Gnglish all over the world.

%%) Gnglish is spoken all over the world.'The fact of speaking Gnglish is more important

than who speaks it*

% When wedo not want to saywho completes the action.

4y boss has left the front door open.

%%) The front door has been left open.

'I don"t want to say who left the door open*

he passive / $se of the agent


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We normally do not mention an agent.

We only useby + agentwhen $

% It hassome interestof its own $

e was caught by my neighbour 1

'! and not by the police 1*

% It is necessaryto complete the meaningof the sentence.

This poem was written by Keats, not by +helley.

he passive / Place of the adverb of !anner

Lsually immediately in front of the past participle

e wasbadlyinjured in a ski competition.

This chair isvery wellmade.

The incident was$uicklyforgotten.

he passive / Recapitulation

Thepassive is formedwith the au7iliary "to be" followed

by the past participle of the main verb.

-read is made with flour.

Thedirectorindirect objectcan become the subject of the passive

sentence.If there are two objects, the preference is given to the person#

+omeone gave a parcel to 6ohn. '! active sentence*

%) 6ohn was given a parcel. '! passive sentence*

Aprepositional objectmay become the subject of the passive sentence.

The preposition or adverb particle remains immediately after the main

verb.

They always laugh at him. '! active sentence*

%) e is always laughed at.

Theagentis introduced by the preposition "by".


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This novel was written by Agatha 5hristie.

dverbs of mannerusually come in front of the past participle.

The spot was easily removed.

&nfinitive / Plain infinitive : after !odal verbs

Themodal verbscan, could, may, might, must, will,would, and shouldare followed by the plain infinitive#

e canspeakItalian.

We mustn"tbelate.

Will youhavedinner with us tomorrow 2

&nfinitive / Plain infinitive : after let's

We use theplain infinitiveafterlet'sto make suggestions.

0et"sgoto the cinema.

0et"stellyour parents the good news.

&nfinitive / Plain infinitive : after &'d rather

% We use theplain infinitiveafter*/you/he###'d rather

to e7press a preference.

% =ote that the contracted form'd ratheris always used

instead ofwould rathere7cept in Fuestions.

% The negative form is $ 'd rather not + infinitive without 'to'#

Would you ratherhavetea or coffee 2

I"d ratherhavetea, please.e"d rathernot havecoffee in the evening.

&nfinitive / 'o' infinitive : after se!i-auiliaries


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of obligation.

I have to leave now, it"s getting late.

9ou don"t have to do the washing up now.

I"ve got to finish this work today.9ou haven"t got to leave yet.

% 4e going toe7presses a prediction or an intention.

It"s going to rain.

They are going to travel round the world.

&nfinitive / (erbs ) 'to' infinitive

afford % agree % decide % promise % refuse % seem % try

% These verbs followed by another verb reFuire a'to' infinitive

for the second verb#

They decided to sell their car.

e refused to come.

I"m trying to help you.

% In thenegativethe infinitive is introduced by'not to'#

I promised not to say anything.

They agreed not to disturb him.

&nfinitive / (erbs *) object + ) 'to' infinitive

ask % help % want

% If the subject of the infinitive verb and the main verb are the same,we use the structureverb + 'to' infinitive#

6ane wants to come to the party.

6ohn will help to carry the luggage.

They asked to do it.

% If the subject of the infinitive is different from the main subject,we use the structure verb + object me, you, him###" + 'to' infin#

They wanted us to come to the party.We asked 6ohn to carry the bags.


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I"m helping him to do his work.

=.-. The verbto helpcan also be followed by aplain infinitive$

+usan will help you to# lay the table.

&nfinitive / (erbs ) object ) 'to' infinitive

persuade % remind % tell % warn

% When these verbs are followed by another verb, we use the structureverb + object me, you, him, 0eter###" before the 'to' infinitive#

The teacher told them to read the te7t carefully.I must remind +usan to post the letter.

% In thenegativewe use the structureverb + object + not to + infinitive#

e warned me not to tease the dog.

e persuaded her not to come.

&nfinitive / (erbs ) 'to' infinitive of purpose

%')o' + infinitiveis used to e7presspurpose#

e went to @7ford to study law.

I"m going out to do some shopping.

e"s working hard to pass his e7am.

% In a moreformal stylewe use'in order to + infinitive'#

e went to see the Cean in order to settle the problem.

% Innegativesentences, we normally use'in order not to +infinitive'#

0eave early in order not to be late.

&nfinitive / ,oun or pronoun ) 'to' infinitive


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Would you like something to eat 2

This structure is also possible after anadjective + noun$

e"s got some important people to see.

It"s a difficult problem to solve.

&nfinitive / Adjective ) 'to' infinitive

We can use the "to infinitive" after a number of adjectives

% Afterpleased, glad, happy, we use the'to' infinitive

to say how we feel about doing something.

I"m very pleased to meet you.

% Aftereasy, difficult, impossible, hard, ### we can also use the'to' infinitive#

It"s impossible to finish all this work today 1

It was easy to understand.

&nfinitive / 'o' infinitive : recapitulation

')o infinitive' after semi2auxiliaries, e.g. have to,

have got to, be going to

I"ve got to run, or I"ll miss my train.

Take an umbrella, it"s going to rain.

'-erbs + 'to' infinitive'

e promised to be home at ;; o"clock.

I can"t afford to buy a new car now.They decided not to sell their car.

'-erbs + 'to' infinitiveor+ object + 'to' infinitive'

+he wanted to be the first on the list.

+he wanted 6ohn to help her.

'-erbs + object + 'to' infinitive'

8emind me to collect the children.

e told me not to be late.


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'-erbs + 'to' infinitive of purpose'or ( in order to ( infinitive#

I"ll do my best to pass the e7am.

e came to see me in order to borrow some money.

'5oun or pronoun + 'to' infinitive

I have something to tell you.

This is an easy problem to solve.

'djective + 'to' infinitive'

I"m happy to be back home again.

It"s important to do your work well.

Present participle / Part of a conjugated verb

Lsed with the au7iliary "to be" to form the continuous tenses.

+allywas playingtennis with Anne.

'! past continuous*

I've been paintingthe bedroom.

'! present perfect continuous*

Present participle / As adjective

% /articiples can also be used asadjectives#

MIt was a frightening e7perience.MThe film we saw yesterday, was thrilling.

