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PREPARING TEACHERS FOR DIVERSITYA Dilemma of Quality and QuantityByPatricia Gándara and Julie maxwell-jolly

Linguistic Minority Research InstituteEducation Policy CenterUniversity of California, Davis

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Introduction ....................................................................................................................2Who are California’s Students? ........................................................................................4Who are California’s Teachers? .......................................................................................4Teacher Supply and Demand and its Consequences ..........................................................5Effects of Teachers on Student Performance .......................................................................7Preparing Mainstream Teachers to Meet the Challenges of Diversity ...................................8Attributes of an Effective Teacher in a Multicultural Setting .................................................9Practices of Effective Teachers for Diverse Learners ..........................................................10Unique Skills and Attributes of Effective Teachers of English Language Learners .................11Preparation for Teachers of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students ..........................12Teacher Preparation Programs and Teacher Quality ........................................................12The Role of Professional Development .............................................................................14Bilingual Teacher Preparation and Professional Development ...........................................16Efforts to Increase the Quantity and Quality of California Teachers ...................................16Conclusions ..................................................................................................................18Recommendations .........................................................................................................20References ....................................................................................................................24

CONTENTS

Copyright ©2000. All rights reserved.The Center for the Future of Teaching and Learning • 133 Mission Street, Suite 220 • Santa Cruz, CA 95060

831-427-3628 • www.cftl.org

Preparing Teachers for Diversity:A Dilemma of Quality and Quantity

INTRODUCTION

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THE CENTER FOR THE FUTURE OF TEACHING AND LEARNING 3

For most of the last two decades there has beena protracted national debate over the status ofthe education of our youth (Berliner & Biddle,1996). The conclusion reached by many is thatAmerican students are ill-prepared for the edu-cational and economic challenges of a post-in-dustrial society. This conclusion has been mir-rored in the public debate in California and hasled to a series of reform efforts aimed at stem-ming the decline in test scores, re-examining theskills that our schools should be teaching, andincreasing the overall achievement of students.To accomplish these goals, we have seen majorinitiatives in the areas of curriculum reform, stu-dent and teacher assessment, class-size reduc-tion, and experimentation with school organi-zation and governance, such as block schedul-ing and charter schools.

In the last year alone, schools have been askedto expand their class-size reduction efforts andabandon their bilingual programs in favor of anill-defined “structured English immersion” ap-proach. They also have been instructed to testall of their English and non-English speakingstudents on new standards that have not yet beenfully incorporated into the curricula and to re-frain from passing students who do not meetthem. Secondary schools have been asked tobegin preparing their students for exit examina-tions that will determine who gets a high schooldiploma, even for those who have successfullycompleted all required courses.

The dizzying number of reforms would be chal-lenge enough under more static circumstances.However, they have been accompanied by anunprecedented shift in the state’s population: atremendous growth in the number of school-age children from minority backgrounds, par-ticularly Latinos. These demographic conditionscall into serious question the ability of any in-stitution to respond effectively, let alone one ascomplex and under-resourced as the publicschools.

In this context, the conspicuous absence of at-tention among these myriad reforms to the is-sues of preparing teachers to work with cultur-ally and linguistically diverse students is par-ticularly troubling. This paper explores theseissues. The paper documents the characteristicsof California’s existing student and teacherpopulation, explores research on the effect onstudents of having teachers who are from mi-nority groups and/or teachers who earn creden-tials from programs that focus on diversity is-sues, identifies barriers to increasing the num-ber of teachers with diverse backgrounds in theworkforce, and makes recommendations to in-crease the pool of minority teachers and to im-prove the preparation of teachers to performeffectively with diverse students.

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The conspicuous

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absence of attention

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among these

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myriad reforms to

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the issues of

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preparing teachers

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to work with

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culturally and

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linguistically

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diverse students

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is particularly

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troubling.

