A2 GEOGRAPHY REVISION GUIDE EDEXCEL - The …€¦ · REVISION GUIDE EDEXCEL . Created by Natalie Garthwaite 2010 ... California Case Study Impact of growing global energy demand

Created by Natalie Garthwaite 2010

A2 GEOGRAPHY

REVISION GUIDE

EDEXCEL


Topic 1: Energy Insecurity

What do I need to know? How energy sources can be classified and the advantages and disadvantages of these

Reasons for global variations in energy access and consumption

Factors effecting energy security – California Case Study

Impact of growing global energy demand e.g. China case Study

Impact of geopolitics on energy security

Energy pathways problems with these – Trans-Siberian Pipeline

How energy supplies can be disrupted e.g. Russia

Environment impacts of looking for more energy e.g. Tar Sands in Canada, Arctic Oil

Who they key players are in supplying future oil – OPEC, TNCs - Gazprom

Why we are uncertain about the future of energy

The advantages and disadvantages of the possible futures

How energy insecurity will lead to geopolitical tensions e.g. USA involvement in Middle

East, China and India

How can meet our future energy needs?


Key Terms Energy Pathways Supply routes between energy producers and consumers e.g. pipelines or

shipping routes

Energy Poverty When a country or region has insufficient access to reliable sources of power

Energy Security This is vital to the functioning of any economy – any country that is self-

sufficient in energy resources will be secure

Energy surplus When a country or region has more than enough sources of power for its needs

and is able to export its surplus power to other countries

Geopolitics Political relations among nations, particularly relating to claims and disputes

regarding boarders and resources

Low-carbon standard Initiative introduced in California in 2007 aimed to reducing the carbon

intensity of transportation fuel by 10% by 2020

OPEC The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries e.g. Iran, Iraq, Kuwait

Peak Oil The year in which the world or an individual oil-producing country reaches its

highest level of production, production declines after

Security Premium The extra cost built into the price of oil to allow for any disruption in supply

Strategic Something that is done as part of a plan that is meant to achieve a particular

purpose or to gain an advantage

Supply shock A significant interruption to supply due to an environmental, economic or

political event

Tar Sands Naturally occurring mixtures of sand or clay, water and dense form of

petroleum called bitumen

Energy crisis A serious shortage of energy which interrupts domestic supplies and impacts

on all sectors of the economy

Environmental impact

assessment

Details all of the impacts on the environment of an energy type or another

project above a certain size

Fossil fuels Fuels consisting of hydrocarbons (coal, oil and natural gas) formed by the

decomposition of prehistoric organisms

Renewable resources Sources of energy such as solar and wind power that are not depleted as they

are used

Strategic Petroleum

Reserve

The USA’s reserve supply of oil which should last for about 3 months in the

event of severe interruptions to imported oil

Energy

infrastructure

The built environment constructed for the exploration, development and

production of energy, and all the networks

Energy TNCs Transnational corporations that specialise in the exploration, development,

production and sale of energy products

Resource

nationalisation

When a country decides to place part or all of one or a number of natural

resources e.g. oil under state ownership

Carbon credit A permit that allows an organisation to emit a specified amount of greenhouse

gases

Carbon Trading A company that does not use up the level of emissions it is entitled to can sell

the remainder to another company

Coal gasification A process which converts solid coal into a gas that can be used for power

generation

Green taxation Taxes levied to discourage behaviour that will be harmful to the environment

Microgeneration Generators producing electricity with an output of less than 50KW


How energy sources can be classified and the advantages and

disadvantages of these The main way to classify energy is between renewable, non-renewable and recyclable sources

Renewable = can be used over and over again e.g. wind and solar power (also known as FLOW

RESOURCES)

Non-renewable = these are finite resources so as they are used up the stock that remains behind is

reduced (also known as STOCK RESOURCES)

Recyclable resources = fuel that has been used once can be used again to generate power e.g. nuclear

reprocessing can make uranium waste reusable

Energy source Type Issues

Coal Non-renewable Releases large amounts of Co2 contributing to

climate change e.g. 2 billion tonnes from USA

plants per year

Carbon capture technology to remove Co2 is

unproven

Natural Gas Non-renewable Releases Co2 on use

Issues of security of supply

Nuclear Non-renewable (may be

recyclable)

Health risks and accidents e.g. Chernobyl

Disposal of radioactive material an issue

Oil Non-renewable Global supplies may have reached their peak

Release Co2 when burnt

Solar Renewable Availability varies across the globe

Expensive compared with fossil fuels

Tidal Renewable Only certain locations suitable

Technology for large-scale generation unproven

Wind Renewable Only certain locations suitable

Wind energy is variable so hard to manage power

supply

Biomass Renewable Acts as a carbon sink so combustion releases

carbon dioxide

Limited potential for large sale generation

Geothermal Renewable Availability limited to a few locations e.g.

Iceland

Hydro-

electricity

Renewable and recyclable Large scale schemes are expensive

Dam building creates wide scale flooding


Reasons for global variations in energy access and consumption

Distribution of energy reserves:

Why energy supply varies:

1) Physical:

Deposits of fossil fuels are only found in a limited number of places

Solar power needs a large number of days a year with strong sunlight

Large power stations require flat land and stable foundations

2) Economic

Onshore deposits of oil and gas are cheaper to develop then offshore deposits

In poor countries foreign direct investment is essential to develop energy resources

Most accessible and low cost deposits of fossil fuels are developed first

3) Political

Countries wanting to develop nuclear power need to gain permission from the

International Atomic Energy Agency

International agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol can influence energy decisions

OIL:

In 2007 the Middle East = 30.8%

of oil production

N. America = 16.5%

Saudi Arabia dominates

production 12.6% of world’s

total

Russia accounts for over ½ of

production for Europe and

Eurasia

COAL:

China produced 41.1% of global

coal in 2007

USA produces 18.7%

NATURAL GAS:

Russia and USA produce 40% of

world’s total

WIND

Germany world

leader at

23.6%

Germany, USA

and Spain

account for

58% globally

HEP:

China, Canada,

Brazil and

USA account

for 46% of

global total


HEP schemes on ‘international’ rivers require the agreement of all countries that share

the river

Energy consumption

It is important to note that the use of energy in all countries has changed over time due to:

Technological developments nuclear power only been available since 1954

Increasing national wealth incomes increase resulting in increasing use of energy

Changes in demand Britain’s trains were powered by coal

Changes in price Electricity production in UK switched from coal to gas power stations are

they are cheaper to run

Environmental factors/public opinion can influence decisions made by governments

Factors effecting energy security

Energy security has a number of risks:

1) Physical – exhaustion of reserves or disruption of supply lines

MEDCs: The USA shows huge demands

for energy resources

Germany and UK have improved

their energy efficiency resulting

in a modest increase in demand

compared with NICs

NICs: China accounts for

1/3rd of the growth in

global oil demand

since 2000

Demand for oil in

China is expected to

rise by 5-7% year

Developing Countries:

Most are struggling to pay for their energy

requirements

Energy demand is influenced by rate of

economic development and rate of population

growth

In the world 2 billion people lack access to

household electricity

Traditional biomass in these countries accounts

for 90% of total energy consumption


2) Environmental – Protests about environmental change caused by exploitation of energy

resources

3) Economic – sudden rises in costs of energy forcing increased imports of higher-priced energy

4) Geopolitical – political instability in energy-producing regions

The energy security of a country can be measured using the ‘Energy Security Index’ (ESI).

This is based upon:

- Availability – the amount of a country’s domestic oil and gas supplies and its level of reliance

on imported resources

- Diversity – the range of energy resources used

- Intensity – the degree to which the economy of a country is dependent on oil and gas

The higher the index, the lower the risk and therefore the greater the energy security

Case Study: Energy Security Issues: California Case Study

Facts:

Largest state in the USA

Lowest per capita energy consumption rate in the USA due to mild weather

16% of USA oil reserves, but only 3% of gas reserves

Produces 5% of USA total electricity

More motor vehicles that any other state

Why is the USA in energy crisis?

1) Consumption In 2007 USA consumed 23.8% of the world’s oil

2) Reliance on imports Between 1960 and 2003 USA’s reliance on imported gas and oil

increased by 18% to 58%

9/11 terrorist attack highlight concerns on dependence on imports from the Middle

East

3) Price In 2006 the price of oil had risen from $20 to $60 per barrel . In 2008 the oil

was $140

4) Reserves of fossil fuels are being to run out reserves should last for between 40-65 years

5) Global sources of energy are unevenly distributed most are concentrated in politically

unstable parts of the world

6) Demand for energy is increasing the growth of economies in China and India has meant more

competition for resources

So why is California suffering an energy crisis?

Due to the fact that the US energy market is privatised the market is driven by the desire to make

most profit. Between June 2000 and May 2001 California experienced a series of blackouts due to

various factors:

a. The weather:

2000 was the 3rd years of drought so less surplus energy due to lack of hydro-

electricity from surrounding states

Summer was very hot so increased demand for air-conditioning

Winter was unusually cold so increased need for heating

b. Insufficient generating capacity strong anti-pollution laws in the 1970s meant energy

companies were unwilling to build new power stations that were expensive

c. Limited capacity of power lines to important more electricity


d. Eron used supply and demand to ensure energy prices remained high enough when supply was

good

Therefore the two major power companies in California were forced to shut off electricity supplies

to conserve limited stocks

Impact of growing global energy demand e.g. China case Study

Background:

In 2001, China accounted for 10% of global energy demand, in 2007 it was 15%

Per capita energy demand is still relatively small due to its huge population (e.g. 2006 consumed

less than 7 million barrels/day a 1/3rd of USA)

Controls 3% of world oil reserves (enabled China to be self-sufficient until 1995)

Causes of rising demand:

1. Since 1949 China has been a communist country separate from the rest of the world, however

in 1986 the government developed an ‘Open-Door Policy’ to overseas investment.

2. 1990s became more of a capitalist economy allowing individuals to accumulate wealth = still not

a free-market economy as most companies are state owned (LINK TO SUPERPOWER UNIT)

3. Rising energy demand is due to both economic growth and the demands of the new industry

but also rapid urbanisation and growing car ownership

Rural-urban migration in China is 8.5 million people per year (45million expected to move

to the cities by 2012)

Car ownership to grow from 16 cars per 1000 people in 2002, to 267 cars per 1000

people in 2030 (by 2020 expected to have 140 million private cars on the road)

Only uses 10% of its energy for transport currently but will need huge amounts in the

future

Where does the energy come from?

Coal – Relies on coal for 70% of its electricity generation and the huge demand means China is

building on average 3 coal-fired power stations a week. Creates environmental problems for them e.g.

Beijing Olympics. Majority of the coal is located in the north and west, whilst industry is located in

the south and east.

HEP – Accounts for 16% of china’s energy production e.g. Three Gorges Dam and China aims to build

HEP dams on all of its major rivers

Oil – Oil production has now peaked and exploration into offshore fields has begun, however

territorial disagreements in the South China Sea is making this difficult importing more oil

Future:

China’s energy security problems matter to the rest of the world due to its size and the impact that

an increase in demand would have on everyone else. However is energy dependency is only 12%

compared with USA of 40% and Japan of 80%.

Potential Exam Question: Discuss how far economic development can be affected by energy security (15 marks)

Impact of geopolitics on energy security


Energy security demands on resource availability, both domestic and foreign, and security of supply.

It can be affected by geopolitics because there is little excess capacity to ease pressure on energy

supplies if supply becomes disrupted. For example, following the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, the Arab

nations reduced the supply of oil to the USA and Western Europe to reduce their support for Israel

– this created a serious energy shortage.

Since then in 1977 the USA construction a ‘Strategic Petroleum Reserve’ with the initial aim to store

1 billion barrels of oil which could be used in the event of supply issues.

Energy pathways problems with these Energy pathways between producers and consumers highlight the considerable levels of risk

involved in the energy industry.

Patterns:

Oil has a complex global pattern of PATHWAYS and PLAYERS (exporters and importers).

The Middle East exports around 15 000 barrels per day, mainly to Japan, Europe and CHINA.

Substantial amounts flow from Africa, Canada and South and Central America TO the USA.

Russia supplies some oil to CHINA, but the bulk of its exports now head to Europe.

Gas pathways are different in that they tend to be localised and regional rather than global.

Traditionally gas is transported through pipelines, whereas oil has been transported by ship.

A possible future is that as movement through pipeline becomes less dependable (for political

reasons); there will be a switch towards shipping gas in tankers as LNG.

Physical and human causes of disruption:

Long running tensions in the Middle East e.g. destruction of oil wells during Iraq war

consumed 6 million barrels of oil a day for 8 months

Hurricane Katrina in 2005 affecting oil production and refining in the Gulf of Mexico

causing oil and petrol prices to rise

In 2005 – explosions and fires at Buncefield Oil Storage Depot destroyed fuel worth £10

million. It supplies Heathrow and as a result had to ration fuel

2006 and 2008 disputes between Russian and Ukraine disrupted gas supplies to Western

Europe.

Trans-

Siberi

an

Pipelin

e


The pipeline project was proposed in 1978 as an export pipeline from Russia to Europe. The pipeline

was constructed in 1982-1984. The pipeline runs from Siberia's gas field to Uzhgorod in Western

Ukraine. From there, the natural gas is transported to Central and Western European countries.

Trans-Alaskan pipeline crosses 3 mountain ranges and several large rivers. In these areas there are

issues of permafrost and to avoid this pipelines are build above ground

How energy supplies can be disrupted e.g. Russia

Background:

• Tensions between Russia and Ukraine have been high since 2004,

when pro-Western forces led by President Viktor Yushchenko

won control of the government over Viktor Yanukovych, a

Moscow ally. Russia also opposes Ukraine’s desire to join the

North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the EU.

• The EU gets a quarter of its gas supplies from Russia - 80% of

which passes through Ukraine

What sparked the crisis?

• Ukraine and Russia have faced negotiations over the renewal of gas supply contracts every year,

but by midnight on 31 December 2008 they had failed to agree on the price Kiev should pay in

2009.

• This has happened 3 times before but this year, gas supplies were completely halted from 7

January, after Russia accused Ukraine of siphoning off gas meant for European customers, leaving

more than a dozen countries without their expected supplies of Russian gas.

• The European Union called the supply cut "completely unacceptable", demanded immediate

restoration and entered into shuttle diplomacy between Kiev and Moscow.

• A deal reached on 12 January, whereby EU and Russian observers would monitor supplies across

Ukraine collapsed within hours. The EU said both sides had failed to meet its terms.

• The two countries also failed to agree on a price Russia would pay Ukraine for gas transit to

Europe.

Impacts:

• Some, like Bulgaria, Serbia and Bosnia, are almost completely dependent on supplies via Ukraine

and so were left with major shortages, during a very cold spell in Europe.

• In the meantime European countries had to shut down industrial plants and domestic heating

systems, find alternative sources of gas or switch energy plants to oil. Schools were shut and

people had to revert to using log fires to heat their homes.

Europe’s energy security – should they be worried?


Yes:

The amount of gas Russia supplies to Europe means that any disruptions have large-scale impacts

No:

Even during the Cold war the supply of Russian gas was stable and the Europe is now looking to

enhance its energy security through:

• Reducing its dependence on Russia—building of the South Caucasus pipeline supplying gas from

Azerbaijan via Turkey, bypassing Russian territory altogether

• Press Russia and Ukraine to sign long-term contracts, with accepted pricing formulae, similar

to those that Gazprom already has with most EU countries.