% There are manypairs of participle adjectives#

interesting interested

e7citing e7cited

surprising surprised

frightening frightened

boring bored

% /articiple adjectivesending with 2ingdescribe the person or thing

that produces the feeling.

MThis work is interesting.MIt was an e7citing story.

MThe play was boring.


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% /articiple adjectivesending with 2eddescribe a person"s feelings $

MI"m interested in this work.MWe were all very e7cited.MThe children were bored, because the play was too difficult.

he gerund / Definition

The form of the verb ending with "%ing" is a gerund

when the "%ing" form is used as a noun.

% The gerund can be asubject#

/laying golf is very e7pensive.

% The gerund can be anobject#

I don"t like swimming.

% The gerund can be aprepositional object#

e"s fond of horse%riding.

he gerund / As subject

Thegerund formis reFuired when a verb is usedas subject

of the sentence.

+moking is bad for your health.

Travelling broadens the mind.

he gerund / As subject

Thegerund formis reFuired when a verb is usedas subjectof the sentence.

+moking is bad for your health.

Travelling broadens the mind.

he gerund / As object after certain verbs


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feel like % enjoy % finish % go % come % do

% If the verbsto feel like, to enjoy, or to finishare followedby another verb, the structure is normally $verb + gerund form#

ave you finished cleaning your room 2

I don"t feel like going out tonight.

We enjoyed meeting your friends.

% We can also use this structure withto goandto cometo talkaboutsports and free time activities#

We all went swimming yesterday.

e didn"t come climbing with us.

% We can use thegerundform afterto doto talk about some kindof work. The gerund is usedwith an article#

If you dothe washing up, I"ll dothe cleaning#

4ust we do allthe shoppingthis afternoon 2

Who"s going to dothe cooking2

% Thenegativeform is the following $ verb + not + gerund

I enjoy not getting up early on +undays.

he gerund / After a preposition

If a verb follows a preposition, it is used as aprepositional object

and must always be in thegerund form#

fter leavingschool he went to university.

-rush your teethbefore goingto bed.

+he leftwithout sayinganything.

Are you interestedin learninglanguages 2

Whatabout leavingnow 2I"m tiredof listeningto you.

he gerund / (erbs ) preposition ) gerund

5ertain verbs reFuire a preposition. If they are followed by anotherverb, this verb must be used in thegerund form#

Are youthinking of buyinga new house 2

I oftendream of beingrich.We mustgo on helpinghim.


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he gerund / After so!e epressions

Berbs that follow theseidiomatic expressionsmust be used in thegerund form#

%*t's no use + gerund

It"s no use crying, it won"t help.

%*t's worth + gerund

This film is really worth seeing.

%%an't help + gerund

I can"t help laughing when I see him.

%6eel like + gerund

I feel like having an apple.

%7o + gerundfor a number of activities, especially sports%)go fishing 2 go swimming 2 go skiing 2 go shopping ###

We"re going shopping this afternoon.Where did you go skiing this winter 2

(erbs ) gerund or 'to' infinitive / ,o change in !eaning

start % begin % continue

These verbs can be followed by an "%ing" form or a "to" infinitive

without any change in meaning#

It started to rainraining.

e began to paintpainting the house.

They continued to workworking hard.

(erbs ) gerund or 'to' infinitive / Alternative use


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like % love % hate % prefer

% Afterlike, love, hateandpreferconjugated in atense other than

the conditional, we can use either the gerund or the infinitive,

butthe gerund is more common#

I have always loved to readreading in front of a fire.

+he likes to havehaving tea in front of the television.

e prefers to gogoing to the theatre.

e hated to get upgetting up early.

% Afterwould like, would love, would preferandwould hate,

we must usethe infinitive#

I"d love to go with you.

e"d prefer to come another day.

(erbs ) gerund or 'to' infinitive / Re!e!ber and forget

remember % forget ( %ing form $ after we"ve done it

remember % forget ( "to" inf. $ before we have to do it

After "to remember" and "to forget", we use the "ing form"

or the "to infinitive", but with achange in meaning$

%8hen we remember or forgetsomethingafter we've done it,

we use "remember" and "forget" with'2ing form'#

I remember visiting this place before.

I"ll never forget shaking hands with the King.

%8hen we think about something before we have to do it,

we use "remember" and "forget" with the'to' infinitive#

8emember to lock the door.

I forgot to give him the message.

Con"t forget to give him the message.

(erbs ) gerund or 'to' infinitive / Stop

stop %) ( "ing" form

(top + 'ing' formmeans westop what we are busy doing#

Will you please stop making so much noise.


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e stopped smoking a month ago.

stop %) ( infinitive

(top + 'to' infinitiveindicates anew action after stopping,or apurpose#

I stopped the car# to pick up the children.

'! I stopped in order to pick up the children*

0et"s stop working# to have lunch.

'! 0et"s stop in order to have lunch*

(erbs ) gerund or 'to' infinitive / Recapitulation

% =o change in meaning $to start, to begin, to continue

We started to eateating because we were hungry.

% &erund or "to" infinitive according to the tense of the verb.to love, to like, to hate, and to prefer

% In all tenses e7cept the conditional the gerund is more usual.

+he likes swimming in the sea.

% In the conditional tense the "to infinitive" is reFuired.

We"d like to visit Athens.

% 5hange in meaning ;# $ to rememberandto forget

8emember to post the letter.

'! something we still have to do*

I remember giving you the letter.

'! something we have already done*

% 5hange in meaning D# $ to stop

+top pushing me. '! stop an action we were busy doing*

e stopped reading# to listen to the news.

'! stop one action to begin a new action*

ist of prepositional verbs / (erbs ) preposition

After many verbs we use a particular preposition.The prepositional object always comes just after the preposition.


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Will you all listen to me carefully.

They looked after my grandmother very well.

If the preposition is followed by a verb, the verb must be used in

the gerund form ! "ing" form#.

I wouldn"t dream of revealing a secret.

I insist on revising your verbs regularly.

List of common prepositional verbs$

%agree withsomeone

I agree with you.

%believe insomething

I believe in &od.

I believe in being punctual. 'preposition ( verb %) "ing"*

%belong tosomeone

This book belongs to me.

%take care of! look after#

+he takes care of her little sister when her mother goes out.

%die ofan illness

e died of cancer.

%dream aboutwhen asleep#

I often dream about the sea.

%dream ofbeing or doing something ! imagine#

I sometimes dream of going to America.


