A2 PsychologyHampton College

Psya3 Aggressive BehaviourLearning outcomes:

• To find out why people become aggressive

•Be aware of the different situations in which aggression can exist

• Use the explanations to reduce aggressive behaviour

Miss Keightley

A2 Psychology Overview – resit revision for AS papers

at Friday lunch Psya3 Psya4

AggressionSleepEating behaviourGender

SchizophreniaResearch methodsAddictive behaviour

A2 key issues to be aware of• Longer essays• More research and independent study needed• Form arguments and make solid conclusions• Issues, debates and approachesIssues – science, ethics, the use of animals, Debates- nature vs nurture, reductionism, free

will vs determinismApproaches- psychodynamic, cognitive,

biological, behavioural and humanistic

A’ level Psychology – assessment criteria

Ao1 – knowledge (description of a theory)Ao2 – application (applying the theory to

an unfamiliar setting, using research to support/contradict a theory, using other examples such as those from the news/media) and evaluation (pros and cons for theories and research)

Ao3 – links to science, use of IDA, conclusions

A2 Psychology Homework Set every Monday due for the following MondayEvery Monday you come with all parts of the

homeworkIf you are missing any of it for whatever reason you will

be sent away and marked as absentYou should spend 4- 5 hrs a week on Psychology

homework1 part- study work (reading and making notes)2nd part- essay/project/presentation preparation/researchAll research should be hand writtenAny homework problems see me before Monday

Learning objectives for Monday 6/09/10

Be able to define aggressionBe aware of the social psychological approach to

aggressionBe able to apply such theories to real life aggression

Homework due for 13/09/101. Read and make notes on the social psychological approach

to aggression (hand written using a textbook/other sources beyond the lesson, minimum 2 sides)

2. Study- research and find examples of prison violence/riots (include details to allow you to identify potential causes)

Extension workMake notes on research evidence linking video game violence

to actual violence. Evaluate the conclusions drawn (essay style).

Aggression - AQA exam criteriaSocial psychological approaches to explaining

aggression• Social psychological theories of aggression, for

example, social learning theory, deindividuationExplanations of institutional aggression for example

prison aggressionBiological explanations of aggression• The role of neural and hormonal mechanisms in

aggression• The role of genetic factors in aggressive behaviourAggression as an adaptive response• Evolutionary explanations of human aggression,

including infidelity and jealousyExplanations of group display in humans, for

example sports events and lynch

Connection – Think of some examples of real life aggression

Pick 3 of these and attempt to explain why they may have occurred

e.g. serial stabber in America – possibly a serial killer, gaining something from stabbing (psychological/physical)

Exploring the causes of aggression

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zAjWi663kXc

–Zidane’s head butting episode

Dano Sonnex

Hugh McFall – murdered wife and daughter

Hugh battered his wife and daughter with a mallet in the middle of the night.

He then committed suicide.He apologised in the note.The acts were linked to financial

trouble he was believed to be in.

Cultural variations What is ‘aggression’ varies

depending on where you are in the world and the time period.

For instance, you see a female being hit by a male, clear example of domestic violence. Is this acceptable in the UK?

Somalia• A 13 year old girl was raped by 3

men.• Her father reported it to the police

only for them to declare it an act of adultery under Islamic law

• She was stoned to death on 27th October 2008 by a group of 50 men

• 1000 spectators• 1 boy tried to stop it and he was shot

dead

Iran• 16th October 2008 the death penalty for

under 18 year olds was discussed.• It was decided that they would no longer

execute under 18s as a matter of course• However, certain cases may still go to the

death penalty but this is to be private• At the moment 130 under 18s await the

death penalty

Turkey

Ferhat Gerçek was only 17 when he was shot in the back and left paralysed by a policeman in Turkey. That was in October 2007. Nearly three years later, there has still been no proper investigation into what happened and not one police officer has been suspended. Instead of being free to start piecing his life back together, is himself on trial. Ferhat was selling with other young people, a legal political magazine when he was shot.

Cultural factors• What specifically in the UK causes us

to be aggressive?

Defining aggression• Hostile- caused by being

provoked/upset. Aim to harm• Instrumental- to gain a reward, e.g.

money, means to an end• Pro-social- aggression to prevent

greater harm, e.g. police shoot a terrorist

Tony Martin shot burglars- what type of aggression is this?