• Diversify its sources of energy, something that it must do anyway if it is to meet its ambitious

climate-change targets.

Potential Exam Question: Russia uses its oil and gas as a political and economic weapon. Discuss

Environment impacts of looking for more energy

Tar Sands in Canada This place contains up to 2.5 trillion barrels of oil – that is more

than Saudi Arabia’s reserves

Oil sands are made of sand, water and a hydrocarbon tar called

bitumen. Since the rising oil prices and technological advances they

have now become more feasible to extract.

Alberta’s tar sands produced a million barrels of oil a day in 2003

and expected to reach 3.5 million a day by 2011. By 2030 they aim to produce at least 5 million a day

and export the surplus.

Problems:

Oil in the shale is not easily separated out so immense amount of heat is needed usually

through burning natural gas

Process uses huge amounts of water e.g. every barrel of oil produced requires 4 barrels of

water. The water then also becomes polluted where is can damage ecosystems

Issue of disposing of the shale once the oil has been removed

Very expensive and only viable when oil costs over $30 a barrel (costs $15 per barrel

compared with $2 for convectional crude oil)

Processes tar sands are a large source of greenhouse gas emissions

470km2 of forest have been removed and lakes of toxic waste cover 130km2

Benefits:

Alternative source of oil during times of political or access issues

By 2030 the tar sands could meet 16% of North America’s demand for oil ENERGY

SECURITY

Provide additional source of energy until more renewable sources can be found

Mining companies are required to replant land disturbed by mining

Oil is vital to Canada’s economy (2007= 20% of exports)


Players involved: 1. Canada and Venezuela (countries containing Tar Sands

2. TNCs e.g. Shell and BP

3. Alberta Energy Research Institute

4. Environmental groups e.g. Greenpeace

5. Local people (those employed by the companies or those affected by pollution)

Arctic Oil This place is estimated to contain up to 25% of the world’s

undiscovered oil and natural gas. Issue regarding who can lay

claim to which parts of the ocean – Russia has claimed nearly

half of the Arctic but other interested parties e.g. USA,

Norway failed to uphold their claim.

Problems:

Oil companies have already destroyed large parts of

Alaska and Siberia so should be kept out of the Arctic

New oil rush in the Arctic is only possible because of

the increased shrinking of the polar ice cap due to global warming

The Arctic is a pristine environment containing over 45 species of land and marine animals

Issue over who has the right to claim ownership of the natural resources – countries who have

been conflicting over this have now agreed to sign the UN Law of the Sea Convection stating

the 8 Arctic states are allowing to exploit offshore resources within 200 nautical miles of

their territory

Benefits:

At around $70 per barrel it makes drilling in the Arctic viable. (2007 prices reached $100).

Contains up to 25% of the world’s undiscovered oil and natural gas

Players involved:

1. Arctic States – USA, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark, Finland, Sweden and Iceland

2. UN – will decide the control of the Arctic by 2020

3. Local people

4. Environmental Pressure groups

Who they key players are in supplying future oil

Energy TNCs e.g. Shell


Historically the energy industries have been dominated by large TNCs such as Shell but the power of

the TNCs has been challenged by OPEC and recently national energy companies. This is due to the

fact that TNCs have come under attack from environmental groups and companies like BP have

worked hard to establish a positive public image through investments in renewable energies.

Shell consists of a global group of energy and petrochemicals companies with a strategy to reinforce

their position as a leader in the oil and gas industry in order. One of their focuses has been to

explore for new oil and gas reserves.

Key Facts:

Produce 2% amount of world’s oil

Produce 3% amount of world’s gas

3.1 million barrels of gas and oil every day

$2 billion spent on CO2 and renewable energy technologies over the last 5 years.

In 2009 greenhouse gas emissions were approximately 35% below 1990 levels.

OPEC

The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a

permanent intergovernmental organization of 12 oil-exporting

developing nations

OPEC was formed in 1960 to protect the interests of oil-producing

companies and have formed what some view as a CARTEL. Its sets

oil production quotas for its members in response to economic

growth rates and demand-and-supply conditions. It therefore aims to ensure fair and stable prices

for its members.

At the end of 2006, the OPEC members had over 78% of the world’s total oil reserves and they

produce around 45% of the world’s crude oil and 18% of its natural gas.

OPEC is criticised that it controls the price of oil as it is worried that increasing the supply of oil

would mean investors would stop investing causing a collapse in the price.

Why we are uncertain about the future of energy

It is hard to predict energy demand as it is strongly affected by economic growth rates,

conservation of resources and the pace at which the world can switch to renewable sources of power.

It is thought that world oil demand will grow by 32% by 2020 and global gas demand by 48%.

The issue of Peak Oil:

The International Energy Agency predicted peak oil production to occur between 2013 and 2037,

whilst USA Geological Survey predicted it is at least 50 years away.


The advantages and disadvantages of the possible futures

Business as usual If we do nothing forecasts predict that by 2030:

Global primary energy demand will rise by 53%

Fossil fuels will remain the dominant source of energy worldwide

Emissions from electricity generation will account for 44% of energy-related emissions

Over 70% increase in the energy demand will come from developing countries due to rapid

economic growth and population growth

Nuclear By 2008, 439 nuclear reactors were supplying 15% of the world’s electricity

Does not produce greenhouse gas emissions

Uranium is relatively cheap to mine and reserves should last around 150 years

Very cost effective to transport as only used in small quantities

Produces 1% of global electricity supply

1986 Chernobyl incident highlights the issues

Very expensive to build – several billion pounds

Nuclear waste disposal is an issue as it remains radioactive for 10,000 years

Renewable energy with the emphasis on wind power Costs of generating wind today are about 10% of what they were 20 years ago

In some areas first generation wind turbines are being replaced with modern turbines which

give better performance

NIMBY – people are concerned that the turbines could blight their homes and views

Turbines can kill birds

Suitable areas are often near the coast where land is expensive


Energy Conservation a) Combined Heat and Power (CHP) power stations waste 65% of the heat they generate but

CHP plants can be up to 95% efficient as they can use different fuels in the same boiler

including biomass but also cut emissions and reduce fuel dependency

b) Green Taxation aimed at cutting the use of natural resources and encouraging recycling. E.g.

road tax increase in 2010 will see 9.4 million motorists pay more road tax aimed to punishing

heaviest polluting cars. The government will receive more that £1billion in additional revenue.

How energy insecurity will lead to geopolitical tensions

USA Involvement in the Middle East In March 2003 USA and allied forces invaded Iraq (4th largest oil reserves in the world); the then

leader was considered to pose a threat to the security of Western oil supplies in the Middle East as

he was making deals with Russian and Chinese oil companies. Before the invasion the USA put

pressure on Iraq to admit it had stockpiled weapons of mass destructions or faces military action.

The USA goal in invading Iraq was to reduce its dependence on Saudi Arabia for oil and increase its

energy security by introducing a new supplier, Iraq. The USA hoped that its involvement in Iraq and

Afghanistan would democratise the Middle East. However, America is excluded from deals between

Russia, China and Iran and is fighting hard to secure oil by means of energy pathways running through

friendly countries.

China vs. India India’s demand for energy has grown due to high economic growth rates, lack of energy-efficient

technologies, reliance on heavy industry and widespread power stealing. In 2005 oil imports

accounted for 2/3rds of India’s oil consumption and China is seen to be much more energy secure

than India. In terms of investment India is also behind with only $3.5nillion in overseas exploration

compared with $40 billion made by China. Various policies have been introduced:

India will have to rely on imported oil and gas in the short term required increased

diplomacy with South Asia etc

Investing in offshore gas fields in Vietnam

However, India has strained relations with energy suppliers and the countries that the supplies have

to pass through.

How can meet our future energy needs?


Emissions controls – Kyoto Protocol adopted in 1997 aimed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Countries are required to achieve specific reductions in their greenhouse emissions (average of 5%

against 1990 levels by 2012). The USA refused to sign

Emissions trading – EU emission Trading Scheme meant that heavy industrial plants have to buy

permits to emit greenhouse gases over the limit they are allowed by government. Under the Kyoto

Protcol carbon emissions are now tracked and traded like a commodity so that any excess reductions

can be sold in the ‘carbon market’

Green taxes – Taxes on individuals for using air transport and pollution charges on companies. Other

ideas are aimed to reduce energy consumption such as removing stamp duty on carbon neutral homes

Offshore wind turbines – Building offshore costs at least 50% more than on land but wind speeds are

generally double those on land so they can generate more electricity.

Carbon storage – this involves capturing the carbon dioxide released by burning coal and burying it

deep underground, but it is not proved that the carbon dioxide will actually stay underground and it is

very expensive.

Geothermal – In the Philippines 25% of the electricity is generated from underground heat which is

free and available all day. However, the heat is often too deep to be economical.

Bio fuels – algae – There are 3 main types; crops e.g. grasses, sugar, trees and algae. Algae are hard

to grow but produce oil that requires less refining before it becomes a bio fuel.

What types of questions have been asked?

Study Figure 1.

(Explain why oil exploration in the areas shown could lead to high economic and environmental costs.

(10)


Assess the relative importance of named players in the global supply of energy. (15)

The development of alternative energy sources is a possible response to future energy demands.

Assess the possible costs and benefits of this approach. (15)

Explain how the world price of oil has a major impact on oil exploration by TNCs and governments (10)

Assess the potential environmental, economic and political risks in exploiting new energy resources

(15)

Suggest how the contrasting distribution/pattern of major oil exporters and importers shown in

Figure 1 could affect the energy security of some nations. (10)


Study

Figure 1.

Suggest the possible environmental consequences of the changes in electricity consumption shown.

(10 marks)

Assess the degree of uncertainty over future global sources of energy supply (15 marks)

Topic 2: Water Conflicts


What do I need to know? Physical factors affecting water supply – Climate, river systems and Geology Example

of California to support

How water stress can occur – Agriculture, Industry, Domestic use and supply

Examples of China and India to support 3

How Human activity can make water stress worse – pollution, over extraction and salt

water incursion

How water supply is linked to development Water Poverty Index – examples of Canada

and Ethiopia

Aral Sea case study – role of different key players here and impacts

Conflicts over the same water source – examples of Middle East, Ganges and Nile

Geopolitics of water supply within a country – example of Colorado River Basin USA and

Helsinki Rules

What water future are going to be

How different key players opinions on future water usage may conflict

Dams as a solution – example of 3 Gorges Dam, China. Impacts of these

Water transfer schemes as a solution. Learn the pros and cons of 2 of China transfer,

Ebro River, Snowy Mountain or Turkey to Israel

How Restoration can solve the problems – example of River Kissimmee and Aral sea

Role of Water Aid ( NGO) in solving problems

How we can conserve water

Role of technology in solving future problems e.g. desalinisation, drip irrigation, GM crops


Key Terms Aquifer A rock, such as chalk, which will hold water and let it through

Arid and semi-arid Describe conditions where rainfall is less than 250mm and 500mm of

precipitation per year respectively

Desalination The conversion of salt water into fresh water

Drought An extended period of abnormally dry weather that causes water shortages and

crop damage. A drought starts when total rainfall is well below average for

several months.

El Nino A southerly warm ocean current, which develops off the coast of Ecuador, it is

associated with major variations in tropical climates

Groundwater All water found under the surface of the ground which is not chemically

combined with any minerals present, but not including underground streams

High pressure A region of high atmospheric pressure, otherwise known as an anticyclone

Infiltration The process of the water entering rocks or soil

Irrigation The supply of water to the land by means of channels, streams and sprinklers in

order to permit the growth of crops

La Nina An extensive cooling of the central and eastern Pacific. Globally La Nina means

that parts of the world that normally experience dry weather will be drier and

those with wet weather will be wetter.

Percolation The filtering of water downwards through soil and through bedding planes,

joints and pores of a permeable rock

Potential

Evapotranspiration

The amount of evaporation and transpiration that can occur given a sufficient

supply of water

Precipitation The deposition of moisture from the atmosphere onto the Earth’s surface in

form of rain, hail, snow, frost or sleet

Prevailing Most frequent, most common

Privatisation The sale of a business/industry so that it is no longer owned by the government

Rain shadow An area of relatively low rainfall to the lee side of uplands (sheltered from

winds). The incoming air has been forced to rise over the highlands causing

precipitation on the windward side

Relief Rainfall This forms when moisture-laden air masses are forced to rise over ground. The

air is cooled, the water vapour condenses, and precipitation occurs

Riparian Relating to a river bank. Owners of land crossed or bounded by a river have

‘riparian’ rights to use the river

Spatial imbalance The uneven distribution/location across a landscape or surface of e.g. population

Stream flow The flow of water in streams, rivers and other channels.

Surface runoff The movement of over ground of rainwater. It occurs when the rainfall is very

heavy and when the rocks and soil can absorb no more

Urbanisation The migration of rural populations into towns and cities.

Virtual water The amount of water used in the production of a good or service

Water rights The legal right of a user to use water from a water source e.g. a river

Water Scarcity Can be divided into ‘apparent scarcity’ which exists when there is plenty of

water but it is used wastefully, and ‘real scarcity’ which is caused by

insufficient rainfall or too many people relying on a limited resource

Water Stress Measured as annual water supplies below 1,700m3 per person

Water wars International conflict as a result of pressure on water supplies.

World Water Gap The difference between those people, who live in water poverty and those who


have ready and reliable access to water for drinking and sanitation

Physical factors affecting water supply – Climate, river systems

and Geology

Case Study: Factors affecting California’s water supply

Geographical Controls on water supply:

Mountain chains run parallel to the coast and prevent moist air reaching inland

Most rainfall falls in a coastal zone no more than 250km wide

South and far east of California receive under 100mm of rainfall due to the rain shadow cast by

the Sierra Nevada mountains

High pressure systems over the Pacific ocean block moist air currents reaching southern

California

Most of the major rivers are fed by snowmelt from the Sierra Nevada Mountains.

In recent years extended droughts have meant groundwater and surface storage levels have

decreased

Threats:

a) Precipitation

Much of California is arid with annual average precipitation of between 200-500mm

65% of precipitation is lost through Evapotranspiration, 13% flows out to sea = only 22%

for human use

50% of the rain falls between November and March = seasonal shortages

b) Population


Has grown from 2 million people in 1900 to 37.7 million in 2007

Spatial imbalance as three quarters of demand for water comes from areas south of the

Sacramento – 75% of the rain falls to the north

Increasing demands for water exceed natural supplies

How water stress can occur – Agriculture, Industry, Domestic use

and supply

Water stress occurs when demand for water exceeds the amount available during a certain period,

or when poor quality restricts its use. Therefore when a country’s water consumption is more than

10% of its renewable freshwater rate it is said to be water stressed.

During the 20th Century water consumption has increased by 600% due to population growth and

economic development:

Farming uses 70% of all water and in LEDCs this is up to 90%

Industrial and domestic use has to compete with farming needs as a country develops

Daily domestic water use on average is 47 litres per person in Africa, compared with 578

litres in the USA

This has lead to the development of a world water gap with 1.4 billion lacking clean drinking water and

12% of the world’s population consuming 85% of the world’s water.

Agriculture some forms of farming are less water efficient than others e.g. a kg of beef is 10x

more water costly to produce then a kg of rice. 17% of the global area used for growing crops is

irrigated.

Industry 21% used for industry but rapid growth expected since the development of countries

such as India and China. Industry is generally a more efficient user of water then farming.