%fall offa wall, a horse

-e careful, or you will fall off the horse.

%insist on

The teacher insisted on the importance of prepositions.

e insisted on coming.'preposition ( verb %) "ing"*


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%laugh atsomeonesomething

/eople often laugh at him.

%listen to

I listened to the concert on the radio yesterday.

%look at! look in the direction of#

0ook at that lovely bird 1

%look after! take care of#

Will you look after my flowers while I"m away 2

%look for! try to find#

I"m looking for a pen.

%talk aboutsomeonesomething

They were talking about their holidays.

We"re talking about organi3ing a party.


%talk tospeak tosomeone

4ary is talking to her mother.

5ould I speak to 6ohn, please 2

%think about! reflect#

What are you thinking about2

I"m thinking about what you said to me.

%think of/about! consider#

+he"s thinking ofabout changing her job.


%wait for

We"re waiting for the bus.

%write tosomeone

I wrote to 6ohn for his birthday.ist of prepositional verbs / (erbs ) object ) prepositio


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After some verbs we use an object followed by a particular preposition.

e e7plained the instructions to me.

I often borrow books from the library.

If a verb follows the preposition, we must put this verb

in the gerund form ! "ing" form#.

e accused the boy of breaking the window.

List of a few common verbs + object + preposition $

%accusesomeoneofdoing# something

e accused me of breaking the window.


%borrowsomethingfromsomeone

I borrowed some moneyfromthe bank.

%explainsomethingtosomeone

Will you e7plain this problemtome 2

%remindsomeoneaboutsomething

8emind meaboutthe party.

-ut $ 8emind meto bring backyour book.

%spendmoney#onsomething

9ou spend a lot of moneyonclothes.

Phrasal verbs / Definition

Aphrasal verbis a verb ( a phrasal adverb that modifies the initial

meaning of the verb.

ecameat si7 o"clock. 'initial verb $ to come*e left for America and nevercame back#

'phrasal verb $ to come back

! to return#

Phrasal verbs / &ntransitive phrasal verbs

List of a few common intransitive phrasal verbs :


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%come back! to return#

What time will you come back from the office 2

%come in! to enter#

/lease come in, the doctor is e7pecting you.

%fall down! to crumble#

The wall of the old church has fallen down.

%get up! to get out of bed#

It"s seven o"clock, it"s time to get up 1

%grow up! to become adult#

&rowing up is not always easy.

%look out/watch out! to be careful#

0ook out before crossing the street 1

%stand up! to rise from sitting to standing#

All the pupils stood up when the teacher came in.

%take off! depart for a plane#

The plane takes off at :.;< a.m.

%wake up! rise from sleep#

I woke up very early this morning.

Phrasal verbs / ransitive phrasal verbs

When a phrasal verb has an object, theobjectcan be placedbeforeorafterthe phrasal adverb, butpronounsmust comebefore

the phrasal adverb.

5all me back tomorrow.

I called back the bank manager the ne7t day.

With a few transitive phrasal verbs ,theobject, even a pronoun,must comeafterthe phrasal adverb.


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e looks like me.

List of a few common transitive phrasal verbs$

%call/ringsomeone#back! telephone again#

I"ll call him back in the evening.

%findsomething#out! discover#

Try and find out what happened.

%givesomething#up! abandon#

e gave up smoking a month ago.

%look likesomeone ! to resemble#

With this verb the object must come after the phrasal adverb.

e looks like his father.

e doesn"t look like me.

%putsomething#on! to wear#

It"s getting cold, put a pullover on.

%savemoney#up! put money aside#

e"s saving up his pocket money to buy a tennis racket.

%takesomething#off! remove#

Take off your tee%shirt, it"s dirty.

Take your tee%shirt off.

%wakesomeone#up! to raise from sleep#

Will you wake me up at seven o"clock 2

%washthe dishes#up

I"ll wash up the dishes after dinner.

I"ll wash the dishes up after dinner.

,ouns / he plural - .eneral rule

%s


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4ost nouns form their plural by adding2sto the singular noun.

a car % three cars.

a cup % the cups.

a boy % two boys.

,ouns / he plural - ,ouns ending in a sibilant

%es

After sibilants, i.e. after2ch, 2sh, 2s, 2ss, 23 and 2xwe add2es

to form the plural.

a glass % glasses.

a watch % watches.

a brush % brushes.

a bo7 % bo7es.

,ouns / he plural - ,ouns ending in -" preceded b" a conso

%ies

=ouns ending in2y preceded by a consonantchange into2iesto form

the plural.

a baby % babies.

a lavatory % lavatories.

-ut $

a boy % boys "y" is not preceded by a consonant#.a day % days "y" is not preceded by a consonant#.

,ouns / he plural - ,ouns ending in -f or -fe

%ves

=ouns ending in2for 2fechange into2vesto form the plural.

a knife % knives.


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a wife % wives.

a thief % thieves.

a life % lives.

3 )he pronnciation is&i( a!ter sibilants, i.e. #ith 3ches, 3shes,3ses, 3sses, 3;es and 3xes.

hoses [i;].

#atches [i;].

glasses [i;].

3 )he pronnciation is&s( a!ter k, p, t.

socks [s].

pots [s].

cps [s].

3 )he pronnciation is&( in the other cases.

cars [;].

dogs [;].

letters [;].

,ouns / he plural - &rregular plurals

-asic irregular plurals are $

child % children

foot % feet

mouse % mice

man % men

tooth % teethwoman % women

e has five children.

4y feet are dirty.

This child has only ;; teeth.

There were many men and women.

,ouns / he plural - ,ouns used onl" in the plural


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-asic nouns only used in the plural are $

glasses when this word refers to a pair of spectacles#

people when this word refers to persons in general#

police

scissorstrousers

I don"t remember where I have put my glasses.

There weren"t many people.

We need new scissors to cut this piece of cloth.

The police have arrested the two thieves.

I need some new trousers.

,ouns / he plural - ,ouns onl" in the sing: the uncountab

Lncountables $ % abstract nouns

% nouns of material

% "information", "furniture", "news"

/lural forms of uncountables

+ome nouns in Gnglish cannot be counted $

% abstract nouns courage, love ...#.

% nouns of material gold, coffee, sugar ...#.

% the words "information", "furniture", "news".