Social psychological approaches

Social Learning Theory-

‘of the many cues that influence behaviour, at any time, none is more common than the actions of others’

Bandura, 86

Social LearningTheoryAggression- will take place if it is:

Associated with a reward (e.g. praise/self-esteem)

A result of indirect/direct learningBerkowitz and Bandura – aggression

is instinctive but it is more the product of learning.

Social learning theory• Bandura (77) 4 steps to modelling:1-Attention2-Retention3-Reproduction4-Motivation• EvidenceIndividuals are more likely to imitate others if it results in

outcome they like; model is similar to the observer; task observed is easy/v.hard

Study- modelling and Bobo dollsVariation-Bandura: children not allowed to play for 10

mins, got frustrated then was more aggressive with the doll

• Evaluation – ethical? Studieshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdh7MngntnI

Learned through direct experience

Skinner’s principle of operant reinforcement

Learned by vicarious experience, e.g. a child learns a behaviour from seeing a role model do something.

Observing aggression• Most common aggression is reinforced

by family members • Siegel (92) the boy who sees his father

attack his mother, is more likely to become violent

• Aggression is also more likely to be replicated if it is more life like

• It is also more likely to be replicated if the viewer identifies with the aggressor

Evaluating SLTThink back to the examples you

provided at the beginning of the lesson

Can SLT explain all of them?What are the advantages and

disadvantages of SLT? How useful is it as a theory?If what they are arguing is true, what

implications does this have?

Key evaluation pointsIs the research scientific?Is the theory based on scientific research?What is the sample like?Is the theory reductionist (focusing on one aspect,

ignoring others)?Does the theory treat us as if we have no control over our

behaviour (deterministic) or does it suggest we have a choice (free-will)?

Were animals used in the study?How useful is it?What are the implications for the real world?Does the research have relevance for today’s real world

(ecological validity)?

SLT – what does this all mean for TV/film/video game violence?

Advantages Disadvantages

Research does support the principles of SLTThere is a correlation between domestic violence carried out by children as adults who have witnessed their fathers committing such acts

Relies heavily on experimental evidenceResearch lacks ecological validityThe research was accused of creating demand characteristicsReductionist explanation

Media violence – can it lead to actual violence?

The Matrix murdersManhunter gameNatural born killersMarilyn Manson

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P27cnBizD7U

Your studyIn pairs, read through your

study/review of media violence leading to actual violence.

Sum up the aims, procedure, results and conclusions for the class

Include an advantage or a disadvantage

Media influence research – does tv/film violence lead to actual violence?

Group 1- Charlton Group 2- Bandura et alGroup 3- Hodge and TrippGroup 4- The National TV Violence

studyGroup 5- Glasgow Media GroupGroup 6- Buckingham

Do individuals really consider the consequences before being aggressive?

• Discuss in pairs, use real life examples.

Summary - SLT1. What are the main ideas of SLT?2. What are the key principles of

behaviourism? 3. Give one study to support SLT.4. Provide one advantage and one

disadvantage for the theory.5. How useful is it as a theory to explain

aggression?Extension- how would Freud account for

aggression?Which theory do you support the most?

Deindividuation: presence of a group leads individual members to feel anonymous and act differently

When are we deindividuated?Why would this change our behaviour?

The evidence• Zimbardo (71) prison studyZimbardo advertised for men to participate in a prison

simulation experiment. The aim was to demonstrate the power of social roles on an

individual’s behaviour. 24 men tested as psychologically and physically fit were

used, they were randomly selected to prisoner or guard condition.

It was intended to last 2 weeks but this was stopped after 6 days.

The guards gradually began to treat the prisoners very poorly, waking them up in the middle of the night to force confrontation and deliberately humiliating them.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rmwSC5fS40w

http://www.prisonexp.org/psychology/5

Zimbardo (1969)In one study, participants were rendered

anonymous by clothing them in oversized lab coats and hoods, compared with normal clothes and name tags in the control condition.

The participants' task was to shock a confederate

in a situation similar to the classic Milgram studies on obedience. In a first experiment using groups of female students, Zimbardo demonstrated that anonymous participants shocked longer (and therefore more painfully) than identifiable participants.

Mann (81) ‘baiting crowd’• Mann analysed 21 incident of suicide

reported in newspapers in the 60s and 70s.

• In 10 / 21 cases where a crowd had gathered to watch, baiting had occurred, they had shouted ‘jump’.