Domestic Only 10% of world’s water is used for this purpose but this varies from country to

country. Domestic demand seems to be doubling every 20 years.

Named Examples: India vs. China

India

4% of the world’s freshwater but 16% of the population

Demand will exceed supply by 2020

Water tables are falling rapidly as 21 million wells are used

China

8% of the world’s freshwater but 22% of the population

2/3rds of cities do not have enough water all year round

Stress levels expected to occur by 2030


Annual population growth rate is about 2.5% in Beijing

Water table has been lowered in some areas by 40m

How Human activity can make water stress worse – pollution, over

extraction and salt water incursion

Key factors:

a) Sewage disposal in developing countries is expected to cause 135 million deaths by 2020. In the

UK we add 1,400 million litres of sewage to our rivers daily although most of it has been treated

b) Chemical fertilisers contaminate groundwater as well as river and water supplies. These add

nutrients to the water leading to an increase in the growth of algae downstream.

c) Industrial waste – every year the world generate 400 billion tonnes of industrial waste which is

pumped untreated into rivers, seas etc.

d) Dams – trap sediment in reservoirs which reduces floodplain fertility and the flow of nutrient

from rivers into seas.

e) Abstraction – removing water from rivers and groundwater sources can cause issues that in some

arid areas rainfall can never recharge these underground stores and the removal of freshwater

from aquifers in coastal locations can lead to salt water incursion.

How water supply is linked to development Water Poverty Index

Water insecurity means not having access to sufficient, safe water. Around 20 developing countries

are classified as ‘water scarce’. Water scarcity occurs for 2 main reasons:

1) Physical scarcity – shortages occur because demand exceeds supply

2) Economic scarcity - people cannot afford water, even when it is readily available

The Water Poverty Index was established in 2002 and uses 5 parameters:

Resources – the quantity of surface and groundwater per person, and its quality

Access – the time and distance involved in obtaining sufficient and safe water

Capacity – how well the community manages its water

Use – how economically water is used in the home and by agriculture and industry

Environment – ecological sustainability (green water –freshwater taken from rainwater stores

in the soil as soil moisture)

Each of these is scored out of 20 to give a maximum of 100

How water links to poverty:

Lack of water hampers attempts to reduce

poverty and encourage development. Improved

water supply can increase food production, bring

better health and provide better standards of

wellbeing.


Named Examples: Canada vs. Ethiopia

These 2 countries are at the opposite ends of the spectrum when looking at water and development.

Canada Ethiopia

Each household uses 800 litres per person

per day

Water used for lawns, parks and swimming

pools

Issues of rising water bills and leakages

Water poverty index = 78

Water use agricultural = 12%

Water use industrial = 69%

Water use domestic = 20%

GNI ($ per person) = 33,170

Population in 2000 (millions) = 30

Each person uses 1 litre per day

Water is fetched daily from a shared

source

Issues of water shortages, pollution and

risk of disease

Water poverty index = 45

Water use agricultural = 93%

Water use industrial = 6%

Water use domestic = 1%

GNI ($ per person) = 170

Population in 2000 (millions) = 62.9

What problems can the use of water sources create? Secure water supplies are needed to support irrigation and food production, manufacturing and

energy generation. However the use of water resources can lead to various problems. E.g. the

depletion of underground aquifers and salinisation of the soil.


Aral Sea case study – role of different key players here and

impacts

Location: north-western part of Uzbekistan and southern

Kazakhstan

Background: Formerly, one of the four largest lakes of the world

with an area of 68,000 square kilometers, the Aral Sea has been

steadily shrinking since the 1960s.

Causes:

In the early 1960's, the Soviet central government decided to make

the Soviet Union self-sufficient in cotton and increase rice

production. Government officials ordered the additional amount of needed water to be taken from

the two rivers that feed the Aral Sea. Large dams were built across both rivers, and an 850-mile

central canal with a far-reaching system of "feeder" canals was created.

Impacts:

1) Over 30 years, the Aral Sea experienced a severe drop in water level, its shoreline receded,

and its salt content increased. The water level has dropped by 16 metres and the volume has

been reduced by 75%

2) The marine environment became hostile to the sea life in it, killing the plants and animals. As

the marine life died, the fishing industry suffered. All 20 known fish species in the Aral Sea

are now extinct, unable to survive the toxic, salty sludge.

3) The sea has shrunk to two-fifths of its original size and now ranks about 10th in the world.

4) Drinking water supplies have dwindled, and the water is contaminated with pesticides and

other agricultural chemicals as well as bacteria and viruses.

5) Highly toxic pesticides and other harmful chemicals are blown from the dried-up sea

creating dust containing these toxic chemicals.

6) As the Aral Sea has lost water, the climate has become more extreme.

7) Respiratory illnesses including tuberculosis and cancer, digestive disorders and infectious

diseases are common ailments in the region.

8) There is a high child mortality rate of 75 in every 1,000 newborns and maternity death of 12

in every 1,000 women.

9) The Aral Sea fishing industry, which use to employ 40,000 and reportedly produced one-

sixth of the Soviet Union's entire fish catch, has been ruined

The stakeholders involved:

The former soviet government – began the irrigation scheme designed to develop fruit and cotton

farming

Fishing community – use to be a prosperous industry but now huge unemployment

Local residents – health problems and highest infant mortality rates in the world

Scientists – climate has now changed and extinction of species in the area

International economists – people can no longer feed themselves as the land is infertile, could

create 10 million environmental refugees


Conflicts over the same water source

Water conflicts occur when the demand for water overtakes the supply and several stakeholders

wish to use the same resource. Conflict is more likely where developing countries are involved as

water is vital to feed their growing populations and promote industrial development. The UN reports

there are around 300 potential water conflicts in the world. Some examples include:

China vs. India due to the Brahmaputra River

Turkey vs. Syria and Iraq due to the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers

India vs. Pakistan due to the Indus River

Case Study: Middle East Water conflicts

The Middle East is one of the most water-scarce regions in the world.

Due to population growth, increasing affluence (demands for swimming

pools etc) and the development of irrigated farmlands there are

increasing pressures on the water supplies. Further instability is

created due to:

- Overall scarcity of water but also poor access

- Declining oil reserves with future drop in oil revenues

- rising youthful population and increasing demands

At the moment the Middle East uses revenue from their oil exports to pay for expensive

desalinisation plants to provide extra water, but also pay for water and food imports. No single

country in the Middle East can resolve its water problems without impacting on another country.

Potential conflicts:

1) The Euphrates and Tigris rivers originate in Turkey but supply Syria and Iraq with water. Turkey

wants to dam these rivers to improve incomes in Anatolia (south-east turkey)

2) In 1967, Syria and other Arab states objected to Israel’s National Water Carrier Project and

tried to destroy it. Israel then bombed their attempts to divert the River Jordan from Israel

3) Droughts across the whole region between 1990-2005 increased fears of conflicts

4) Bombing of Lebanese water pipelines by Israel in 2006

Geopolitics of water supply within a country

Often when countries compete for water resources international agreements and treaties have to be

drawn up on how best to manage shared water supplies. Under the Helsinki Rules there is an

agreement that international treaties must include concepts such as equitable use and share.

Therefore the criteria for water sharing should include:

Natural factors – rainfall amounts, share of drainage basin

Social and economic needs – population size, development

Downstream impacts –restricting flow, lowering water tables

Dependency – are alternative water sources available?

Prior use – existing vs. potential use

Efficiency – avoiding waste and mismanagement of water


Case Study - Geopolitics with the USA: The Colorado River

Background – The basin of the Colorado River is the most heavily used source of irrigation water in

the USA. Original water rights were allocated in 1933. Since then a series of treaties between the

7 US states with water rights and between Mexico have been signed. A series of dams has been built

to serve the water needs to 30 million people.

Agreements:

1920s ‘Law of the River’ = divided the water between upper basin states or Colorado, Wyoming, Utah

and New Mexico and their responsibility to supply the lower basin states. California was given

highest proportion of water due to its large population and political power. (Around this time was a

period of higher rainfall and water surpluses)

Stakeholders and conflicts

Issues of developing water pathways

In some areas with a shortage of water one of the solutions is to divert water from one drainage

basin to another. However these can produce political risks


Case Study: The Snowy Mountains Scheme

This scheme involves 16 major dams, 7 power stations and a network of pipes and aqueducts.

P

roblems created:

Creation of storage lakes has destroyed wildlife habitats

Snowy River flow has fallen to 1%

Groundwater salinisation results from low flow

Water scarcity has lead to competition between users

Political fallout meant governments had to restore some of the flow in the Snowy River and invest

in water-saving projects

Record droughts due to El Nino have used up the water allocations

Water future s?

The issues of future projections are that climate change is occurring but its exact impact cannot be

predicted. Also continued economic growth may not be inevitable e.g. credit crunch, finally political

and religious conflicts can create further issues.

Alternative scenarios for water by 2025

Scenario Water Changes by 2025 Wider impacts

Bus

ines

s as

usu

al Water scarcity will reduce food production

Consumption will rise by +50%

Household water use rise by +70%

Industrial water demand in developing

countries will increase

Developing countries will rely on

food imports but increased

hunger

In parts of western USA, China

etc water will be pumped out

faster than can be recharged

Wat

er C

risi

s Global water consumption will increase

Demand for domestic water will fall

Demand for industrial water will +33%

Food production will decline and

food prices increase

Conflict over water between

and within countries will

increase


Sus

tain

able

Wat

er

Global & industrial water use will have to fall

Global rain-fed crop yields increase due to

improvements in water harvesting and

sustainable farming

Agricultural and domestic water prices

double

Food production could increase

slightly

Investment in crop research

and technology would increase

Unsustainable pumping of

groundwater would end

How different key player’s opinions on future water usage may

conflict

Different players and decision makers have key roles to play in securing future water supplies but

their aims may conflict.

Category Players

Political International organisations e.g. UN, regional and local

councils, pressure groups

Economic (Business) World Bank, governments, utility companies e.g.

Thames Water, agriculture, industry, TNCs

Social (Human welfare) Individuals, residents, farmers, consumers, NGOs e.g.

Water Aid

Environmental (sustainable Development) Conservationists, planners, NGOs e.g. WWF

Alternative Strategies for managing water supplies in the future

Hard engineering projects to increase water shortage and transfer

Case Study: China’s Three Gorges Dam

Location: Yangtze River and is the world’s largest hydroelectric scheme

Benefits Costs

18,000MW of electricity generated

Will supply water to the region responsible

for 22% of China’s GDP

Flood protection will save lives and cut

financial losses

Navigational improvements could open up

China’s interior to development

Dammed waters will down 100,000 hectares

1.9 million people will be displaced

Pollution increases as abandoned mines and

factories are flooded

Dam failure, earthquakes and heavy rain could

cause serious issues

Ecological impacts on fishing and habitats

Case Study: China’s South-North Transfer Project

Project began in 2003 and involves building 3 canals to run across the eastern, middle and western

parts of China and link the country’s 4 main rivers.

Benefits Costs


Transfer 44.8 billion m3 per year

Central government to pay 60% of the cost

Water conservation, improved irrigation,

pollution treatment and environmental project

Will supply big cities like Beijing

Significant ecological and environmental

impacts along the waterways

Resettlement of people will be needed

Declining water quality

Will cost $62 billion

Will take 50 years to complete

Restoration

At a local scale this can involve restoring meanders, replanting vegetation and using sustainable

methods to manage watercourses for people and the environment.

Case Study: Restoring the Aral Sea

In 2007 the Kazakhstan government secured a $126 million loan from the World Bank to help save

the northern part of the Aral Sea. The government has already built a dam to split the sea into 2

parts and the new loan is to be used to build a dam to bring the water back into the deserted port of

Aralsk.

Fisherman have been able to resume fishing

Rain has returned

The southern part of the sea is still shrinking

The waters from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya are controlled by other countries

Water conservation

This involves reducing the amount of water used (demand) rather than trying to increase water

supplies. In the UK around 22% of water does not reach the end user due to leakage. Examples

include:

1) Reducing domestic consumption

- installing water meters in every home

- reducing the amount of water used in lavatory cisterns

- planting drought resistant species in ‘water-wise’ gardens

- using grey water to flush the lavatory or water the garden

2) Reducing industry consumption

- installing more efficient systems to reduce water costs

- Agricultural irrigation = use of micro-irrigation techniques using drip irrigation from tubes

reduces the volume of water used

Role of technology in solving future problems

Technology can help increase both water supply and access. Examples include:

Desalination – provides 70% of Saudi Arabia’s water but it is the most expensive option for

water supply due to its energy use

Towing flexible polypropylene bags will with freshwater has been propose e.g. Kielder to Essex

USA uses reverse osmosis membrane technology to filter salt from brackish water


In developing countries ore intermediate technology is more appropriate:

- Water collection e.g. catching rainwater or building small dams

- Wells built by NGOs e.g. Water Aid

- Using plastic or glass bottles filled with contaminated water exposed to the sun for 6 hours

destroys micro-organisms

What questions have been asked?

Using named examples assess the role of different players and decision makers in trying to secure a

sustainable ‘water future’ (15)

Referring to examples, assess the potential for water conflict in areas where demand exceed supply

(15)

Referring to examples, explain why future water supplies for many regions are increasingly insecure

(15)

Referring to examples, assess the validity of the statement that ‘water conflicts are as much to do

with water quality as quantity’ (15)

Suggest how water resources and human wellbeing might be affected by the data in Figure 2 (10)


Explain how physical and human factors have contributed to the variation in water scarcity shown (10)

Jan 2010

Using named examples, assess the contribution of large scale water management projects in

increasing water security (15) Jan 2010

Study Figure 2.

Explain how human interference in the water cycle can affect water availability. (10)

Using named examples, assess the potential for water supply to become a source of conflict. (15)


Topic 3: Biodiversity under Threat

What do I need to know? Ways in which biodiversity can be defined

Key processes and factors that influence biodiversity

Global distribution of biodiversity and biodiversity hotspots

The value of ecosystems

The distribution of threatened areas

Global factors threaten biodiversity

The impact of these threats on ecosystem processes

The link between economic development and ecosystem destruction/degradation

The concept of sustainable yield

The role of different players in managing biodiversity

Spectrum of strategies and policies for managing biodiversity

The future of biodiversity


Key Terms:

Biomass The total amount of organic matter

Biome A major terrestrial ecosystem of the world.

Ecosystem

A system of which both the living organisms and their environment form

components (elements) - these components are linked together by flows

and are separated from the outside by a boundary.

Succession

The gradual and predictable change in plant and animal species over time,

for example bare ground is colonised by plants and there is a series of

sequential replacements as one set of dominant plants replaces the other

Net primary productivity

(NPP)

The difference between the rate of conversion of solar energy into

biomass in an ecosystem and the rate at which energy is used to maintain

the producers of the system

Biotic Living components of an ecosystem

Abiotic The non-living parts of an ecosystem

Goods and services

‘goods’ are direct products that can be derived from an ecosystem and

‘services’ are the benefits that the ecosystem provides

Energy flow The movement of energy through a community

Nutrient cycle

The movement of nutrients in the ecosystem between the three major

stores of the soil, biomass and litter.

biodiversity

The variability amongst living organisms from all sources including

terrestrial, marine and other aquatic systems, and the ecological

complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species,

between species and of ecosystems.

conservation The protection of natural or man-made resources for later use.