,ouns / he plural - ,ouns onl" in the sing: the uncountab

Lncountables $ % abstract nouns

% nouns of material

% "information", "furniture", "news"

/lural forms of uncountables

+ome nouns in Gnglish cannot be counted $

% abstract nouns courage, love ...#.

% nouns of material gold, coffee, sugar ...#.

% the words "information", "furniture", "news".

,ouns / he plural - ,ouns onl" in the sing : hair0 luggage/ba

air, luggagebaggage L+# $ only used in the singular
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We usehair, luggage/baggage (" only in thesingular#

They are followed by a verb in the singular.

4yhair istoo long.

isluggage istoo heavy.

,ouns / he possessive *genitive+ : for!

singular nouns $ "s

plural nouns in %s and %es $ "

other plural nouns $ "s

% After a singular noun, we add "s.=.-. =o "the" before people"s names .

It is 6ohn"s book.

/eter"s hair.

Coris"s hat.

% After a plural noun ending in %s and %es, we add only ".

The students" books.

The girls" clothes.

% After a plural noun not ending in %s, we add "s.

They"re the children"s books.

Women"s fashions.

,ouns / he possessive *genitive+ : use

% With the names of people or animals esp. domestic pets#% in time e7pressions

% in geographical references

We use the possessive genitive# $

with people and animals especially pets#.

6ohn"s pencils.

The cat"s name is /ussy.

in time e7pressions.


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I met him at last week"s party.

I"ll see her at tomorrow"s meeting.

in geographical references.

I bought it at the butcher"s.In the afternoon we went to +t /aul"s.

3 )he indefinite article is 'a' before #ords that begin #ith a

consonant and 'an' before #ords that begin #ith a vo#el sond.

.. : /t isthe sound#hich is the deciding factor.

(he's a nrse 8consonant!.

He's an office #orker 8vo#el!./'m a ropean 8consonantsound39['


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Co you like the carrots of my mother 2

e is studying the geography of +pain.

The cats of my street eat a lot of meat.

Articles / $se : eceptions *idio!atic uses+

=o article in some idiomatic e7pressions

We don"t use any article in some idiomatic e7pressions.

8emember the following $

to go to school, to church, to bed, to go home.

to be at home, school, in hospital, in bed.

to have breakfast, lunch, dinner.to watch television.

beforeafterat ... breakfast, lunch, dinner, school ...

at night, last night, ne7t week ...

Adjectives are invariable

Adjectives areinvariable$ they only haveone form, which we use withsingular and plural nouns predicatively and attributively#.

It"s anicebook.Those houses arenice#

Adjectives / Co!parison of adjectives - 1or!s : general ru

AC6G5TIBG 5@4/A8ATIBG +L/G80ATIBG

one syllable

two syllables

three or more

syllables

%er

more ( adj.

e7cept adj. end.

in %er, %y and

in %e #

more ( adj.

the %est

the ( most ( adj.

the ( most ( adj.

Adjectives of one syllable

Adjectives of three syllables or more
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Adjectives of two syllables

+pelling changes

Ad


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big 3 bigger 3 the biggest.hot 3 hotter 3 the hottest.

Adjectives / Co!parison of adjectives - 1or!s : irregular fo

good better the best

bad worse the worst

far farther the farthest proper meaning#

further the furthest proper and figurative m.#

little less the least

much more the most

many more the most

>$ car is better than $ors.

He has the #orst reslts.

?slo is farther4frther than erlin 8proper meaning!.

/ #ant to have frther details 8figrative meaning!.

/'ve got less books than @ohn.

@ohn has got more mone$ than @eff.

i; has got more books than (andra.

Adjectives / Co!parison of adjectives - $se

% The comparative of eFuality things are eFual# $as ( adj. ( as

e is as tall as his father.

+he is as old as me.

The comparative of superiority

The comparative of inferiority

The superlative

)he comparative of speriorit$ 8things are higher on a scale! :

ad


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not as + ad


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Afastworker %) e worksfast#

Ahardworker %) e workshard#

Alatetrain %) It leaveslate#

Alongstay %) e stayedlong#

Aweeklymaga3ine %) This maga3ine comes outweekly#

Adverbs / Degrees of co!parison - 1or!s : general rule

ACBG8- 5@4/A8ATIBG +L/G80A

one syllable

two syllables

or more

%er

more ( adv.

the %est

the ( most (

% Adverbs ofone syllableform their comparative and superlative byadding2erand2estto the base.

fast % faster % the fastest.

% Adverbs oftwo syllables or moreform their comparative withmore

and their superlative withmost#

slowly % more slowly % the most slowly.

Adverbs / Degrees of co!parison - 1or!s : irregular for!

well better the best

badly worse the worst

early earlier the earliest

far farther the farthest proper meaning#

further the furthest proper and figurative m.#

little less the least

much more the most

e speaks better than 6ohn.

+he worked worse than all the others.e got up the earliest.

I drove fartherfurther than +heila proper meaning#.

er analysis went the furthest figurative meaning#.

6ohn helped less than the others.

I"m going to do the most of it.

2uantifiers / So!e0 an"0 no

( sentences some


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% sentences any

2 sentences some if we e7pect a

"yes" answer#

any if we e7pect a

"no" answer or if we do not e7pect

any particular

answer#

G7amples

"=o" instead of "not any"

5ountables and uncontables

/'ve got some sgar. [affirmative sentence]

)here are some books left. [affirmative sentence]

/ haven't got an$ maga;ines. [negative sentence]

)here aren't an$ books left. [negative sentence]

*old $o like some maga;ines 0 [expecting a '$es' ans#er]

Have $o got an$ books 0 [expecting a 'no' ans#er or noparticlar ans#er]

o = not an$ 8insisting!

'o' has the same meaning as 'not an$' bt it sonds more emphatic.

(hehasn't got an$car 39 (hehas nocar.

)he$haven't got an$paper 39 )he$have nopaper.

ontables Bncontables === === some an$ no

'(ome', 'an$' and 'no' can precede both ncontables 8nons that #e

cannot cont like 'milk', 'sgar', 'bread'! and contables 8nons that#e can cont like 'stdent', 'book'!.
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(he lends me some books 4 (he lends me some mone$.

/ #ant no cigarettes 4 / #ant no bread.5o $o need some pencils 4 5o $o need some help 0

2uantifiers / A little0 little - a fe#0 fe# - !uch - !an"

5ountables Lncountables

a few books

cars

few pencils

cups

many teachers

people...

a little money

courage

little bread

water

much help

tea ...