• Zimbardo (69)WHY WERE PEOPLE AGGRESSIVE?-individuated behaviour-deindividuated behaviour • LeBon (1895) studied French riots in the

1900s and devised a theory to explain why crowds can sometimes become violent. 1. Contagion (ideas and emotions spread rapidly); 2. Suggestibility (in this situation we are more easily suggestible); 3. Anonymity (if we can’t be identified, we behave differently to normal, usually for the worse)

Darkened room arousal study

• Gergen et al. (73)Men and women asked to interact for an

hour in an environmental chamberOnly instructions- there are no rules1. Dark2. Lights onResults: 1-participants were bored2. Hugged, 89% intentionally touched each

other, funDEINIDIVIDUATION DOES NOT ALWAYS LEAD

TO AGGRESSION

Football hooliganismCan the ideas of deinidividuation be

applied to football hooliganism?Marsh (78) argued that football

hooliganism is more about ritualised aggression and gaining status than as a result of deindividuation.

Evaluating deindividuation• Can this explanation account for your

type of aggression?

Evaluating deindividuationAdvantages Disadvantages

Widely supported by real and experimental evidence

Cannot explain mass acts of kindness such as charity events

Are some of the behaviours due to the associations they have with the outfits when asked to dress up (the KKK effect)

Marsh and others have provided alternative explanations for football hooliganism

Exam question• Outline and evaluate one social

psychological aggression (9 marks + 16 marks)

Institutional aggression- why are people aggressive in hospitals

and prisons?.

• Prison violence has increased nearly six-fold between 1996 and 2005, Home Office figures show

Importation model

Prisoners bring their own social histories/traits to prison (Irwin and Cressey, 62).

An individual who has a good reputation/self view outside of prison, will have a good self view within prison. Someone who rates violence highly outside of prison, will rate it highly inside prison.

Dano Sonnex- 83 convictions against his family, all had served time in prison.

Deprivation model• Prison aggression may well be due to

inmates being deprived of many things• This deprivation makes social

relationships difficult when they leave prison/whilst in there

Sykes (58) deprivations:1. Of liberty2. Of autonomy3. Of goods and services4. Of heterosexual relationships5. Of security

The Popcorn model (Folger and Skarlicki, 95)

• This says that the first person to become aggressive is like the first piece of corn to pop when the saucepan is heated.

• What caused the heat in the first place that led the first person to be aggressive?

• This suggests prisoners that are not normally aggressive may become so in prison due to the heat.

Management Model (Dilulio, 87)

• Aggression in prisons happens because of failed management, high staff turnover and a lack of discipline among staff.

• McCorkle et al. (95)Study of 371 US state prisonsMeasures of both individual and group aggressionResults showed there was a stronger link between

administration practices and aggression, e.g. ratio of white to black staff was linked to aggression.

To reduce aggression- they recommended educational programmes. Likely to motivate people.

Evaluation of situational models

ConConsistent levels of stress in prisons –situational

models do not account for sudden riots appearingProRichards (07) examined inmate-on staff and inmate-

on staff aggression and found levels of aggression varied from institution to institution

ConLight (91) found that over 25% of prison violence

had no apparent reason/motiveConFemale aggression is completely different, strong

bonds are typical amongst female inmates, aggression is due to other reasons

Biological explanations of aggression

• Hormonal and neural mechanisms play a role in aggression

• Testosterone and aggression are linked in adolescent males (Olweus et al 88) and females (Ehlers et al. 80)

• Testosterone in females is particularly influential when there is too much of it directly after birth and in adulthood

Testosterone and aggression• Mostly studied in non-human animals• Involves removing and replacing hormones • Castration-one technique that leads to a

significant decrease in testosterone• When testosterone is replaced in these

animals, aggression increases (Simpson, 01)

• Bethold (1849) noted behavioural changes in cockerals when castrated and then when testes were replaced

• Is linked to birth date- castration near birth has the most effect

Testosterone- how does it affect animals and people?

• Interacts with androgen and oestrogen receptors

• During the critical period after birth changes can lead to a sensitive period allowing for the effects of testosterone that manifest in adulthood.

• Presence of serotonin can reduce effects of testosterone

• Subtraction and replacement- testosterone paradigm, appears to have support

• But when a castrated animal is given 4 times the normal amount of testosterone, they are aggressive (Sapolsky, 97)

Can watching sports increase aggression?

• Catharsis

Bernhardt et al (98)

Has shown that males watching sports teams win/lose show increased levels of testosterone

Highly committed males also demonstrate a rise in testosterone just by anticipating wins/losses

Research –1. Male fans watching basketball games at Georgia

Tech (91)2. Tracked males watching Brazilian and Italian

teams playing in the football World Cup Final in 94.