Habitat

The place where a particular species lives and grows. It is essentially the

environment- at least the physical environment- that surrounds,

influences and is utilised by a particular species.

Endemic species

Exclusively native to a particular place of region. Endemic species tend to

have a high conservation value.

Sustainable Yield

Key part of sustainable management of ecosystems. It represents the

‘safe’ level of harvest that can be hunted/caught/utilised without

harming the individual ecosystem

Genetic diversity The diversity of genes found within a species

Species diversity The variety of plant/animal species in a given area (habitat)

Ecosystem diversity The variety of different ecosystems and the habitats surrounding them

in a given area, it includes biotic and Abiotic components.

Biodiversity Hotpot An area containing a huge number of species, a large percentage of which

are endemic

WRI (World Resources

Institute)

An economic scorecard which shows the condition of the world’s major

ecosystems and their ability to provide future good and services.

MEA (millennium

ecosystem assessment)

A multi scale assessment commissioned by the UN

Destruction Loss in quantity

Degradation Loss in quality

http://www.tuition.com.hk/geography/e.htm#Ecosystem

http://www.tuition.com.hk/geography/s.htm#Soil

http://www.tuition.com.hk/geography/b.htm#Biomass

http://www.tuition.com.hk/geography/l.htm#Litter_layer


Ways in which biodiversity can be defined

Biodiversity is the total genes, species and ecosystems in a given area. It can be investigated by

looking at diversity within species and also between ecosystems.

Definition Advantages Disadvantages

Genetic diversity – range of

genes found within a particular

species. Variation within

genetic makeup makes it easier

to adapt to changing

environments

Allows accurate picture of

the diversity within a

population

Helps explain how isolated

groups have adapted to new

environments

Difficult to assess without

high-level biological skills as

DNA has to be analysed

Species Diversity – variety of

plants and animal species

present in an ecosystem

On a basic level areas can be

compared

Many species are yet to be

discovered

Need to compare similar size

areas for it to be fair

Ecosystem Diversity – number

of different ecosystems within

a given area

Involves the interaction of

species with each other and

their environment = complex

Hard to know where to place

the boundaries for each area

Needs a consistent set of

criteria

Key processes and factors that influence biodiversity

BIODIVERSITY

Hunting and direct

exploitation of flora

and fauna

Size of the area

and topography

The level of

recording of species

within the region

Human effects

e.g. pollution

Endemism

Rate of nutrient

cycling

Amount of light

Temperature

Altitude

Latitude

More species

can live and

interact in a

larger area

Humans are in

competition with

other species for

space and resources.

As human population

increases = decrease

in biodiversity

Found particularly on

islands, species that

are found nowhere

else and this

increases biodiversity

Lower latitudes = warmer climate

– rapid nutrient cycling

Higher altitude = lower

biodiversity

Temperature extremes =

low biodiversity

The rate in

which plants

photosynthesise

is measured.

TRF have high

GPP = high

biodiversity


Global distribution of biodiversity and biodiversity hotspots

Main patterns:

The top 5 countries with the highest diversity index are found around the EQUATOR or the

TROPICS. Countries with the lowest diversity index are found in either cold countries or ones with

large areas of desert. Greatest biodiversity is found in areas of TROPICAL RAINFOREST with +1/2

the world’s species, although they cover only 7% of the earth’s surface.

Biodiversity Hotpots

This is an area containing a huge number of species, a large percentage of which are endemic. They

cover less than 2% of the earth’s surface but contain 44% of the world’s planet species and 35% of

the animal species. They are divided into 3 categories:

1) Continental hotspots – richest in terms of biodiversity

2) Large island hotspots – have distinctive species

3) Small island hotspots – low in species number but contain a high proportion of endemics

Tropical Rainforests:

Found in South and Central America,

Madagascar, Malaysia and Indonesia

Coral Reefs:

Corals with the greatest

species are found in the

Pacific Ocean and eastern

edge of the Indian Ocean


Named Example: Continental Hotspot – Fynbos, South Africa

Fynbos is the major vegetation type of a small region in South Africa

known as the Cape Flora Kingdom. It is the smallest and richest area with

the highest known concentration of plant species at 1,300 per 10,000km2.

(TTF = 400 per 10,000km2). Home to +7700 plant species, 70% are

endemic. This hotspot was created due to unusual geology and soils,

topography and a distinctive fire regime. However there are a number of

threats:

Spread of alien plants

Commercial forestry using non-native species e.g. European pines

Frequent bush fires

Construction of housing estates around Cape Town

Increased farming

The value of ecosystems

Value can be looked at through direct use values e.g. Uses humans put biodiversity to in terms of

consumption or production and include food, medicines etc. Indirect uses include the services that

biodiversity provides such as soil formation.


Case Study: The Value of a global ecosystem - Coral Reefs Coral reefs are located in shallow seas (no deeper than 25m) with an average annual temperature

about 18°c. Corals are extremely sensitive and the greatest concentration of coral reefs is found in

South-east Asia (30%).

Ecological Value Economic Value Cultural/Aesthetic Value

Coral reefs act as protection

for the coastal, breaking the

power of the waves before

they reach the land

Highly diverse ecosystems

Aquarium trade

Medicine – algae and sponges

contain bioactive compounds

used by the pharmaceutical

industry

Building materials – coral

reefs are mined for lime and

stone in developing countries

Tourism – some Caribbean

countries gain ½ of their

GNP from tourism

Food – in the far east, reef

fisheries feed 1 billion

people

Education and research –

easily accessible from the

shore

Coral and shells are used for

traditional crafts

Recreational use

The distribution of threatened areas


There are various ways of measuring threatened ecosystems:

1) Economic Scorecard shows the ability of ecosystems to produce goods and services

2) The Living Planet Index monitors changes over time in the populations of representative animal

species in various ecosystems

3) Ecological footprint measures the human impact on the planet

4) Red List of endangered species shows species at risk of extinction

5) Millennium Ecosystem Assessment is a multi-scale assessment by the UN

The majority of areas under threat are located with the tropics and areas of lower biodiversity tend

to have lower threat levels as these regions are not in demand for agriculture due to unsuitable

climates.

Factors threatening biodiversity Global Factors:

a) Climate Change – expected that the climate will change so quickly that species will be unable to

adapt. Recent climate changes have shown impacts on the ecosystems:

- laying and fruiting have been advancing by several days each decade

- Coral bleaching due to warming seas has increased since 1980s

- Ocean acidification caused by rising levels of carbon dioxide

- Poleward’s migration of species by an average of 6km per decade

b) Deforestation – clearance of forest cover results in loss of biodiversity and resources but also

has knock-on effects on the food web and nutrient cycling

c) Pollution can cause various issues:

- Ozone depletion due to CFCs

- nitrate pollution of lakes

d) Human population growth – this is forcing people to spread into more areas and is encroaching

onto areas with high biodiversity

Local Factors

a) Fire – was used widely in Europe and N. America to clear forests for development. Controlled

fire as a management option is useful but large-scale burning for soya bean production causes

loss of biodiversity

b) Habitat change – developing natural habitats for agriculture, minerals or urban growth e.g.

overfishing in the North Sea


c) Recreational use – plants are vulnerable to trampling and animals to disturbance

The impact of these threats on ecosystem processes

Energy Flow

Primary producers (green plants) convert sunlight into energy through

photosynthesis, as energy is lost through respiration at each stage,

the amount of biomass at each trophic level decreases. Human action

on one level of the chain has an impact on the others that are

dependent on it e.g. the catching of tertiary consumers

Nutrient cycling

This occurs alongside the flow of energy through an ecosystem and

involves the feedback of miners from decomposed organic material

back into the plants so that they can grow and continue the cycle. In

hot climates of the tropics there is faster nutrient cycling then in

cold regions. People can impact upon the cycle by adding nutrients via

fertilisers, by reducing the biomass through overharvesting and

deforestation, and by degrading the soil. Once deprived of nutrients,

soils are vulnerable to erosion.

Movement of species

The movement of species can occur by accident or deliberately but has a serious threat to

ecosystems. Alien or exotic species can become established at any trophic level and often have:

- enhanced survival rates as they are more efficient competitors

- lack any native predator

- Not susceptible to native diseases

Deliberate introductions include:

1) Game species such as pheasant and rainbow trout for hunting

2) Hedgehog was imported from the Scottish mainland to the Outer Hebrides to deal with a

plague of garden slugs but have since effected the populations of ground nesting birds whom

they eat the eggs of

Accidental introductions include:

1) Alien species can arrive by ship e.g. Zebra mussel arrived in North America from the Caspian

Sea by clinging on the sides of ships. These were brought into the Great Lakes where the

multiplied to 70,000 per km2

2) Air transport was responsible for introducing snakes to the Pacific Island of Guam which had

huge impacts on the food web

Nutrient Overload

Excess nutrients are washed into the lakes and rivers but this has been increased by the human use

of fertilisers etc. The extra nutrients cause increase growth in plants but also the growth of algal

Litter

Soil

Biomass

Growth or uptake pathway

Weathering Leaching

Runoff

Precipitation


blooms which block out the light causing plants to die out. This uses up the oxygen in the water

leading to further deaths and the food chain collapses The extra nutrients cause increase growth in

plants but also the growth of algal blooms which block out the light causing plants to die out. This

uses up the oxygen in the water leading to further deaths and the food chain collapses

Eutrophication.

The link between economic development and ecosystem destruction/

degradation The shift of countries from economies based on primary industries, to mixed industries including

manufacturing and industry has put huge pressure on their ecosystems as natural resources are

extracted.

Named Example: Udzungwa Mountains National Park: a pristine

area This national park has huge amounts of biodiversity with 276 tree species

and 50 endemic species. The local villages are also reliant upon it for

watershed protection, medicines and food. However their access is limited

and highly controlled due to increasing pressures on the park such as

population growth. The Tanzanian National Park authorities therefore

decided to involve the local people in sustainable bottom up strategies for

example, setting up tree nurseries and promoting ecotourism. This was the

best way forward due to the issues of policing a vast area with a skeletal

ranger force; instead the local people become responsible for the area.

Named Example: Masai Mara game reserve: a degraded area

This reserve experienced a breakdown in management which has led

to the decline to the grassland ecosystem. The park fees from

tourists were meant to go towards management of the area and

providing social services to the local tribesman. However the park

rangers were not paid properly and lacked basic equipment so could do

Rapid industrial development e.g.

China has led to air pollution such as

acid rain, which has an impact on

forests. Expansion of agricultural

land due to population growth

A country with a

stable economy and

education has the

freedom to choose

to support

biodiversity without

compromising its

people’s ability to be

fed and housed

Less development

near pristine

environments in which

indigenous people live

mainly due to lack of

access and technology


little to stop illegal hunting. In 2008 a private organisation called Mara conservation took over

control and runs on a non-profit basis uses 50% of revenue to build roads and anti-poaching patrols

and 50% to the local tribes. This is needed as the local people have to give up cattle grazing land for

tourism but are having a hard time seeing the benefits.

The concept of sustainable yield

Sustainable yield represents the ‘safe’ level of harvest that can be hunted/caught/used without

harming the individual ecosystem. It is measured through:

1. Maximum sustainable yield (MSY) – the greatest harvest that can be taken indefinitely while

leaving the ecosystem intact.

2. Optimum sustainable yield (OSY) – best compromise achieve in the light of all economic and

social factors.

In order to manage wildlife etc models estimating carrying capacity have been developed – the

maximum human population that can exist in equilibrium with the available resources.

Named Example: Campfire Project, Zimbabwe

This was developed in the late 1980s aimed to long-term development, management

and sustainable use of natural resources. The responsibility for the area was

placed in the hands of local people and therefore an example of a bottom-up

approach. Some schemes made money from big-game hunting at sustainable yield

levels and this was then fed back into the communities. Environmentalists disagreed

with this approach as how was hunting endangered species helping to protect them?

The scheme was then undermined by the economic collapse of Zimbabwe and lack of

funding.

The role of different players in managing biodiversity

Zone of overharvest –

population begins to be

threatened by overharvesting

MSY is halfway between 0 and

the carrying capacity

OSY is lower than MSY as it

enabled the ecosystem to have

a high aesthetic value

Carrying Capacity

GLOBAL NATIONAL LOCAL

International Treaties:

a) Ramsar Convention 1971 - to

conserve wetlands

b) World Heritage Convention

1972 - protect outstanding

cultural and natural sites

c) CITES 1973 - controlled

Governments:

Regulation – establish and

enforce laws to conserve and

protect various areas and

species.

Preservation – preserve areas

of biodiversity often through

Communities:

Indigenous groups depend on

biodiversity for basic survival

e.g. spiritual significance

Farmers – strong views about

conservation as it conflicts

with their aims


Spectrum of strategies and policies for managing biodiversity Conservation strategies follow the idea of a spectrum from complete protection through to

commercially exploited areas where limited parts are protected for publicity purposes.

Total Protection – was the main focus of conservation during the 1960s. Total protection has been

criticised as:

- In developing countries there is a conflict between conservation and cutting people off from

biodiversity

- Totally protected reserves are often narrowly focused for scientific purposes so may fail to

take into account social, economic factors etc

- Many protection schemes are based around political boundaries and not the ecosystem

natural boarders

- These strategies rely on the co-ordination of outside agencies which often forget about the

local people’s needs.

Biosphere Reserves – identifies a core area which is heavily protected with buffer zones around it.

However some countries do not have finances to fully monitor or mange these reserves and the

pressure from development may be difficult to control. These act at a number of different levels;

locally they involve local people and the landscape they know in order to better serve the community

and ensuring continued biodiversity e.g. community conservation schemes. On a national level they aim

Individual:

In the developed world, ethical

consumerism has led to people

choosing to buy

environmentally friendly

products e.g. dolphin friendly

tuna.

Scientists and researchers –

work for variety of

organisations and monitor the

state of the biodiversity


to inspire further conservation e.g. National Parks. Globally the biosphere designation of the

Galapagos Islands helped implement a zoning strategy to solve the problems the area faces.

Restoration – this can include recreating wetlands or linking up small fragmented reserves to produce

a large reserve. These can be very expensive and much of the success depends on how readily plants

will reseed and how polluted the land is.

Conservation – this can involve ex-situ conservation where an endangered species establish a captive

population away from its natural habitat. This includes captive breeding with release schemes and

biodiversity banks such as genetic and seed banks in zoos and botanical gardens. For example – giant

panda

Named Example: The Galapagos Islands Zoning Strategy (Hot-Spot

Management Strategy)

Location: found on the Equator 1,000km off

the coast of Ecuador

Key facts:

Nearly one fourth of the Galapagos marine life

is endemic - found nowhere else on earth

There are 13 large islands and six small, which

were formed by oceanic volcanoes some three

to five million years ago

Threats facing the islands:

Extensive migration from mainland Ecuador – from 1982-1998 population growth was around

6% but in the last 10 years the number of people on the islands has more than doubled to take

it to 16,000.

absence of a quarantine system to avoid the introduction of foreign species


illegal fisheries that apply great pressure on the islands’ marine resources (until 1990s only a

few hundred fishers were involved but by 1999 660 were registered as global over-fishing

grew due to demand for seafood and speciality products e.g. shark fins)

lack of an adequate legal framework to ensure the long-term preservation of the islands

Tourism – since 1969 charter flights began bringing people to the islands and it became the

main economic activity employing 70% of the active population. In 1998 - $75 million was

generated through tourism. However out of this only around 1% is used to support

conservation.