G7planations

*e se 'a fe#', 'fe#' and 'man$' #ith contables 8nons that #e

can cont!.

Cive me a fe# pencils.

/ sa# fe# people.

Here are man$ examples.

3 *e se 'a little', 'little' and 'mch' #ith ncontables 8nons

that #e cannot cont!.

Cive me a little mone$.

He gave me little help.

(he needs mch corage.

2uantifiers / A lot of


books

pencils

many students

teachers

roads...

money

bread

much sugar

violence

time ...
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books

bread

a lot of students

violence

pencils ...

'A lot of + contable or ncontable' or 'a lot of' can replace both

'man$ + contable' and 'mch + ncontable'.

1eter has got man$ friends 39 1eter has got a lot of friends.

(heila needs mch mone$ 39 (heila needs a lot of mone$.

*e laghed mch 39 *e laghed a lot.

2uantifiers / 3ver"0 several0 all


every ( singular

several ( plural

all ( plural all ( singular

% "Gvery"( singular countable.

We see him every week.

% "+everal"( plural countable.

+everal weeks have passed.

% "All" ( plural countable.

All cats like meat.

% "All" ( singular uncountable.

All violence is bad.

2uantifiers / able *according to 4uantit"+


all ( pl. all ( sing.

every ( sing.

many much


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several ( plur.

some some

a few a little

few little

any

no

G7amples

All dogs bark. All violence is avoidable.

ver$ stdent needs paper.

)here #ere man$ people. Ho# mch of the bread have $o eaten 0

/ see some girls. / need some mone$He boght several pens.

?nl$ a fe# people came. / #ant a little #ine.

)he fe# #ords he spoke #ere He gave s little help.

#ell3chosen.

/ don't #ant an$ apple.

/ #ant no apple.

Possessives

;st pers.sing.

Dnd pers.sing.

?rd pers.sing.masc.

fem.

neutral

;st pers.plur.

Dnd pers.plur.

?rd pers. plur.

adjectives

%%%%%%%%%%%%%

my

your

his

her

its

our

your

their

pronouns

%%%%%%%%%%%%

mine

yours

his

hers

%

ours

yours

theirs

)his ism$book 3 )his book ismine.

DEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEED)his is$ourbook 3 )his book is$ours.

DEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEED)his ishisbook 3 )his book ishis.

DEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEED)his isherbook 3 )his book ishers.

DEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEED

)his isitsbook.
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)his isourbook 3 )his book isours.

DEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEED)his is$ourbook 3 )his book is$ours.

DEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEED)his istheirbook 3 )his book istheirs.

DEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEED

1ossessives are invariable.

m$ mother 3 m$ parents.

her book 3 her books.

3 /n the third person singlar, possessives depend on the possessorand not on the person or thing possessed.

He asked me abot m$book * itsprice anditssb$motherlikeshercat.

DEEEEEEEEEEED

/ don't kno# ifhehas takenhisbook.

DEEEEEEEEEEEEED

3 ote the follo#ing idiomatic se of the possessive pronon :

a friend of mine.

this book of $ors.

De!onstratives

+ITLATI@= +I=&L0A8 /0L8A0

persons# or objects#

close to the speaker

remote persons# or

objects#

this

that

these

those

%)hisandtheserefer to people and objects that arecloseto the

speaker in space and time.

%)hatandthoserefer to moreremotepeople and objects in space


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and timeN they can have some emotional connotation.

This is my book and that is his.

These are my children, those are 4ary"s.

Co you remember that moment 2

@h, that telephone again 1

&nterrogatives / &nterrogative pronouns

W@ $ persons

WAT $ things general use#

WI5 $ persons and things case of choice#

%8hois used forpersonsonly.

Who told you that 2 % 6ohn did.

%8hatas an interrogative pronoun is used forthingsonly.

What did you tell him 2 % The story.

%8hichis used forpeople and thingswhen there isa restricted choice#

Which works better $ +andra or 6anet 2 % 6anet. =.-. "Who" is also correct for people #.

Which is your book $ the one on the left or the one on the right 2

&nterrogatives / &nterrogative adjectives

WAT ( noun $ persons and things without any specific choice.

WI5 ( noun $ persons and things with a restricted choice.

%8hat + nounis used for people and things without any specificchoicegeneral use"#

What price did you pay 2

What boys have arrived 2

What time is it 2

%8hich + nounis used for people and things when there isa restricted choice#

Which book did you borrow $ /eter"s or +andra"s 2Which girl do you prefer here 2


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Which dictionary did you look up $ arraps" or 5ollins" 2

&nterrogatives / 5hose

"Whose" can be both an interrogative adjective and pronoun.

As an interrogative "whose" refers topersons only# It is usually

followed by the noun it determines.

Whose car is it 2 % It"s 6ohn"s.

Whose is it 2 % It"s 4ary"s.

Whose house have you bought 2 % 6ane"s.

&nterrogatives / &nterrogative adverbs

Interrogative adverbs are "why", "when", "where" and "how".

8hyhave you come so late 2 %4ecause my mother is sick#

JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ8hendid you leave 2 %Last week#

JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ8herewere you 2 %*n the kitchen#

JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJowdid you go there 2 %4y car#

JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ

Personal pronouns / 1or!s

;st pers.sing.

Dnd pers.sing.

?rd pers.sing.masc.

fem.

neutral

;st pers.plur.

Dnd pers.plur.

?rd pers. plur.

subject form

%%%%%%%%%%%%%

I

you

he

she

it

we

you

they

object form

%%%%%%%%%%%%

me

you

him

her

it

us

you

them

G7amples

+ubjects and objects forms

+see $o 3 (he seesme.

DEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEDoulike dancing 3 / like dancing #ith$ou.
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DEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEDHegoes shopping 3 / go shopping #ithhim.

DEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEED

-helikes cats 3 ats likehertoo F

DEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEDThe houseis nice 3 / can seeit.

DEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEDego to ondon 3 )he$ come #ithus.

DEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEED

ousa# the stdents 3 )he stdents sa#$outoo F

DEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEDThe$stdied Gite a lot 3 "o stdied #iththem.

DEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEED

)he ob


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8&! eight 3 8%&! eighteen 3 8&6! eight$.

3 et#een the tens and the nits there is a h$phen 83! .

8KK! t#ent$3t#o.8LI! sevent$3for.