Saliva samples were collected from both before and after the games. Results found testosterone increased by 20% when watching winning teams and decreased by 20 % when watching losing teams.

Less physical sports• ChessMazur et al. (92)Losing a chess match also depressed

testosterone levels

Effects of aggressive behaviour after traumatic brain injury

• Tateno et al. (03)Brain injury- led to patients behaving

more aggressively. Why?89 males with closed head injury in 2

hospitals in Iowa. Different types of brain injury were determined.

No difference in aggressive levels, but there was a clear difference in the part of brain damaged and aggression-frontal lobe damage contribute to depression and aggression.

Evaluations of links between aggression and testosterone

• Not so clear cut• What causes what?• Tomaszewski et al (03) 933 men-

no differences in testosterone in angry and aggressive men and those that are not angry/aggressive

• Great deal of theory is based on animal studies

The role of genetic factors• Research suggests genetics have an

influence on aggression• Works alongside environmental factors

(Sternberg, 03)• Turner (07) aggression in pigs is inherited• Heritability studies; reverse genetics,

cloning DNA• Mutant mice can be bred without

serotonin, they are twice as aggressive compared to normal mice

Gene –monoamine oxidase A

• Mice that lack it, show serious anger management problems

• Caspi et al (02) studied 1037 children born in 1972 in New Zealand studied until 26.

MAOA activity predicted aggression until adulthood. Linked to crime.

Lombroso• Criminals look a certain way, genes

determine this• Violent criminals are biologically

different• Twin studies

Evaluating biological approaches to aggression

Advantages DisadvantagesScientific evidence Reductionist

Ignores environmental influencesSome of the research is unethicalMost research is based on animals (ratmorphism)

Nature vs nurture• Half- nature• Half-nurture

Is aggression a product of nature or nurture?

Refer to real life examples/studies, your own opinions

Evolutionary• Aggression must have an adaptive

function otherwise we would not be aggressive – Wilson (75)

• Aggression-instinctive and innate • Supermale syndrome in prisons

The Evolutionary approach• Combines anthropology, cognitive

science, neuroscience and evolutionary biology

• Innate brain functions and knowledge help an individual to adapt to their environment

Human aggressionFromm – we are aggressive for similar

reasons to animals

Nelson- argues aggression needs to be studied:

-learning process; structural causes (eg. without society’s rules); and psychological causes

Evolutionary explanations• Darwin-Origin of the Species (1859)-aggression has an adaptive response-aids survival-groups -mates and procreation-offspring• Lorenz – we copy animals in these 4 ways:1. Hunger2. Aggression3. Fear4. Reproduction

Aggression serves as an important function –for individual survival and procreation

• Competition arises when resources are limited

• Aggression- is beneficial to the species• Newman et al (05) aggression in macaque

monkeys has been evident for 25 million years

• Humans might be ‘programmed’ for violence

• Inherited fighting instinct (Lorenz)

Are humans programmed for violence?

• Freud’s ‘death’ instinct• ‘Survival of the fittest’ has bred

aggression in human beings. Human nature is to be aggressive.

• Natural selection

Aggression –evolutionary view point

• Smuts (95) aggression in male primates is used to sexually coerce females

• Female primates often form strong bonds to combat this aggression from males

• Males dominance is sexually attractive (Sadalla, Kenrick and Vershure, 87)

• Buss and Malamuth (96) women tend to pick men who are able to provide resources

.

• Craig- 1st attempt to study aggression from an evolutionary point of view

• Concept of Ritualised Aggression –aggression is often for show/power not for damage. Psychologists often believe this to be true of most acts of hooliganism

• Waller- looked at acts of genocide: aggression takes place because of the ‘in/out group’, inevitable nature of aggression

A modern example of evolutionary aggression - Infidelity and jealousy

• Daly and Wilson (88) high proportion of murders are due to male jealousy.