Conservation

1936: the Galapagos National Park (GNP) established

1968: Boundaries finally established; effective park administration began

1984: Recognized as a Biosphere Reserve under the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Program

1986: The Galápagos Biological Marine Resources Reserve (GMRR) established to include all waters

within 15 nautical miles

1992: Zoning plan for Marine Resources reserve – included 4 zones:

General Use Zone for sustainable use of the reserve

Recreational Fishing Zones for the benefit of residents

National Marine Park Zones for human activities where natural resources are neither damaged

nor removed

Strict Nature Reserves where human access is not permitted.

2002: Poza de las Diablas on Isabela I. declared a Ramsar Site of International Importance

.

The future of biodiversity The Millennium Ecosystems Assessments (MEA) identified 4 scenarios predicting rapid conversion of

ecosystems to farmland and urbanisation.

Global Orchestration

All trade barriers and subsidies are removed

to allow for free trade

Economic growth is high and standard of living

in developed countries improve

As wealth increases there will be more money

to deal with environmental problems = too

late?

High biodiversity loss

Order from Strength

Protection of national boundaries will see rich

countries close their boarders to protect

their own standard of living

Problems of ecosystem degradation in

developing countries

Ecosystem collapse – huge biodiversity loss

Adapting Mosaic

Will manage ecosystems locally and regionally

= more sustainable

Lower biodiversity loss than 1 and 2

People working together to develop

economically but also maintain ecosystems

Techno garden

Using technology to help provide ecosystem

services

Excellent sharing of ideas at a global level

May become over reliant on technology

Wealth increases in poor countries as


knowledge and technology is shared

WWF’s Living Planet Report – looked to model ways of ending ecology ‘overshoot’ (the amount by

which the ecological footprint exceeds the biological capacity of the space available to that

population). They also showed 4 possible scenarios:

1) Business as usual – increased ecological footprint and no reduction in overshoot

2) Slow shift – gradually reducing the ecological footprint by developing many sustainable policies

so that ecosystems can recover by the year 2100

3) Rapid reduction – radical policies to control ecological footprints lead to elimination of

overshoot by 2040

4) Shrink and share – breaking the world into regions in order to share responsibility for

controlling the overshoot problem

Case Study: Named Global Ecosystem- Daintree Tropical Rainforest Location: North east coast of Australia in Queensland

Why is Daintree so special?

World Heritage site measuring ½ the size of Wales

135 million years old

Greatest number of threatened species of plant and animals in

the world

½ of Australia’s bird species

65% of all butterfly and bat species

Threats

1) Tourism

- In 1983, 17000 tourists visited Daintree but by 2002 this had

grown to 436000 visitors

2) Destruction of ecosystem to cope with demand

- tarmacking of roads has lead to small areas of forest being

divided into plots for sale

- Occupied plots are often bulldozed and turned into cattle ranches


3) Development

- Increased numbers of tourists had lead to the development of Port Douglas changing the

village’s character

4) Climate Change – a global temperature increase could threaten the distinctive ecosystems

environment

5) Logging – the commercial timber industry in began in Daintree in the 1930s. The rainforest acts

as a carbon store so the removal of these releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere adding to the

greenhouse effect

Impacts

Short-term Medium-term Long-term

Economic Money spent by

tourists

$147 million per year

3500 jobs created

Infrastructure improved

e.g. tarmac roads

Social Impact on tribes

Local people suffer

from congestion and

overcrowding

Increase in population

Destructive of native

tribes as they lose

their land and move

away

Cultures westernised

Australian heritage lost

Increase in population =

increase in house prices =

local people move out

Tourism could decline

Environmental Soil erosion from

deforestation

Loss of habitats

Disruption of native

species

Litter

Breeding patterns

affected

Food web disrupted

Release of C02 from

trees

Extinction of species

Invasion of alien species

Management of Daintree

Key players:

a) Wet tropics Management authority = formed in 1990 to research and monitor the state of

the wet tropics. Looks at developing management agreements with land holders and native

tribes.


b) Cairns Regional council- aimed to gradually reduce population in Daintree. Increased ferry

costs to reduce number of visitors and rejected plans for a bridge across the river as

more people would endanger the rainforest.

c) Australian Rainforest Foundation – operation ‘BIG BIRD’ – the cassowary given a wildlife

corridor to protect it. Money given to buy back land from developers and return it to

rainforest

d) Wildlife Preservation Society of Queensland – community based looking at a sustainable

future for people and wildlife. They are for a ban on development in the area.

e) Australian Tropical Rainforest Foundation – build visitor centres and education facilities to

highlight the global importance of the tropical rainforest ecosystems.

f) Rainforest co-operation research council – community development allowing up to 1400

people to live in the area but must conserve the land. Looks to identify hotspots for

conservation where no development is allowed. Aims to recognise the rights of native

people to own land and promote their culture in the forest.

What kinds of questions have been asked?

Explain the distribution of the world’s terrestrial and marine hotspots (10 marks)


Evaluate the relative advantages and disadvantages of the ‘hot-spot’ approach to biodiversity

management (compared with other strategies) (15 marks)

Evaluate the relative importance of global and local threats to one named global ecosystem (15 marks)

Assess the role played by different players in managing areas in which biodiversity is under threat

(15 marks)

How far is it possible to reconcile the desire for development with the need to manage biodiversity

(14 marks)

Referring to examples, discuss the threats to biodiversity hotspots and why these threats could

prove critical (15)

Explain how human activities have contributed to the condition of ecosystem goods and services. (10)

Using named examples, evaluate the success of global actions designed to protect biodiversity. (15)

Explain the pattern of alien species invasions, and suggest the possible impacts of alien species on

ecosystems. (10)


Topic 4: Superpower Geographies

What do I need to know?

How to define the idea of superpower

How patterns of power change over time

Theories for the growth of Superpowers


How power can be maintained

Role of superpowers on international action and decision making

Nature of trade and who controls it. Does this maintain global power?

Superpowers cultural influence

The impacts on Water, energy, environment and land demand of the rising

superpowers

The impacts of the rising new superpowers on the old superpowers

Implications for the Majority world (Less developed countries) of the new

superpowers – good or bad?

Shifting power may lead to tensions

Key Terms

Capitalism An economic system in which all or most of the means of production and

distribution are privately owned and operated in a relatively competitive

environment

Cold War A state of political tension and military rivalry between nations that


How to define the idea of superpower e.g. USA and USSR

Criteria USA USSR

Size – countries with a large land USA is the 3rd largest World’s largest country with

stops short of full-scale war e.g. US vs. Soviet Union following World

War II

Colonialism The system or policy in which a country maintains foreign colonies

Communism A form of political development that aims to create equality and a

classless society.

Cultural Imperialism Promoting the culture of one society into another e.g. Tea to India

Dependency theory Notion that resources flow from a ‘periphery’ of poor and

underdeveloped states into a ‘core’ of wealthy states

Development theory A number of theories outlined how desirable change is best achieved

Direct influence The power of persons or things to affect others by means of power

based on wealth

Disparity The inequality or difference

International Monetary

Fund

An international organisation established by the UN to promote monetary

cooperation, international trade and stability

Market economy An economy in which prices are determined by buyers and sellers with a

relatively high degree of freedom

Modernisation theory The socio-economic development and process that evolves from a

traditional society to modern economies e.g. USA

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation founded in 1949 for the purposes of

opposing communism during the Cold War.

Neo-colonialism Describes the ways in which rich countries dominate the economy of

poorer countries through economic imperialism rather than political

control

Privatisation The process of moving from a government controlled system to a

privately run system

Purchasing Power Parity The value of gross national income related to local prices

Superpower A nation that is able to project its power and influence anywhere in the

world

Tariff A government tax on imports or exports

USSR Soviet Union – a former communist country in eastern Europe and

Northern Asia established in 1922. Was dissolved in 1991

World Bank UN agency created to assist developing nations by issuing loans

World Trade

Organisation

Set up in 1995 to open up and ensure fair play in international trade.


area tend to have greater natural

resources and extend their

influence over a larger number of

neighbours

country with land over 9

million km2

land area over 22 million km2

Economic strength – in 2007, the

12 largest economies earned

around 2/3rds of the world’s GDP

and control investment

- determine economic policies

which effect the globe

Managed as a democracy and

had a free-market (capitalist)

approach to the economy

Contains 776 of the largest

TNCs

Dollar is the world reserve

currency

Promoted communism and the

economy was state controlled

Culture – spread of

Americanisation across the globe

Religion – religious leaders can

influence politics through their

beliefs e.g. contraception

Rapid growth in film and

television industry helped to

convey a positive image on

USA and its high standard of

living.

Tried to sell itself as high

culture with ballet, music and

art. Very tight censorship so no

criticism allowed.

Population – countries with a large

population are important as

economic growth cannot be

sustained without sufficient

number of workers

- cheap workers can help promote

economic growth

- large populations encourage

economic growth through markets

250 million live in USA World’s 3rd largest with over

285 million at the time of its

breakup

Resources – countries with

resources necessary for economic

development should have

significant power

Land contained valuable

minerals, metals, forests and

a modern agricultural and

industrial system (World’s

greatest economy)

Huge amounts of oil and gas (2nd

largest economy)

Military strength – countries with

a large military force are seen as

more power but also the types of

weapons are important e.g. nuclear

weapons

The world’s largest and most

powerful navy and one of the

two most powerful air forces

in the world

Had the largest land based army

and the world’s largest stockpile

of nuclear weapons

How patterns of power change over time


Named Example: The rise and fall of the British Empire The British Empire was founded on exploration and sea power as its royal navy dominated the seas

from 1700-1930s. There were 3 key phases:

Phase 1: Mercantilist (1600-1850) = small colonies set up on coastal islands e.g. Jamaica with focus on

trade including slaves.

Phase 2: Imperial (1850-1945) = whole conquest of territories, religion and culture spread e.g.

cricket. Governments set up to rule the colonies and complex trade networks.

Phase 3: Decolonisation (1945 - ) = After 2nd World war the UK was bankrupt and could not support

the empire as before. Growth of anti-colonial movements e.g. India – some colonies granted

independence.

Britain still maintains a superpower legacy and has control over 14 overseas territories e.g. Falkland

Islands. The Commonwealth contains 53 states (former British colonies) that cooperate in common

interests.

Named Example: collapse of Communism The causes of the collapse were reforms in the USSR in 1985 by President Gorbachev which

increased freedom of speech and allowed private ownership of small businesses. As these reforms

spread there was soon an open revolt against the communist system and the fall of the Berlin Wall in

1989 ended the symbol of separation of the Cold War superpowers. The USSR collapsed in 1990

when the communist party gave up its monopoly on power. This led to the breakup of the entire

country as countries such as Latvia and Georgia broke away into independent nations.

Named Example: The Rise of the BRICs These are Brazil, Russia, India and China as they show:

- Strong economic growth

- Large populations

- Access to key resources e.g. fossil fuels

- Market economies

- Regional power and influence

It is expected that the USA will see a decline in its power, especially in relation to China

Theories for the growth of Superpowers


Modernisation theory – Rostow 1960s

Aimed to explain the dominance of the British Empire and USA. Rostow believed that as these were

the first countries to experience the Industrial revolution this gave them an initial advantage over

other regions. He believed that countries moved through 5 stages of develop.

Dependency Theory – Frank 1971

Countries become more dependent upon more powerful, frequently colonial powers, as a result in

interaction and development. This is because the colonial power often exploits the resources of its

weaker colony as the colony becomes more dependent upon it. However, the rise of the NICs argues

against this as they are examples of countries that have developed, however some of these did

receive huge economic support and aid from the USA.

World Systems Theory – Wallenstein 1974

This treated the whole world as a single unit broken down into the core (MEDCs), periphery (LEDCs)

and the semi-periphery. It also allowed change to take place as countries began to develop.

Named Example: China vs. India


World Systems theory would suggest that industrial capitalism was born in Europe and that the rise

of India and china is another stage of the growth and spread of the global economy. Dependency

theory however would see the current growth as a shift back to an older world order when India and

China were powerful economic forces as Frank believed Britain and other European powers were the

first NICs.

Path to development:

China – state-led industrialisation and intensification of agriculture but largely cut off from the rest

of the world.

India – Home-grown technology with high import tariffs, still however mainly a rural society.

How power can be maintained

Superpowers have shifted the maintenance of their power from colonial rule to indirect neo-colonial

rule. Following the end of the colonial rule, decolonialisation occurred but brought about conflict

rather than immediate freedom for 3 main reasons:

1) Colonial boarders did not match religious or ethnic boundaries

2) Colonies had a government but indigenous people were excluded from running them so

therefore when the colonial rule was removed there was not enough experience

3) As colonial powers left, insurgents pushed them out = violence

Named Example: Colonialism- India In India today there are still symbols of colonial power such as the residence of the governor-general

of India in Delhi. Culture was also spread through British traditions such as cricket, tea drinking and

the English language. India became modernised so that the economy could serve Britain more

effectively e.g. the building of railway system improved transport and trade but allowed efficient

military transport to put down rebellions. Independence was granted in 1947 but this plunged India

into a period of chaos.

Neo-colonialism refers to a form of indirect control over developing countries, most of them former

colonies. In this direct political control decreased whilst economic control increased through:

- Economic dependence on primary goods – issues created with trade as these goods have low export

prices compared with high prices the developing world must pay for manufactured goods

- Economic dominance of multinational companies – foreign direct investment e.g. manufacturing

located in developing world allows for big profits for TNCs but low wages and skills for the developing

world

- Impact of foreign aid and debt – developing nations pay huge sums in interest which often exceed

aid receipts

- Strategic alliances – USA for example allied with many developing nations to spread their global

influence, often by means of foreign aid

- Aid – often given with ‘strings attached’

Named Example: Neo-colonialism in Ghana


In 1957 Ghana gained independence from British colonial rule and in recent years has been seen to be

making progress in economic and social indicators. For example GNP has risen from $5.7 billion to

$14.9 billion in the last 20 years. However Ghana is still very much influenced by external factors,

perhaps identifying an example of neo-colonialism?

External factors:

1) Commodity markets in London and New York

- Cocoa prices depend on global demand which may vary

- Competition with Ivory Coast for cocoa. If prices in Ghana are too high, buyers will purchase

for lower-priced countries

2) Overseas Tariffs

- EU import tariffs are much higher for processed cocoa than for raw beans. This means

Ghana is better off exporting raw cocoa beans as import costs are lower and they would make

more money

- Means that Ghana is unable to develop its own processing industries as most of this is done in

Europe = loses out on value added

3) WTO

- Before 1995 Ghanaian government subsidised its farmers to encourage them to stay on the

land and grow food for their growing cities

- Ghana then joined the WTO in an attempt to increase its global trade

- WTO imposed joining condition that the Ghanaian farmers could no longer be subsidised

- Farmers could no longer compete with imports of heavily subsidised foreign food e.g. EU

tomatoes are cheaper to buy then home-grown ones

Role of superpowers on international action and decision making Organisation Function Members

International

Monetary Fund

(IMF)

Monitors the economic and

financial development of

countries. Lends money to

countries facing difficulties

44 governments originally now 185. USA = 17%,

EU=25.7%, Africa =1%

Reflects USA concerns so lent to countries

threatened by communism. Can impose conditions

World Bank Gives advice, loans and grants

to reduce poverty and promote

economic development

Similar to IMF. USA = 16%. Bad reputation in

1970s for financing projects that caused

environmental damage and created debt. MDGs!