,u!erals / Cardinal nu!bers : fro! 866 to 8606660666

;EE# aone hundred ;E;# aone hundred and one

DEE# two hundred DED# two hundred and two

?EE# three hundred ?E?# three hundred and three

...

;,EEE# aone thousand ;,EE;# aone thousand and one


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)he comma is sed to divide thosands from hndreds, millions from

thosands etc.

L,66I 8seven thosand and for!.

%,666,666 8 a4one million!.

,u!erals / Cardinal nu!bers : ti!e of da"

It"s : o"clock#

;E T@ :

< /A+T :

a# RLA8TG8 T@ :

a# RLA8TG8 /A+T :

A0> /A+T :

a.m.#

p.m.#

;O.


65/111

to the corresponding nmber.

first 39 %st

second 39 Knd

third 39 rdthirt$3first 39 %st

,u!erals / Dates

% =ames of months $

6anuary, >ebruary, 4arch, April, 4ay, 6une,6uly, August, +eptember, @ctober, =ovember, Cecember

=ames of months have a capital letter.

% 9ears are usually read in the following way $

;QQ; $ nineteen ninety2one

=.-. E is pronounced like the letter @

5ates can be *M/)) in five different #a$s :

3 %I ovember %77% 3 %Ith ovember %77% 3 ovember %Ith, %77%3 ovember %I, %77% 3 N %I.%%.%77% 8C! N %%.%I.%77% 8B(!

.. /n American nglish the month sall$ comes first.

5ates are MA5 in t#o different #a$s :

the 8ordinal nmber! of 8month! 8$ear! or 8month! the 8$ear!

%I.%%.%776 39 8)he forteenth of ovember nineteen ninet$!.

or

8ovember the forteenth nineteen ninet$!.

%.J.%77 39 8)he first of >a$ nineteen ninet$3three!.


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or

8>a$ the first nineteen ninet$3three!.

&.K.%7L7 39 8)he eighth of 2ebrar$ nineteen sevent$3nine!.

or

82ebrar$ the eighth nineteen sevent$3nine!.

Declarative sentences / Positive sentences

In positive sentences the usual word order is the following $

subject ( verb phrase#

4y leg hurts.

4ike is waiting.

verb ! one word

verb phrase ! two or more words

subject ( verb phrase# ( object

direct or indirect#

I have three friends.

e can play tennis.

Ann will speak to him.

subject ( verb phrase# ( complement

6ohn is ill.

e seems a nice boy.

subject ( verb phrase# ( adverbial

e drives carefully.

4y mother is sitting in the garden.

/eter went to 0ondon.

Declarative sentences / ,egative sentences : #ith 'be' and auili

subject ( "be" ( =@T

au7iliary verb


67/111

6ack isnotthere.

e hasnotfinished.

I havenotread that book.

+he isnotsinging.

I willnotcome tomorrow.They wouldnotagree.

9ou mustnotsmoke in the theatre.

=@TG ; $

These forms are used informalGnglish.

IneverydayGnglish short forms are used $

e hasn"t finished.

+he isn"t singing.

I won"t come tomorrow.

=@TG D $

The negative of "can" is "cannot", in one word $

I cannot speak 8ussian.

The contraction is "can"t".

I can"t speak 8ussian.

=@TG ? $

When there are two or more au7iliaries

the negation =@T comes after thefirstau7iliary $

I havenotbeen living here for a long time.

e willnothave finished in time.

Declarative sentences / ,egative sentences : #ith ordinar" v

C@

subject ( C@G+ ( =@T ( verb without "to"#

CIC

Ido notlike fish.

edoes notbelieve you.

9oudid notunderstand the problem.

=@TG $

+ome negative sentences containno

negative verb $


68/111

I havenomoney.

5obodytold me.5o one

5othinghas changed.

I haveneverseen his girlfriend.

e hasnowhereto go.

The words "no, nobody, no one, nothing, never, nowhere"

are already negative 1

+o, they can"t be used with a negative verb.

In Gnglish a negative sentence can contain

one negative word only1 +o, we can say $

I have =GBG8 seen his girlfriend.

or

I have="T GBG8 seen his girlfriend.

I have =@ money.

or

I have="T A=9 money.

&nterrogative sentences / &nversion 4uestions : #ith 'be' and auili

"be" ( subject

au7iliary verb

+o, there is aninversion1

re youcoming tomorrow 2

ave theyfinished 2

8ill hebe at home 2

%an shespeak Gnglish 2

=@TG $

If there are two or more au7iliaries the subject is placed

after thefirstau7iliary $

avetheybeen working 2

Wouldshehave helped me 2

&nterrogative sentences / &nversion 4uestions : #ith ordinar"

C@


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C@G+ ( subject ( verb without "to"#

CIC

+o, there is also aninversion1

1o yousmoke 2

1oes &arylive in @7ford 2

1id hesee the manager yesterday 2

&nterrog sentences / 2uestion-#ord 4uestions : #ith 'be' and auil

Fuestion%word ( "be" ( subject

( noun# au7iliary verb

Those Fuestions alwaysstart with the $uestion2word

and there must be aninversion1

Who are you calling 2

What has happened 2

Where can I go now 2

Why should I tell him 2

When is the last bus 2

Which dress have you chosen $ the blue or the red one 2

Whose car is this 2

&nterrog sentences / 2uestion-#ord 4uestions : #ith 'be' and auil

Fuestion%word ( "be" ( subject

( noun# au7iliary verb

Those Fuestions alwaysstart with the $uestion2word

and there must be aninversion1

Who are you calling 2

What has happened 2

Where can I go now 2

Why should I tell him 2

When is the last bus 2

Which dress have you chosen $ the blue or the red one 2

Whose car is this 2

nterrogative sentences / 2uestion-#ord 4uestions : #ith ordina


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C@

Fuestion%word ( C@G+ ( subject ( verb

( noun# CIC without "to"#

Those Fuestions alwaysstart with the $uestion2wordand there must be aninversion1

Where do you live 2

What does it mean 2

Who did he phone that night 2

What time do you usually get up 2

Which train did you take this morning 2

GS5G/TI@= $

Fuestion%word ! subject

C@

111 donotuse C@G+

CIC

When the Fuestion%word is the subject of the verb,

C@

no C@G+ is used to form the Fuestion $

CIC

8hotold you that 2

JJJ

8hich busgoes to /iccadilly 5ircus 2

JJJJJJJJJ

8hose sonwon the championship 2

JJJJJJJJJ

5ompare $

Who loves Terry 2 someone loves Terry#

and

Who does Terry love 2 Terry loves someone#

Who saw you 2 somebody saw you#

and

Who did you see 2 you saw somebody#

&nterrogative sentences / he !ost co!!on 4uestion-#or


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8) 8hatare you doing 2

I"m writing a letter.