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TEACHING AND CALIFORNIA’S FUTURE4

WHO ARE CALIFORNIA’S STUDENTS?California’s school-age enrollment has been ex-ploding. In 1987–88, the total public school en-rollment was 4.4 million; 10 years later in 1997–98 it had grown to 5.6 million. Including thosestudents in non-public schools, the state is ex-pected to be educating more than 6.3 million stu-dents in the coming academic year, 2000–2001.

The composition of the student population ischanging as rapidly as its growth. In 1987–88about half of the public school population wasmade up of non-Hispanic white students; 10 yearslater that number had shrunk to only 38.8 percent.And, while the number of Asian students has in-creased modestly (from 7.3 percent to 8.2 percent),and African Americans have actually declinedslightly in their share of the public school popula-tion (from approximately 9 percent to 8.6 percent),

the Hispanic school-aged population is increas-ing dramatically from 30 percent in 1988 to morethan 40 percent in 1998. By the year 2010, His-panics are projected to be more than half of allCalifornia public school students (California De-partment of Finance, 1999).

Equally as important as the increasing ethnic di-versity in California’s schools is its continuing lin-guistic diversification. Between 1987 and 1997,the number of limited English proficient studentsin California’s public schools increased by 216percent. Although the state’s English learnerscome from a wide range of language backgrounds,more than 80 percent speak Spanish as their pri-mary language (CBEDS, Language Census,1998).

WHO ARE CALIFORNIA’S TEACHERS?While students are diverse, teachers are much lessso. At the turn of the 21st century, the reality isthat most of California’s teachers and their stu-dents do not share a common background. Forexample, about one-quarter of the state’s schoolchildren live in poverty while the majority ofteachers are from middle class backgrounds(Zeichner, 1996). Overall, 61 percent of the state’sstudents are ethnic minorities while only 22 per-cent of teachers are from minority groups (Centerfor the Future of Teaching and Learning, 1999).There are approximately twice as many AfricanAmerican students as teachers; Asian students andteachers mirror this same proportion. The great-est discrepancy, however, is between numbers ofLatino students and teachers. Pupils from thisgroup represent 41 percent of the student popula-tion while Latino teachers comprise only 12 per-cent of the state’s teachers.

Substantial linguistic mismatch exists as well. Thedearth of teachers from the same linguistic back-grounds as students is reflected in ongoing andincreasing shortages of teachers with Bilingual,Crosscultural, Language and Academic Develop-ment (B-CLAD) or other bilingual certification.In fact, the majority of the state’s bilingual teach-

ers are native English speakers who are not fromthe same language background as their students.

The shortage of teachers with economic, ethnic,or linguistic backgrounds similar to those of thestudents they teach is exacerbated by policies thatare sometimes shortsighted in their failure to ex-amine potential consequences for students. Forexample, the class-size reduction (CSR) initiativehas enjoyed widespread popular support, espe-cially among teachers, but it has also created anear-crisis for many students in poor and urbanareas, and for those who are learning English.Today, while many are in smaller classes, they arealso much more likely to be taught by a teacherwho has received no training to teach them anddoes not speak their language. It remains an em-pirical question whether many of these studentswould have fared better had the same dollars beenspent to attract and train more qualified teachersfor their classrooms.

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PREPARING TEACHERS FOR DIVERSITY

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The shortage of

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teachers with

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economic, ethnic,

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or linguistic

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backgrounds similar

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to those of the

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students they teach

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is exacerbated by

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policies that

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are sometimes

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shortsighted...

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TEACHER SUPPLY AND DEMAND AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

Several factors contribute to the problem ofCalifornia’s increasing difficulty in meeting thedemand for qualified teachers. The school-agedpopulation is growing at more than 100,000 stu-dents per year. Attrition causes a loss of 8 percentof the teacher corps per year, according to statis-tics from the Commission on Teacher Credential-ing (CTC) and State Teachers Retirement System(STRS). Furthermore, there is significant leakagefrom the teacher pipeline, as 40 percent to 60 per-cent of those who earn credentials do not seek em-ployment as teachers. Class-size reduction initia-tives alone have led to an acute demand for newteachers, requiring schools to scramble to hire19,000 new teachers in addition to the 16,000 re-quired for regular teacher replacement in 1996(Shields, et al., 1998).