United Nations

(UN)

Prevents war and arbitrates on

international disputes.

192 members in 2008. Most influential

international alliance in the world

World Trade

Organisation

(WTO)

Trade policy, agreements and

settling disputes. Promotes

global free trade

All countries get 1 vote but votes never actually

just through mutual consent with biggest

markets deciding outcome. Allows subsidies for

USA and EU!

North Atlantic

Treaty

Organisation

Military alliance between

European countries and the

USA

The G8 Meetings about global policy

direction for western

democracies

Represents 65% of global GDP but 14% of

population. Very restricted membership

Davos Group Swiss based non-profit

foundation to discuss business

and profits

Business CEO’s, political leaders, Media,

celebrities

No official status but attended by presidents


Nature of trade and who controls it. Does this maintain global power? The WTO established a series of trade agreements since the 1950s which have resulted in huge

growth in trade and wealth:

Removal of taxes and tariffs on imports

Removal of quotas on imports

Removal of subsidies for domestic producers

This has therefore seen the growth of areas such as Asia e.g. China and India but the decline in

Africa’s share of world trade as the international trade is mostly in the hands of TNCs who have

decided not to invest in Africa and in Asia they have developed free trade zones which attract more

investment.

However the idea of free trade for some countries is an illusion as trade takes place between trade

blocs e.g. EU and NAFTA. Thos countries not a member of a trade bloc still have to pay tariffs and

quotas etc.

Finally developed nations also control innovation and technology which are not shared with developing

nations. 75% of fees/royalties go to three main powers, USA, EU and Japan.

Superpowers cultural influence Americanisation

Global culture has been seen as a way to spread a superpowers influence. The USA is seen as the

most powerful force in cultural globalisation.

Named Case study: McDonaldisation Opened in Des Plaines in 1955 with a profit for the 1st day at $366.12 and has grown to having $41

billion in sales

Adapting to different cultures:

Portugal – only country where soup is served

Pakistan – McArabia and the spicy chicken burger

Saudi Arabia – no pork products sold as against Islamic law. All meat is halal

China – all drinks were in china cups

Problems:

1) Encourages developing nations to export their crops when most children are undernourished

2) Use lethal poisons to destroy vast areas of the Central American rainforest to create grazing

pastures for cattle (800 square miles of forest per year needed to keep McDonalds supplied

for paper for 1 year)

3) Workers in catering do not have a specific union so little help with disputes

4) Forcing indigenous tribes from their native lands

However, McDonalds have also donated over $180 million to McDonald’s Children charities and claim

to donate more money than any other commercial enterprise in the USA ($50 million each year)


The impacts on Water, energy, environment and land demand of the

rising superpowers e.g. China Impact on resources:

Energy – rapid rise in oil prices in 2007 and 2008 leading to oil being pumped out quicker than

new reserves can be found = PEAK OIL

Environment – China and India’s ecological footprint may be similar to those of the EU and

USA by 2040

Named Case Study: China – an emerging superpower Rapid economic growth in China has been achieved at high environmental and social costs:

Environmental Costs Social Costs

China is going through industrial revolution in

a compressed timeframe resulting in it being

the largest contributor to C02 emissions

16 of the top 20 most air-polluted cities

2003 – air pollution blamed for 400,000

deaths

30% of China suffers from acid rain due to

emissions from coal-fired power stations

C02 emissions in 2006 more than 6.2 billion

tonnes (increase of 9%)

70% of China’s rivers and lakes are polluted

Beijing’s pollution levels are 3x higher than

safe WHO levels

Rural population still in poverty

20% of population live on less than $1 a day

Child labour used in some factories

Housing in some parts of Beijing were

demolished to make way for Olympic facilities

(300,000 evicted)

During the Olympics the authorities banned

non-residents from being in the city e.g.

beggars, mental illness

1/12th of people rely on the polluted Yangtze

river for drinking water

Although China’s stature and power are growing it needs to look to resolve some of its environmental

and social costs to ensure long-term sustainability. China is however one of the few countries trying

to tackle their issues e.g. rapidly increasing their forest cover, wind turbines and solar panels.

The impacts of the rising new superpowers on the old superpowers Recently the emergence of the new superpowers has been seen as an opportunity as the EU, Japan

and USA have experienced economic growth and falling consumer prices due to the explosion of

economic activity in NICs and RICs. It is thought however, in the future that the USA will become

less dominant and that shortage of fuel, food and water will lead to conflicts.

Named Example: Russia – the rebirth of a superpower In the past 20 years Russia has uncovered significant reserves of both oil and gas which adds to

Russia’s global power. Russia currently supplies 25% of EU gas and is the largest producer of natural

gas in the world. Russia has also developed links with China as Asia’s cities need to switch to less

polluting natural gas. Russia’s nature resource reserves have also allowed it to growth in confidence:

In 2006 Russia cut off gas supplies to the Ukraine for 3 days and in March reduced supplies

by 25% In August 2007 Russian submarines planted 2 flags on the Arctic seabed claiming sovereignty

over a large area Russian gas supplies to Ukraine and EU cut off in 2008-09


Named Example: USA car industry The USA car industry has shrunk since 1970s due to lack of investment and a failure to compete with

Japanese car technology. In 2000, car sales in the USA were at 17 million but this has declined in

2007 to 13 million. In 2008, the top five best selling cars in the USA were Japanese. Chinese car

industries are also beginning to launch themselves onto world markets and it is thought that by 2015

Geely will produce 1.7 million cars per year.

Implications for the Majority world (Less developed countries) of the

new superpowers Some periphery nations have gained economic independence through 2 ways:

1) Nationalisation – state has taken control of the company or its land owning

2) Cartels – formation of cartels e.g. OPEC

Named Example: OPEC – an oil cartel The organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was created in 1960 to counter oil

price cuts from American and European oil companies. In 1979, the OPEC countries produced 65% of

the world oil but only 35% by 2007. There were concerns that they had reached peak oil but it has

allowed them to control the price of oil within a range of $22-28 per barrel. This means they control

the amount of crude oil they export to avoid flooding or squeezing the international marketplace. The

profits made from oil have allowed member countries to invest and diversify their economies and to

generate wealth over the past 40 years. It has also ensured that countries maintained favourable

relationships with the OPEC countries and that the Middle East would be involved in economic

cooperation and development with industrialised countries.

Named Example: China’s investment in Africa – Colonisation or

development? The growth of the emerging powers has been seen by many to provide the developing world with new

opportunities to develop. Chinese companies are investing in Africa to help exploit and export raw

materials:

- Around 30% of all used in China comes from Africa

- In 2007 Chinese investment in Africa totalled $30 billion

However many believe that China has little interest in developing Africa; they are just wanting its

resources. This is because most investment goes to the governments, TNCs and Chinese companies,

and not to the local people. Much of the infrastructure has also been built by Chinese nationals and

not local people. China now has:

- 45% ownership of oil field in Nigeria

- Minerals investment in Zimbabwe

- $175 million invested in copper mining in Zambia


Shifting power may lead to tensions Although the USA and Europe are allies there still remain cultural tensions between them. USA

attitudes tend to focus on individual provision of healthcare and education, are more overtly religious

and are concerned about being number one! Europe has a stronger emphasis on the welfare state,

more liberal attitudes and is more family orientated.

Terrorism

This is a growing feature of the 21st Century and tends to be located in areas where the involvement

of the USA and other countries are seen as directly opposed to the interests of Islam and Muslims

by extreme Islamic groups. It is mostly directed toward the USA, with the biggest attack being the

9/11. Many people in the world believed the USA deserved the attack as they ignored international

agreements for example the world criminal court in which they refuse to have its own citizens stand

but wanted war criminals prosecuted. They had reduced its aid to the poorest nations and supported

political regimes where it suited them e.g. Kuwait.

War

In 2002 the invasion of Iraq was thought by many Europeans to be less about removing Saddam

Hussein and this alleged weapons of mass destruction but about ensuring the USA had access to

Middle East oil supplies. The USA drawn-out attempt to restore a form of peaceful, functioning

government in Iraq undermined the USA’s international status.

The Future

There are 4 main cultural world views which are present in the emerging powers; American corporate

capitalism, European liberalism, the Islamic world and Chinese Confucianism. There are various

possible scenarios

1) Multi-polar world – USA remains the most powerful but less dominant superpower but rise of

China and India

2) Arms race – possibly nuclear in the middle east and east Asia if tensions cannot be resolved

3) Resource nationalisation – rising tensions as oil and water run short and there is a dash for

new resources

4) Decline of Europe and Japan – due to rapidly ageing populations

5) Resource –rich powers (Russia, Middle East) will challenge the political and economic order


What questions have been asked? ‘The tensions between today’s superpowers are economic rather than political’ Discuss. (10)

To what extent have the ways of maintaining power changed over time (10)

Suggest and justify a set of criteria for defining what is a superpower (10)

Examine ways in which superpowers exert their influence (10)

Evaluate the factors which lead to superpower status (15)

Using examples, assess the view that the relationship between the developed and the developing

world is a neo-colonial one (15)

Assess the view that economic development in not possible without causing environmental degradation

(15)

Using figure 4 - explain how membership of International Organisations gives some countries political

and economic power (10 marks)

Referring to examples discuss the factors that cause power to shift between superpowers over time

(15)


US overseas aid: the top 20 receiving countries McDonald’s restaurants around the world USA military presence around the world


Topic 5: Bridging the Development Gap

What do I need to know? How the development Gap can be measured

Theories on why the gap exists

The role of different Key players on development

General physical, economic, political and social causes of the gap

Role of trade and investment in the development gap

Social, economic and environmental impacts of the development gap

Impacts on minority groups

Impacts on Megacities

The positive and negative impacts of countries trying to close the gap on migration and

the environment

Theoretical ways of reducing the development gap

The advantages and disadvantages of methods of closing the development gap


Key Terms:

Aid Refers to gifts or repayable loans made by one country to another

Apartheid Meaning segregation, used to describe a political and legal system used

in South Africa to separate different ethnic groups

Bilateral aid Foreign aid (in the shape of money, expertise, education or technology)

from a single donor to a country

Bottom-up development Occurs at a community level – people’s needs are indentified and local

projects are designed to meet them

Capital-intensive High-cost industries such as mining where machines do most of the

work and few jobs are created

Debt service Payments of interest, plus a proportion of the original loan, which are

required in order to pay back a debt over a given period of time

Development Means ‘change’ and implies change is for the better

Development gap The social and economic disparity between the wealthy and the poor

Formal economy The economy that is regulated by the state so is taxed and monitored

by the government.

Gross Domestic Product

(GDP)

The value of goods and services produced in a country over a year.

Gross National Product

(GNP)

Like GDP but includes overseas investment such as shares and earnings

for overseas companies and branches.

Human Development Index

(HDI)

Created by the UN to provide a measure of life expectancy, education

and GDP for every country in the world.

Informal economy All economic activities that are neither taxed or monitored by the

government

Investment Refers to repayable loans used to develop a country but with an

expectation of a share of the profits e.g. when TNCs invest in a

factory

Millennium Development

Goals (MDGs)

Agreed at the UN summit in 2000, 8 goals were agreed to provide a set

of development goals for the world to reach by 2015

Multilateral aid Aid given from alliances for several countries or organisations to

another

Multiplier Effect An effect in economies in which an increase in spending produces an

increase in the national income and consumption greater than the

amount originally spent

Neo-liberalism Idea that market exchange is capable of acting as a guide for all human

action. State interventions are minimized including the obligations for

the state to provide for the welfare of its citizens

Out-sourcing The employment of people overseas to do jobs previously done by

people in the home country

Per capita Per person

Purchasing Power Parity Shows what per capita income will purchase when the cost of living is


How the development Gap can be measured Gross Domestic Product – total value of goods and services produced by a country in a year.

Does not take into account the way in which the cost of living may vary between countries.

Also only average figures which do not tell the way in which wealth is distributed within a

country or how the government invests the money it has.

Human Development Index (HDI) – measures life expectancy, educational attainment and GDP

per capita. These are converted to an index which has a max value of 1.0

Gender related development index (GDI) – measurement of overall achievement for both men

and women in the 3 factors measured in the HDI

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) – established in 2000 to reduce global poverty

substantially by 2015. Measurement of progress is based on 1990 figures.

Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

Achieve universally primary education

Promote gender equality

Reduce child mortality

Improve maternal health

Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases

Ensure environmental sustainability

Develop a global partnership for development

Development Cable – identified that in order for a country to develop there are key

developmental factors that interact. The outer strands are the outcomes of development and

are integral to development

(PPP) taken into consideration

Structural Adjustment

Programmes (SAP)

Re-scheduling loans to make them more affordable

Tied Aid Where foreign aid benefits the donor in the shape of interest

repayments, access to new markets or political allegiance.

Top-down development Development projects are made by governments or large organisations

Trade liberalisation Also known as ‘free trade’, removing barriers such as duties or customs


Theories on why the gap exists Rostow’s model (Modernisation Theory)

Stated that a country passes from underdevelopment to development through a series of stages of

economic growth. He thought that capital should be transferred from developed to developing

countries to assist development. Did not take into account factors such as high rates of population

growth or political changes

Poverty Cycle

Idea that less developed countries are trapped in

a continually cycle of poverty because of a lack of

money and low incomes. Did not take into account

the rapid economic growth of countries like China,

India and South Korea. Also does not consider

the amount of foreign aid or loans from

international banks.

Dependency Theory (Frank)

Countries like the USA control and exploit less

developed areas of the world. This produces a

relationship of dominance and dependency which

can lead to poverty and underdevelopment.

Globalisation


Countries are becoming increasing connected and interdependent at a global scale. Global flows that

connect places involve the movement of people, capital, technology, ideas and information.

Debt

In the last 50 years, many poor countries accepted loans from rich countries and interest payments

on loans affect development as they put pressure on the financial situation in the country. Debt is

also an issue due to corruption within developing countries’ governments which divert loan money from

the intended target and trade barriers imposed by developing countries which make it hard for

poorer countries to export their goods.

The role of different Key players on development Type Example Impact on development in developing countries

International

organisations

International

Monetary

Fund

Aim to prevent the disruption of international financial system so

countries can renegotiate through the IMF the terms of debt and

impose conditions called ‘stabilisation programmes’ which often

hinder the development

World Bank Provides investment for economic and social projects to improve

standards. Conditions attached to the loans hinder development and

promote dependency and increased poverty

World Trade

Organisation

Can promote trade between developed and developing nations. Can

encourage trade dependency and create barriers to free and fair

trade agreements

International

Commercial

TNCs e.g.

Nike

Provide employment and investment in a country/region. May exploit

workers to maximise cheap labour and stay competitive. Leakage of

funds back to parent company

National

Political

Governments Regulate the economy to make the most of market opportunities and

attract inward investment. Provide physical infrastructure e.g. roads

and public services e.g. education. Decisions can be affected by

politics and existing alliances

NGOs Unicef,

Oxfam

Non-biased help to development projects or relief programmes.

Bottom-up approach takes account of local peoples needs. Rely on

funding that may not be available

General physical, economic, political and social causes of the gap


Role of trade and investment in the development gap Investment

Some NICs have benefited from high levels of foreign direct investment e.g. China and South Korea.

However there are 2 billion people who live in countries that have become less globalised as trade has

falled iin relation to national income including most of the African countries.