8 8hois that man with 6ennifer 2

That"s my brother.

8.9. 8herewere you born 2

I was born in -russels.

=@TG $

"Where" can be used with the preposition "to"

to indicate movement, direction $

Where are you going to# 2

"Where" is used with the preposition "from"

to indicate origin $

Where do you come from 2

=ote that in both cases the preposition

is at the end of the sentence.

8.5 8hendid you meet him 2

9esterday afternoon.

8 8hydid you marry her 2

I don"t know...

8(. 8hosecar# is it 2

It"s 6ohn"s.

8hosekeys# are these 2

They"re mine.

"Whose" asks about /@++G++I@=.

8 owdid you come this morning 2

-y train.

owdoes he drive 2


72/111

-adly 1

"ow" means $ I= WAT WA9 2

whatis different fromwhich

5ompare the following sentences $

8hatis your favourite colour 2

-lue.

-LT

8hichcolour do you prefer $ red, blue or yellow 2-lue.

8hatwould you like to have 2

An orange juice, please.

-LT

I have got orange juice, beer or water.

8hichwould you like to have 2

An orange juice, please.

+o, we use "which" when there is a 0I4ITGC 5@I5G.

combinations withwhat

8) ;*51 6 8hat kind ofsport do you practise 2(9) 6 sort of

>ootball.

8) )*&. 8hat timedoes your train leave 2

At two pm.

=ote $ "When" is also possible $

When does it leave 2

8) 4) I"m tired.

8hat aboutyou 2

9es, me too.


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8hat aboutyour trip 2

@h, it was fantastic 1

"What about" is used to ask for I=>@84ATI@=

concerning somebody or something.

=ote $ Co =@T confuse with

"what about (ing#"

which makes a suggestion $

What about having# a drink 2

combinations withhow

8 L57 ow longdid you live in Africa 2

Ten years.

ow longhave you been working here 2

>or twenty years now.

"ow long" asks for a /G8I@C @> TI4G.

8 L57 7 ow long agodid you meet her 2

+i7 months ago.

"ow long ago" asks about a /@I=T I= TI4G.

=@TG ; $ "When" can also be used $

When did you meet her 2

=@TG D $ Co =@T confuse with "since when"

which indicates the starting point

of a period $

+ince when have you known her 2

+ince the beginning of +eptember.

8 6).5 ow oftendo you play tennis 2

Twice a week.

ow oftendo you travel by plane 2

Gvery month.

"ow often" asks about the >8GRLG=59 of an action.


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8 &% ow muchcoffee is left 2

=ot much, I"m afraid.

"ow much" asks about RLA=TIT9

for L=5@L=TA-0G or mass# =@L=+,for e7ample "coffee, milk, sugar,

butter, courage, energy, pleasure,..."

ow muchis that T%shirt 2

Ten pounds.

We always use "how much" to ask about 4@=G9.

8 &5 ow manychildren do you have 2Two.

ow manybottles of wine are left 2

@nly three.

"ow many" asks about a =L4-G8 of things or people.

It is used with 5@L=TA-0G =@L=+ in the /0L8A0,

for e7ample "chairs, tables, cars, pencils,..."

8 L1 ow oldare you 2

I am DE years old#.

8 69 ow faris the station from here 2

@nly one kilometre.

"ow far" asks about CI+TA=5G.

8 )LL ow tallis he 2

e is almost two metres tall.

"ow tall" is used for /G@/0G.

8 *7 ow highis 4ount Gverest 2

It is more than ,@@@ metres high.

"ow high" is used for TI=&+.

8 4*7 ow bigis his flat 2Bery big, I think.


75/111

&nterrogative sentences / 2uestion-#ord 4uestions #ith prepo

All those Fuestions start with the Fuestion%word,

and the preposition comes at the end $

T@ &IBG T@ %) 8hodid you give itto2

T@ WAIT >@8 %) 8hoare you waitingfor2

T@ CA=5G WIT %) 8hodid you dancewith2

T@ 0@@K AT %) 8hatare you lookingat2

T@ TA0K A-@LT %) 8hatare you talkingabout2

T@ -G I=TG8G+TGC I= %) 8hatare you interestedin2

&nterrogative sentences / ,egative 4uestions

These Fuestions are either inversion Fuestions or Fuestion%word

Fuestions, but are of the negative type $

aven"t you understood 2

5an"t he speak Gnglish 2

Con"t you like ice%cream 2

Cidn"t he write to you 2

Who hasn"t finished 2

Why isn"t she happy 2

Why don"t you apologi3e 2

Why didn"t they go on holiday 2

=@TG $With ordinary verbs the au7iliary C@ is of course used

in a negative Fuestion, even if the Fuestion%word

is the subject of the verb $

5ompare $ Who saw the accident 2

Who CIC="T see the accident 2

&!perative sentences / $se

The imperative is used for making reFuests, suggestions or offers,


76/111

for e7pressing wishes, and for giving orders and instructions $

-e careful, please 1

ave a cigarette.

Gnjoy yourself 1

+it down immediately 1&o straight ahead and then turn right.

The construction with "let"s" generally e7presses a suggestion

rather than an order $

I"m thirsty. 0et"s have a drink.

0et"s go to the museum this afternoon.

&!perative sentences / 1or!ation

/@+ITIBG =G&ATIBG

Dnd pers. sg or pl#

;st pers. pl#

go

let"s go

don"t go

let"s not go

The second person has the form of theinfinitive without 'to'$

+hut that door 1

It is preceded bydon'tin the negative,

e7cept when the adverb "never" is used $

Con"t forget 1

=ever say that again 1

=@TG $ "don"t" is used in the spoken language,

"do not" may be used in written instructions $

Co not park here 1

In the first personlet'sprecedes the infinitive without "to" $

0et"s go to the pictures tonight.

In the negative the infinitive is preceded bylet's not$

0et"s not stay here, it"s dangerous.