• http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2006/feb/25/ukcrime.samjones

• http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/jealous-policeman-murders-pizza-party-youngsters-394450.html

• http://www.defimedia.info/articles/2777/1/Jealous-husband-murders-wife/Page1.html

Infidelity leads to violence• Sexual infidelity –a behaviour that

involves the formation of a emotional attachment to or affection for another

• 99% believe their partners will be faithful• 11% of women admit to cheating; 21% of

men admit to cheating• Most attention on partner not the person

who cheats with them• Evolutionary- argues men will be more

aggressive at infidelity as their child may not be theirs, whereas a female can always be certain the child is their child

Jealousy• Harvey et al – sums up the

research, claims that there are no simple explanations for jealousy

• Cascardi and Vivian –participants claim most acts of aggression in relationships are due to jealousy

Proximity and weapons• Technological advances mean that

aggression doesn’t have to be close to the victim, bombs etc can be dropped without direct exposure to the victim

(Tin Bergen)

Difficulties of this approach• We are not animals• Not all aggression is over territory/survival

etc• Use of weapons etc make human

aggression incomparable Krueger- evolutionary psychologists

concern themselves with aggression and how skills etc are used and why, e.g. aggression is linked to reproductive success

Buss- caution is needed when assuming aggression is mostly male on male

Group displays of aggression

Deindividuation3 key things: anonymity; group size and

diffusion of responsibilityBystander apathy (pluralistic ignorance)Contagion theory- hypnotic effect on

peopleConvergence- like minded individuals come

together Emergent norm theory (Turner and Killian,

87)Social identity theory (Reicher, 87)

Contagion theory• Groups exert a hypnotic effect on

their members• This effect alongside anonymity

creates ‘moblike’ behaviour• Behaviour that occurs is a result of

the group not prexisting behaviour

Emergent norm (Turner and Killian, 87)

• Crowd behaviour is not irrational or unpredictable

• Groups of similar people get together for similar reasons, e.g. concerts/protests

• The collective purpose may alter their normal behaviour, norms become different due to the cause

Emergent norm (Turner and Killian, 87)

• One problem for instance can unit people that otherwise would not be united

• Hogg and Abram (88) the group lacks stabile organisation, so other issues bind groups together

• Members of a group communicate together to make apparent norms/values of the group

• Often influenced by disatisfaction

Social identity theory (Reicher, 87)

• Group behaviour involves inter-group behaviour, e.g. opposing sports fans, confrontations with the police

• Often with the absence of direct confrontation, there is symbolic confrontation

• People do not lose their identity in a group but they share the identity of the group

• Outgroup and ingroup

Group displays for aggression

Frustration aggression - Dollard• Environmental stressors may increase

frustration. Dollard et al (39) frustration always leads to aggression.

• Frustration triggers aggression in shock studies (Geen and Berkowitz)

• Cues also increase aggression-participants when given the opportunity shock another, were more inclined to do so when a gun was next to the shocking machine (Berkowitz and LePage, 67)

Relative deprivation theory• Gap between what we have and what we

want-if too big, we feel aggrieved and justified for being violent.

• Runciman (66) 2 forms of relative deprivation:

-egotistic deprivation: compared to similar individuals

-fraternalistic deprivation: compared to other groups

e.g. Trade Union protests

Frustration-aggression hypothesis• Environmental stressors may increase

frustration. Dollard et al (39) frustration always leads to aggression.

• Frustration triggers aggression in shock studies (Geen and Berkowitz)

• Cues also increase aggression-participants when given the opportunity shock another, were more inclined to do so when a gun was next to the shocking machine (Berkowitz and LePage, 67)

Environmental stressors• What about your environment causes

aggression?

Environmental stressors• Overcrowding- Calhoun (62) ‘behavioural sink’

–overcrowding in rats• Temperature-Baron and Ransbuerger (78)

collective violence in the US-heat.• Pain- Berkowitz et al. (79) participants hands in

hot/cold water condition.Caused greater pain to another when in the cold water condition.

• Noise-Glass et al (69) found unpredictable noise has a ‘psychic’ cost, can’t be ignored. Noise-frustration.

• Lack of control- Donnerstein et al (76) participants were angrier when they had control over a button for shocks.

Aggression recap questions1. What is deinividuation and how is it

linked to aggression?2. Which hormone is linked to

aggression?3. Give one theory of why prisoners

become aggressive4. What does the relative deprivation

model argue?5. Which gene is linked to aggression?

Aggression exam style questions• Compare and contrast social

psychological explanations of aggression with one other (25)

• Outline explanations of group displays of aggression (25)

• Describe one or more psychological accounts of institutional aggression (25)

• Evaluate the evolutionary approach to aggression (12)

Aggression key psychologists

DollardBerkowitzBanduraLorenzDarwinDaly and WilsonIrwin and CresseyFolger and SkarlickiRuncimanReicher Turner and KillianZimbardoLeBonMarsh

Michael Roberts murdered his wife

Michael Roberts murdered his wife after telling her about his infidelities.

1. What type of aggression is this?2. Can SLT explain such acts?3. How would Freud explain such acts?4. Do you think such acts occur in all

cultures?