Trade

Africa in 2002 if it increased its share of world trade by just 1% would earn an extra $49billion, 5x

the amount it receives in aid. Traditionally north-south trade flows have focused on developing

countries exporting primary products. In the last 20 years developing countries have moved into

manufacturing (80% of exports now manufactured products). Globalisation has led to large increases

in trade in places such as China, India. Importantly ‘terms of trade’ is the ration between currencies

earned from its exports and the prices of imports. This means that any countries exporting natural

resources and importing manufactured goods will have declining terms of trade.

Named Case Study: Cotton Background information Impacts of cotton Link to the development

gap

Mali Cotton 10 million small-scale

cotton growers suffering

from falling prices

Small scale farmers can

earn up to $1000/year

3 million Malians rely on

cotton to survive

Breathing problems

due to cotton fibres

Farming cotton

gives a farmer 3x

the average annual

income

Plans to privatised

Subsidies lea to

overproduction of

cotton forces

cotton prices down

Mali cotton farmers

earn less decline in

living standards


2001 US aid = $37.7 m

2001 = Mali lost $343

million due to American

subsidises

= 6% of GDP

the cotton industry

4% of population

driven into poverty

If cotton subsidies to

USA farmers were

scrapped prices would

have risen for African

farmers by 3.5%

USA Cotton 25,000 cotton producers

receive $4 billion/year in

subsidies

Up to 20% of cotton

farmer’s income comes

from subsidies

USA spends 3x as much on

subsidies for cotton then

it does on aid for

whole of Africa

The US is the second

largest cotton producer

US currently accounts for

more than 50% of the

worlds exported cotton.

Large scale

production e.g. 1

16,000 acre farm

makes enough

cotton for 200,000

t-shirts

The slack in world

production of

clothing has been

taken up by China

and Pakistan

In countries that

subsidise their

farming, only 5% of

the population are

farmers

Reduced cotton prices

by 15%

Law passed banning

export subsidies on

cotton

WTO ruled in March

2007 that cotton

subsidies were unfair

Social, economic and environmental impacts of the development gap Urban and rural areas are effected differently by the development gap, rural communities are often

the worse effected due to an inability to produce enough food.

Named Case Study: The impact on the development gap in Uganda Key Facts:

Population of 31 million

Resources – copper, cobalt and hydro-electric power, coffee, tobacco, sugar cane and tea

Social Economic Environmental


Infant mortality rates 106 per 1000 live

births for the poorest and 20 per 1000

live births for the wealthiest

24% of families are undernourished

Lack of money from exports means

government has limited funding for

healthcare and education

2005 life expectancy was 49.7 years

Only 60% have access to safe water

Only 43% have access to sanitation

First government in Africa to attract

international aid for a HIV/AIDs

education programme = only 6% of

population infected

Only 17% of girls attend secondary school

Women marry at the age of 15

High fertility rate – 6.8 children per

woman

In 2005 – GDP per capita

was $1454

Economy based on export

sale of primary goods =

low prices

In 1992, debt was $1.9

billion

Early 1990s debt

repayments exceeded

export earnings

2000 the World Bank

cancelled most of the

debt through the HIPC

scheme totally $1.5 billion

increased spending on

public services by 20%

10% more of the

population now have

access to clean water

Widespread malaria

and cholera

At risk from

droughts especially

linked to climate

change

Raw material

exploitation has led

to destruction of

the natural

environment e.g.

mining, removal of

trees for

agriculture

Impacts on minority groups The development gap can create differences between groups such as castes in India or between

males and females in the same country. The caste system is a religious and social class system in

India, where classes are defined by birth and family. The Dalits or untouchables (16% of population)

work in unhealthy, polluting jobs and suffer from social prejudice and extreme poverty. They are not

allowed to obtain water from the same source as other people and must have their own segregated

area. Scheduled tribes consist of tribal groups (7% of population) and other backward classes (52%

of population). This enables them to discriminate positively in education and jobs for the most

disadvantaged.

Women in developing countries are more likely than men to be unpaid family workers or occupy low-

status jobs and have lower earnings. 64% of adults are illiterate women and 57% of children who

receive no primary education are girls.

Impacts on Megacities - – General examples and 1 in detail e.g.

Mumbai from AS or Dhaka in book 8% of the world’s urban population live in ‘megacities’ which have populations over 10 million. In

developing countries a variety of push factors in the countryside have encouraged out-migration to

the cities; population pressure, unemployment, poor housing, famine etc. People are then attracted to

the urban areas due to pull factors; better education, housing, improved medical facilities etc.

Housing: New migrants don’t have any

money so end up in ‘temporary’

settlements on unwanted land e.g.

marshy, polluted, along transport

routes


Location of megacities

Named Case Study: Dhaka, Bangladesh: a megacity under stress Key facts:

By 2015 population expected to reach 21 million with one of

the highest population densities in the world

Caused by high rates of natural increase and large volumes

of rural-urban migration.

Challenges created:

Deprivation: Limited access to employment and

income

Reliance on informal economy

Overcrowded housing

Limited access to health and

education

Unhealthy environments

Environment: Air pollution due to traffic,

power plants that are old and

badly maintained

Water pollution leaking

sewers, landfill sites and lack of

sewerage systems

Waste disposal contamination

and health hazards due to

waterborne diseases

Water supply aquifers become

depleted due to huge population

demands

FACTORS AFFECTING

MEGACITIES


Challenge Solution/recent developments

Employment Unemployment of 23%

33% of city workforce is self-employed

Child labour high in poorest households

Home to 80% of the 2 million garment

industry employees

2 export zones created to encourage

export of goods

Bashundhara City created with high-

tech industries and businesses

Urban Poor 28% of population classed as poor, 12%

extremely poor

Only 5% live in permanent housing

4.2 million live in slums

Improvements in drains and

sanitation

Back to home programme encourages

people to return to villages with help

Local community health volunteers

Environment

al quality

Only 27% connected to public sewer

Poor water management cost $670

million each year

Poor air regulation = air pollution above

national standard 100 days per year

Polluted water sources = disease

spreads quickly

Ban on leaded petrol

Work in improve water quality, supply

and sanitation cost $100m

Public information on causes and

impacts of poor air and water quality

Promoted clean gas-powered cooking

stoves

The positive and negative impacts of countries trying to close the gap

on migration and the environment

Migration: increased migration flows are a vital part of development and include both international

(into the country e.g. business, technicians and out of the country as they seek a better life) and

internal flows from rural to urban areas.

Source area/country Host area/country

Benefits Natural increase slows as

young adults leave

Less pressure on resources

Remittances sent home

Declining populations

boosted by migrants

Labour force filled

Multicultural society

Costs Populations become older

Loss of skilled workers

Westernisation of returning

migrants

Racial/social tensions

Gender concentrations e.g.

only males

Increased pressure on

resources

Environment: as a country develops its environmental pollution and ecological footprint becomes

larger. Economic development raises demand for resources and countries tend to exploit them as

quickly as possible without thinking of the environmental costs e.g. SYNOPTIC LINK TO CHINA

CASE STUDY

Theoretical ways of reducing the development gap - Neo Liberal,

Marxism, Populism, Non development


Neo-liberal 1980-1990s – looked to remove tariff barriers to encourage international trade. This

allowed countries to develop through trade and governments should look to privatise and reducing

state intervention in the economy. This however, tended to make the rich richer and the poor poorer.

Examples e.g. World Bank, world Trade Organisation

Marxism – idea that capitalism is based on the exploitation of workers by the owners and that

history has mainly been a conflict between these 2 classes. Sought to replace existing class

structures with a system that managed society for the good of all

Populism – idea that supports ‘the people’ in the struggle against society’s ellite. Also known as

‘grassroots action’ it is an important element of ‘bottom-up’ planning e.g. NGOs

Non-development – some people are against the idea of development as it creates and widens

inequalities, undermines local cultures and is environmentally unsustainable.


The advantages and disadvantages of methods of closing the development gap Solution Definition Benefits Negatives Example

Aid

Multilateral Provided by

many nations

and organised

by international

bodies e.g. UN

Enables overview to see where

the money will be best used

Equal share of aid can be given

to a number of different

countries

Fails to reach the poorest people

Benefits are short-lived

Often a number of disasters occur in

a short period so people give less

money

The WB notorious for implementing

conditions that consequences for

recipient countries

Brandt Report suggested each

country should give 0.7% of its

GNP towards. However most

countries do not get close to

reaching that target

Bilateral Given directly

from one

country to

another

Fosters links between

countries

Often the country receives

more aid in this way

Often ‘tied’ to the purchase of goods

and services from the donor country

Use of aid on large capital intensive

schemes can worsen the conditions of

the poorest people

Can create a culture of dependency

Interest repayments

See Pergau Dam example

Voluntary Run by NGOs

or charities

such as Oxfam,

Action Aid

Work with communities to

provide for their long-term

needs

Often help during natural

disasters

They rely on the generosity of the

public as well as donations from

governments for their funds. This

means that their cash flow isn’t

always guaranteed

See Barlonyo example

Top-down Capital

intensive and

government

lead.

Major disaster areas benefit

from short-term aid

Areas with historic ties

between the donor and

recipient countries receive lots

of aid

Countries often use the aid to

support their existing systems

Criticised as inappropriate way of

helping poor countries

Aid often fought over by different

interest groups = lack of investment in

productive business activities

Often money diverted to rich people

rather than the poor

Pergau Dam, Malaysia

Began in 1991 and set up without

consulting local people.

Malaysia around the same time

bought £1 billion worth of arms

from the UK

Only £234 million in aid actually

given = ‘tied aid’

Bottom-up Involve the local people in the They rely on the generosity of the Barlonyo, Uganda


decision making

Analyses the local’s needs and

looks for solutions

Uses appropriate technology

public as well as donations from

governments for their funds. This

means that their cash flow isn’t

always guaranteed

Supported by national and

international NGOs local

farmers have formed a

democratically run cooperative.

Enables all farmers to share the

cost of hiring a truck to

transport their goods to market.

In 2008 able to sell their

sesame seed crop for 3 xs than

in 2007. Extra income gone into

schooling and healthcare. NGOS

gave ox ploughs, high-yield seeds

to improve efficiency.

Fair Trade Aimed to

improve the

terms of trade

between North

and South

through the

Fair Trade

Foundation

Obtains a fair price for a wide

variety of goods exported from

developing countries to the

developed world

Works with small-scale

producers and makes them

more economically secure

Fair-trade sales valued at $2.3

billion worldwide in 2006

The products sold in the developing

world are more expensive than other

brands e.g. Cadbury’s so there is a

reluctance to buy them

Uganda

Biggest export crop is coffee

worth $350 million in 2007.

Gumutindo Coffee cooperative

has 3000 members – 91% depend

on coffee for their main income.

Money helps pay for school fees

and raise the standard of living

Debt

cancellation

Examples

include ‘make

poverty history’

in 2005 or

Structural

Adjustment

Programmes

(SAPs), HIPCs

initiative

14 heavily indebted poor

countries (HIPCs) have had

their debts written off

Allows countries loans to be

rescheduled to make them

more manageable

Improves FDI by removing

trade or investment

restrictions

Reduces government debts

through cuts in spending

Reduces government spending by

cutting social programmes e.g. health

and education

Privatisation of state assets to cut

debt often sold to TNCs

Increases pressure on countries to

generate exports to pay off debts

Some developed countries accused to

protecting their own interests

In December 2000, the UK

government agreed to cancel

debts owed to the UK by 26

countries, but debts owed to

other creditors, such as the

Inter-American Development

Bank, have not been cancelled


Tourism Belief that the

biodiversity

and scenery in

many poorer

countries can

attract long-

haul tourism

from developed

countries

FDI and technology brought in

by TNCs

Mass tourism from wealthy

nations

Tourism needs the development

of infrastructure e.g. roads

which benefit the local people

Generates local employment

and wealth

Multiplier effect – profits

from tourism trickle down to

the local economy

TNCS control tourism so leakage of

money

Can spoil the natural environment

Local culture can become westernised

Too much pressure on local resources

Exploitation of cheap labour

Technology Access to

mobile phones

in the

developing

countries could

help bridge the

digital divide

Does not require the same

levels of literacy as a computer

Cheaper way to access

information

Africa now the fastest growing

mobile phone market in the

world

Allows leapfrogging of

technology

Access to technology is limited in

many areas of the world due to the

lack of funding

Should money be spent on phones

when there are larger issues to be

addressed?

Mongolia

The Asia-Pacific Development

Organisation Programme

(APDIP) has developed ‘citizen

information centres’ which

function as training centres

which visitors can learn basic

computer skills and access the

internet. Remote rural areas

can connect to the central

government and apply for grants.

Aims to encourage business and

collages to use IT and

counteract the issue of the

periphery

South to South

Links

Hope that more

appropriate,

low cost and

sustainable

solutions could

be developed

Encourages recipient

governments to spend aid more

effectively

Workers are learning new skills

Employing local people

New trading links developed

Economic migration to recipient

countries to earn higher wages

Wages often remain low in recipient

counties

Large-scale projects can lead to

displacement of people

China in Africa

China increased its aid to

African governments, cancelled

$10 billion debts. China hopes

that by doing this it will open up

new markets and find new raw


Ignoring health and safety regulations materials. Africa has 50% of the

world’s gold and is also rich in

diamonds. China now buys 1/3rd

of its oil from Africa

MDGs Provide a

framework for

monitoring the

development

gap and

measuring any

progress

towards

reducing it

Success stories e.g. 41 more

children enrolled in primary

education

2 million more receiving aid

treatment

6% economic growth in sub-

Saharan countries in 2008

Over 500,000 women died from

treated, preventable conditions of

pregnancy and childbirth

980 million still live on less than 1$

per day

Bangladesh Progress

1) Eradicate poverty = poverty

reduction rate of 1.2% a year

2) University primary education

= 3.4% increase

3) Gender equality = gap in

education levels closed

4) Reduce child morality =

reduced by 2.8%



What questions have been asked?

Study Figure 4.

Using information in Figure 4, and your own knowledge, explain why it is difficult to measure

development. (10)

Evaluate the role of different global organisations in narrowing the development gap. (15)

Using Figure 4 and your own knowledge, explain why some groups of people within a country have a

lower level of development than others. (10)


Using named examples, assess the advantages and disadvantages of top-down and bottom-up

development strategies (15)

Evaluate the role of trade in bridging the development gap (15)

Examine the role played by debt in maintaining the global development gap (15)

Examine the barriers that exist against the expansion of trade in some developing countries (15)

How far are patterns of global trade responsible for maintaining the development gap? (15)

Assess the view that economic development is not possible without causing environmental degradation

(15)


Topic 6: The Technological Fix

What is technology and how has it developed and spread?

Geographical distribution of technology use

Reasons for inequality of access

Link between economic development and technological change

Technological leapfrogging – a way to overcome barriers to development?

The impacts of technological innovation

Externalities of technology

Different types of technological solutions

Technology vs. sustainable future

What will have to technology in the future?


Key Terms Biotechnology Any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms to

make or modify products or processes for specific use

Digital Access Index

(DAI)

The gap between the digital ‘haves’ and ‘have not’s

Digital Blackout Where people are without some or all of the following; email, internet,

television and telephone connections. This can be due to either a malfunction

or because of a switch to new technology

Digital Divide The gap between the richer and poorer parts of the world in terms of ICT

access.