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3cla!ator" sentences

"ow" ( adjective

ow interesting 1

ow lovely she is 1

ow funny it was 1

"What" ( noun phrase

What a surprise 1

What a lovely day 1

What nice people 1

What beautiful flowers 1

Short ans#ers and responses / 1or!s and use

+hort answers are used to avoid the repetition of the verb.

They contain a subject and an au7iliary $

5an you swim 2

9es, I can 'swim*.

=o, I can"t 'swim*.

In the negative, contracted forms must be used $

Will he be there 2 =o, he won"t.

5an you speak 6apanese 2 =o, I can"t.

=@TG+ $

If the Fuestion contains "have got", we use "have"

in the short answer $

ave you got a dog 2 9es, I have.

If there are two or more au7iliaries, we use

the >I8+T au7iliary in the short answer $

ave you been running 2 9es, I have.

If the Fuestion contains the verb "to be",

"to be" is used in the short answer $

Is he ill 2 =o, he isn"t.

With ordinary verbs we use "dodoes" in present simple


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short answers and "did" in past simple short answers $

Co you smoke 2 9es, I do.

Coes he live in 8ome 2 9es, he does.

Cid they go on holiday 2 9es, they did.

Short ans#ers / '"es' or 'no' ans#er

subject ( au7iliary

Will you see him tomorrow 2 9es, I will.

=o, I won"t.

5an he speak +panish 2 9es, he can.=o, he can"t.

Co you smoke 2 9es, I do.

=o, I don"t.

Cid he go on holiday last year 2 9es, he did.

=o, he didn"t.

Short ans#ers / 2uestion #ith 4uestion-#ord

subject ( au7iliary

Who will be there tomorrow 2 /eter will.

Who can swim here 2 I can.

Who doesn"t like football 2 I don"t.

4y friend doesn"t.

Short ans#ers / 2uestion #ith 4uestion-#ord

subject ( au7iliary

Who will be there tomorrow 2 /eter will.

Who can swim here 2 I can.

Who doesn"t like football 2 I don"t.

4y friend doesn"t.

Short ans#ers epressing agree!ent


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subject ( au7iliary

Agreement with a positive remark $

I think /eter is washing the car. 9es, he is.

6anet works very hard. 9es, she does.

They have read a lot of books. 9es, they have.

e can play the piano very well. 9es, he can.

Agreement with a negative remark $

Amanda isn"t very happy. =o, she isn"t.

6ohn doesn"t play cards very well. =o, he doesn"t.

They won"t go abroad this summer. =o, they won"t.

Short ans#ers epressing disagree!ent

subject ( au7iliary

Cisagreement with a positive remark $

It is raining again. =o, it isn"t 1+arah lives in /aris. =o, she doesn"t.

e will help her. =o, he won"t.

9ou spoke to +usan last night. I didn"t 1

Cisagreement with a negative remark $

9ou haven"t brushed your teeth 1 @h, yes, I have 1

e can"t drive a car. 9es, he can.

+he won"t come 1 9es, she will 1

They don"t like football. @h, yes, they do 1

Short ans#ers and responses / Additions epressing a paral

*5-.9(*5 %) au7iliary ( subject

With "so", meaning "also" $

I"m afraid. +o am I 1

I have seen that film. +o has my mother.e plays the piano and so does his brother.


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They came by train. +o did we 1

With the negative construction parallel to the preceding one,

using "neither" $

I haven"t understood. =either has my friend.4ike doesn"t like fish. =either does 6im.

They can"t answer my Fuestion. =either can you.

9ou didn"t drink tea. =either did I.

Short ans#ers and responses / Additions epressing a contr

subject ( au7iliary

=egative additions to positive sentences $

( but %

I live in -russels but he doesn"t.

e can speak Gnglish but his sister can"t.

They went to the theatre yesterday. -ut I didn"t.

+he"ll travel by plane but he won"t.

/ositive additions to negative sentences $

% but (

4y brother doesn"t like shopping. -ut I do 1

I can"t play the guitar but 4ichael can.

9ou didn"t see the accident but she did.

They won"t visit 8ome but we will.

Short ans#ers and responses / Short 4uestions for surprise or i

These short Fuestions have the same form as Fuestion%tags.

They are RLG+TI@=+, so we have an inversion

and there is a Fuestion mark at the end,

not a full stop or an e7clamation mark 1

au7iliary ( subject 2

I saw /rince last night. Cid you 2e can"t find a job. @h, can"t he 2


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+he"s going to +pain ne7t week. Is she 2

e gets up at < am every day. Coes he 2

Short ans#ers / 3ceptions : 'to thin'0 'hope' and 'suppos

Those verbs are sometimes used as short answers.

They are e7ceptional because there isnoau7iliary in the short answer.

Indeed, "to think", "to hope" and "to suppose" are no au7iliaries,

but ordinary verbs.

/ositive form $

subject ( verb ( "so"

Is she Gnglish 2 I think so.

Will Tom come 2 I hope so.

I suppose so.

=egative form $

the structure depends on the verb

* think so %) * don't think so

* hope so %) * hope not

* suppose so %) * suppose not

Is he American 2 I don"t think so.

Is it going to rain 2 I hope not.

Will +heila be there 2 I suppose not.

5ord order / ;asic patterns

In positive sentences the usual word order is the following $

subject ( verb phrase#

4y leg hurts.

4ike is waiting.

verb ! one word


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verb phrase ! two or more words

subject ( verb phrase# ( object

direct or indirect#

I have three friends.

e can play tennis.

Ann will speak to him.

subject ( verb phrase# ( complement

6ohn is ill.

e seems a nice boy.

subject ( verb phrase# ( adverbial

e drives carefully.

4y mother is sitting in the garden.

/eter went to 0ondon.

5ord order / (erb ) direct object

verb ( direct object

In Gnglish we do =@T separate the verb from its object.

We do =@T put other words between them $

Ilike childrenvery much.

+hespeaks .nglishwell.

ewatches )-every day.6ack oftenplays tennis#

Theyphone himregularly.e alsobought a car#

5ord order / (erb ) direct and indirect objects

Indirect object ( direct object

Cirect object ( "tofor" ( indirect object

=ote ; % "to" or "for" 2

=ote D % "to" ( indirect object
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=ote D % G7amples

indirect ob


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(he annoncedcomplaineddescribedexplainedindicated

introdcedmentionedproposed

repeatedrepliedreporteds

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a2-b1 Grammar Lessons