DNA The chemical in the cells of animals and plants that carries genetic information

Environmental

determinism

The view that the physical environment, rather than social conditions,

determines culture

Extended polluter

responsibility

Holds manufacturers and traders responsible for the environmental impacts of

their products throughout the product life-cycle, from extraction of natural

materials, through the manufacturing process and product use, to their

disposal

Externalities Third-party effects that can be positive or negative. They occur when the

actions of one group, organisation or individual affect the standard of living or

quality of life of another party without direct interaction between the two

Genetic modification The manipulation of DNA by splitting the DNA module and then rejoining it to

form a hybrid molecule

Global Shift Transfer of manufacturing from western Europe and North America, to newly

industrialised countries and the growth of trade around the Pacific Ocean

information and

communications

technology (ICT)

Blanket term to cover all technologies involves in the manipulation and

communication of information

Intellectual property Cover the ownership of creations of the mind both artistic and commercial

Intermediate

technology

Labour intensive and small scale technology

Pandemic A disease that spreads over a whole country or over the whole world

Patent Sole and exclusive rights for a number of years to the proceeds from the sales

of an invention

Polluter Pays

Principle

Intended to make those who cause pollution pay for the damage they do to the

environment

Technological

Leapfrogging

Describes how some newer technologies, such as mobile phones and the

internet, are penetrating developing countries much faster than older

technologies such as landline telephones

Technology poor Places and people who lack access to a regular and reliable source of electricity

Technology rich Places and people who have access to reliable electricity and to a good

communications infrastructure


What is technology and how has it developed and spread? Technology results from innovation and the ability of people to innovate and find new and better ways

of carrying out a task. It also increases the ability of people to satisfy their own needs. It is

generally believe that for every problem there is a technological fix:

Technological fix examples include geo-engineering to reduce incoming solar radiation to reduce

global warming and pharmaceutical research to find a vaccine for HIV/AIDS

Attitudinal fix examples include education and tax incentives to reduce people’s carbon footprints

and public health education to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS

Development of Technology

Over time people have used technology to control nature, so that their lives are less controlled by

environmental factors e.g. an umbrella when it is raining. Generally people will accept new technology

if they think it will improve their quality of life. Techies embrace new developments to the ‘luddites’

who are opposed to technological change. In the USA Amish Christians reject modern technology for

religious reasons.

Geographical distribution of technology use The Digital Access Index (DAI) was introduced in 2003 to measure the access to ICT of people in

178 countries. It outlined that technology can be seen as pervasive, as it is found in some form or

other wherever you find people living on the planet


Reasons for inequality of access

Link between economic development and technological change Countries with higher levels of development tend to have greater access to communications

technology. Those countries with a digital access index of over 75 are hyper connected and these

include the triad of economically wealthy countries East Asia, North America and EU. Countries

with scores less than 15 are mainly in Africa and they will be slow to move forward as a range of

other technologies need to be in place first e.g. reliable power source.

Also linked to this is the developing world’s ability to access technology to exploit and burn fossil

fuels, meaning they are reliant upon capturing energy directly e.g. solar and wind power. This

therefore restricts their development.

The developed world has also gained an ‘initial advantage’ through continual technological innovation.

This has meant that the use of patents and copyright has enabled the funds from these innovations

to be returned to the developed countries. The USA accounts for nearly 40% of technology patents.

When comparing the HDI and DAI

North America, Western Europe,

Japan, and Australia countries are

high in both human development

and digital access. This clustering

and relationship is not

unexpected.

Those counties with a high HDI

score but middle/low DAI scores

include Cuba, Iran, Maldives,

Saudi Arabia, Thailand and

Turkey.

Wealth

- 2/3rds of all those infected by

HIV live in Sub-Saharan Africa but

cannot afford the annual treatment

costs

Politics

- 31 countries operated nuclear

power plants in 2007

- Western powers that used

military force, economic sanctions

and tied aid to prevent countries

gaining access to nuclear technology

e.g. Iran

Communications

- In North Korea the government

banned people from having private

phones and mobiles since 2004

Religion

- The Catholic Church bans the use

of contraception on religious

grounds

- In some developing catholic

countries access to contraception in

severely limited


Technological leapfrogging – a way to overcome barriers to

development? This can help countries to develop by providing a quick fix such as the use of mobiles has allowed

places to develop as they are wireless and nodes such as mobile phone masts and solar power systems

can be built quickly and almost anywhere. This therefore allows long-distance communication to

develop in places that were in the past on the periphery.

Named Example: India In 1998 India had 22 telephone landlines per 1000 people and was seen as excluded from global

communications due to the expense and waiting list for telephones to be installed. Mobile phones

were introduced in 1994 and since 2000 mobile phone use has grown from 3.5 mobiles to 230 per

1000 people. This has brought many benefits to the people:

Families separated by rural-urban migration can stay in touch

Farmers can now check prices before going to market to buy fertilisers or sell crops ensuring

they get the best prices

Small businesses can keep in touch with customers and services

Information such as weather forecasts and hazard warnings can be sent to remote areas

The impacts of technological innovation Green Revolution Gene Revolution

Who developed the

crops?

Research institutes e.g.

International Rice Research

Institute

TNCs and bio-tech companies

Which crops are

grown?

First crop ‘IR8’ was rice but other

varieties now replace it as more

resistant

Bt maize and Bt cotton and herbicide

resistant soybean

Where are the crops

grown?

HYV rice grown in Asia

HYV wheat grown in Latin America

HYV crops in Africa

GM soya bean most widely planted

USA, China, Latin America and Canada

have large areas of GM crops

Benefits? Rapid growth allows 2 crops

per year

Yields 10xs traditional rice

Now bred to be disease and

pest resistant

India been self-sufficient in

rice since 1980s

Some varieties have been bred for

nutrient e.g. Golden rice contains

vitamin A

Crops are resistant to herbicide so

weeds can be killed without crop

damage

Have they increased

food production?

Yields of wheat, rice and maize

grew by 2% year between 1967-

1996

Most GM crops are fed to animals

Unforeseen

consequences

1 ) Solar polarisation – larger

farmers could afford fertilisers

etc so benefited the most

2) Monocultures – HYVs are

vulnerable to new strains of

disease

1) Led to export boom which helped

Argentina to recover from serious

crash in 2001

2) Number of farms has fallen by

60,000 as area of GM soybean x3

3) Decline in areas of maize and


3) Dependency – needs high inputs

of fertilisers, water and machinery

to maintain yields

4) Environmental problems –

widespread use of agrochemicals

lead to Eutrophication

sunflower by 5 million hectares

reducing food security among the poor

Named Example – DDT From 1938 the synthetic pesticide was used to control malarial mosquitoes and became a farm

pesticide. In 1964 environmentalists Rachel Carson publish ‘Silent Spring’ which blamed DDT for a

growing toll of wildlife deaths. DDT was ingested by creatures and restricted their ability to lay

viable eggs. DDT was banned in the USA in 1972 and the UK in 1984.

Externalities of technology For every technology there are unexpected consequences of its use which can be both positive and

negative. There are various different approaches to externalities and their impacts:

Polluter Pays Principle – way of accounting for the pollution which is a negative externality. It

quantifies the cost of pollution and passes it back to the producers, or user of a technology. It can

be implemented through 2 approaches:

1) Command and control – new technologies are introduced to limit pollution. In the USA all cars

built since 2004 must be fitted with a catalytic converter to reduce their emissions

2) Market based – governments introduce pollution controls, carbon trading permits and product

labelling e.g. British government introduced Vehicle Excise Duty (VED) bands based on the

amount of C02 that a vehicle emits. This aims to encourage people to drive cars which

produce less carbon dioxide.

Pollution Sink – the carbon dioxide we produce from burning fossil fuels is released into the

atmosphere. It was assumed that the sink was large enough to cope but the WWF living Planet Index

suggested that using the environment as a sink for pollution has serious consequences that will need

to be addressed

Capturing pollutants – for single-point polluters such as power stations the use of carbon capture and

storage (CCS) technology can be used.



Different types of technological solutions Type Aim Benefits Negatives Example

Appropriate Designed with

special

consideration to

the environmental,

ethical, cultural,

social, political, and

economical aspects

of the community it

is intended for.

It is appropriate to the

level of income, skill and

needs of the local

population

Fewer resources are

needed

Easier to maintain

Less impact on the

environment

Takes tremendous study of the

region’s climate, resources,

location, and people to ensure it

fits in with local cultures etc

long term effects are unknown

Pose more problems for large

scale applications

Free play wind-up radio

Cost around $40 which is human powered

so no pollution or energy costs. Has an

integrated torch and can be used to hear

news, weather forecasts and hazard

warnings.

Increases independence and access of

critical information in isolated rural areas

Intermediate Refer to relatively

low, usually labour

intensive

technology that can

be mastered by

local people,

especially in the

developing world

See above See above Sri Lankan Pumpkin Storage system

Gutters collect rainwater and it is stored

in a tank built from locally available

materials (cost to build £200). Water is

then collected from the tap at the

bottom of the tank, supply clean fresh

and regular water supply

Civil

engineering

Also known as

large-scale

megaprojects which

reflect a top-down

approach

Provides quick path to

development e.g. China

Can help solve issues

such as energy

production and flood

control

Very expensive e.g. Three

Gorges Dam cost $25 billion to

build

Huge environmental impacts e.g.

pollution and flooding of land

Social impacts e.g. displaced

people

Often money comes from tied

aid or loans which have

conditions or high interest

repayments

China

Have favoured megaprojects as a quick

way to modernise the Chinese economy

and most of the leaders are trained

engineers.

Gained a 8% GDP annual growth rate

e.g. Three Gorges Dam

- Increased pollution as the river can no

longer regulate itself

- 4 million people displaced

- Several species threatened with

extinction


Alternative Refer to

technologies that

are more

environmentally

friendly than the

functionally

equivalent

technologies

dominant in current

practice.

Control energy costs and

reduced greenhouse gas

emissions

Collect methane gas

which if released into

the atmosphere is 20x

more global warming

potential than carbon

dioxide

Issues over practicality of

widespread use

Are they cost-effective?

Will widespread adoption would

produce negative impacts on the

economy, lifestyle or

environment

Landfill gas – South Dakota

Landfill gas is approximately forty to

sixty percent methane. The gases

produced within the landfill can be

collected and flared off or used to

produce heat or electricity. The City of

Sioux Falls, South Dakota installed a

landfill gas collection system which

collects, cools, dries, and compresses the

gas into an 11-mile pipeline. The gas is

then used to power an ethanol plant

operated by POET Biorefining. This

energy production offsets almost two

million tons of coal per year.

Micro

Technology

Includes providing

developing nations

with connections to

ICT and mobile

phones

Enables developing

countries to become

part of the globalised

network of

communications

Leapfrogging of old

technologies enables

fast development in

certain areas

Is this an effective way to

spend aid money?

See India Named example

Nano

technologies

See GM/Green

revolution table

See GM/Green revolution

table

See GM/Green revolution table See GM/Green revolution table


Geoengineering Looks to engineer

our own planet than

rather attempting

to find a new one

Could provide long term,

large scale solutions to

some of the world’s

most serious issues e.g.

global warming, land

degradation and energy

demand

The effectiveness of the

schemes proposed may fall short

of predictions.

Techniques that do not remove

greenhouse gases from the

atmosphere may control global

warming, but do not reduce

other effects from these gases

The full effects of various

geoengineering schemes are not

well understood.

Performance of the systems

may become ineffective,

unpredictable or unstable as a

result of external events, such

as volcanic eruptions, El Niño,

solar flares

The techniques themselves may

cause significant foreseen or

unforeseen harm

Maldives

Building of a $32 million artificial island

of Hulhumale between 1997-2002. It is

built 2 metres above sea level and it

designed to reduce overcrowding on

existing islands and also replace them if

they are drowned by rising sea levels

Space mirrors

Attempt by Russia in 1999 to launch giant

mirrors into orbit to reflect solar

radiation away from Earth to create a

cooling effect. Costs expected $1 trillion


Solving global issues with technology

Named Example: Fixing Global Warming Improving energy efficiency in vehicles and machinery

Changing transport patterns from air and road to rail, reducing distances travelled by goods

Extending renewable sources e.g. tidal, wind, solar

Producing bio fuels from crops

Using natural gas in place of coal to generate electricity

Constructing greener buildings e.g. double glazing, solar panels etc

Carbon sequestration – storing carbon underground

Seeding oceans with iron to encourage growth of phytoplankton

Injecting sulphate particles into the upper atmosphere to reflect solar radiation

Constructing giant mirrors in space to reflect sunlight

Social controls – population control, lifestyle changes, tax credits for electric cars

International agreements e.g. Kyoto Protocol

Named Example: Fixing land degradation Increasing organic content in the soil by adding manure and crop wastes to improve structure

and drainage

Leaving land fallow allows soil to recover

Crop rotations balance out the nutrient budget and prevents pest taking long-term hold

Planting shelterbelts – prevents soil being washed or blown away

Alley-cropping alternates crops with trees and bushes providing shade and reducing water

loss by evaporation

Magic stones – used to slow runoff and prevent soil erosion


Technology vs. sustainable future In order to judge whether technologies we use might help to solve global environmental and resource

problems, the sustainability quadrant allows us to assess technology against well-know criteria

What will happen to technology in the future?

Business as usual – likely to lead to further increases in greenhouse gas emissions, land degradation

and water shortages. Global inequality will grow leaving some areas of the world technology poor.

Countries such as Bangladesh face the added issue of climate change impacts as there are 10m people

who live on land less than 1m above sea level. Therefore a country like Bangladesh can only use

technology to cope with the frequent flood disasters that afflict it but longer-term solutions to

prevent the disaster lies in the hands of the developed world

Technological Convergence – the spread of the motor vehicle is an example of this and they allow

individual mobility, road transport which is key in development as it allows markets and networks to

operate and transport in an industry accounts for up to 10% of the GNP providing jobs and income

growth. The launch of the Tata Nano in India priced at $2500 will allow the poorer people to access

transport. Also leads to other problems such as increases in Co2 emissions.

Energy efficiency – The Automotive X Prize is a global competition to find a 100mpg four-passenger

car. The winner will receive $7.5 million and aims to encourage technological breakthroughs. Other

examples include; electric cars, hydrogen cars and bio fuel cars.

Technology transfer – IMF report concluded that education was the key to ensuring people in less

developed parts of the world could benefit from new technologies. The commitment to development

technology index shows the developed world’s willingness to allow this technology transfer.


Technology transfers do occur but often rely on NGOs to provide the funding required to purchase

and install the technology e.g. Practical Action

What Questions have been asked? Using information in Figure 5, and your own knowledge, explains how farming technologies might have

different consequences for human and ecosystem wellbeing. (10)

Evaluate the contribution technology might make to tackling global environmental problems such as

land degradation and global warming. (15)

Using named examples, discuss the extent to which there is a widening technology gap between the

developed and developing world. (15)

Technology can be seen to have unforeseen consequences. Discuss this with reference to examples

(15)

Some are able to access new technology to solve environmental problems while others are left to

suffer from environmental determinism. Referring to examples, assess the validity of this viewpoint

(15)

Examine the importance of technological leapfrogging for developing countries (15)

The development of technology is a possible response to future resource shortages. Assess the

possible costs and benefits to this approach (15)

Assess the view that economic development is not possible without appropriate technologies (15)


Explain how both taxing and subsidising petrol can have impacts on human and ecosystem wellbeing.

(10)

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