All of these factors have contributed to California’scurrent deficit of credentialed teachers: 28,500teachers in California classrooms are teaching withemergency permits or waivers rather than fullteaching credentials. Furthermore, the demand forteachers is expected to continue to outstrip thesupply. According to recent research, the most re-alistic scenario predicts a shortfall of approxi-mately 21,000 additional teachers by the year2004–2005. (Shields, et al., 1998).

A significant feature of the teacher supply-and-demand discrepancy is its unequal impact on mi-nority and low-income students: All of the aggre-gate estimates of teacher supply and demand - nomatter how optimistic or pessimistic - mask thedisproportionate effect of teacher shortages onthese students. One quarter of California’s schoolchildren were classified as limited English profi-cient in the 1997–1998 school year, almost 20 per-cent received AFDC, and nearly half were poorenough to qualify for free meals (California De-partment of Education, 1999). Arguably, these arethe very children who need the highest level ofteacher quality to meet their educational needs.Yet these children are concentrated principally inthe state’s urban areas where the greatest num-bers of underqualified teachers are working.

Data on teacher supply and demand show that theimpact is greatest for poor students. In the state’spoorest schools where 75–100 percent of the stu-

dents receive free or reduced lunch, nearly 20 per-cent of the classroom teachers are not appropri-ately certified. Likewise, in schools where 90–100percent of the students are from minority ethnicgroups, almost one quarter of the teachers are notappropriately credentialed (California Departmentof Education, 1999).

Los Angeles and San Diego counties alone havemore than half of the state’s almost 6 million stu-dents and an even greater percentage of its poorand minority students. These are some of the verylocales that are experiencing the highest teachershortages. For example, in Los Angeles schools19 percent of teachers are not fully credentialed(Shields, et al., 1999). This means that more than6,000 teachers in the metropolitan area where overhalf of the state’s minority students reside areunderprepared to meet the significant learningchallenges of their students.

Districts in rural agricultural areas where manyof the students are poor and English learners alsoemploy a disproportionate share of under-prepared teachers. In the agricultural ImperialSchool District, for example, 23 percent of teach-ers had emergency permits or waivers in1996–1997. In contrast, some suburban districtshave few or no teachers who do not have thefull and appropriate credentials for the classesthey teach.

An even more disturbing statistic is that only one-third of the state’s English learners have a teacherwho has earned a credential of any kind (Centerfor the Future of Teaching and Learning, 1999).In addition, the shortage of teachers with special-ized credentials that encompass the language andother skills necessary to effectively teach Englishlearners has been an ongoing problem (Gold,1992). In 1996, California had a shortfall of nearly21,000 bilingual teachers to serve English learnerstudents. Therefore, only a little more than one-third of the English learners who were in class-rooms designated as bilingual had a certified bi-lingual teacher and nearly two-thirds had a teacherwho had not been properly trained to work withthis population and/or lacked competency in thelanguage of the students (California State Depart-ment of Education, Language Census data, 1997).

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A DILEMMA OF QUALITY AND QUANTITY

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A significant feature

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of the teacher

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supply-and-demand

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discrepancy is its

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unequal impact

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on minority and

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low-income

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students.

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Routinely placing English learners, who face theextra challenge of acquiring English while theyalso learn the content of the curriculum, in class-rooms with teachers who have no credential or aninappropriate one is unwise, at best.

Many ethnic and linguistic minority students haveexperienced much less academic success in ourschools than white and most Asian students. Thisdifferential achievement is manifested in a num-ber of indicators. The 1994 National Assessmentof Educational Progress reading scores revealedlarge discrepancies between the scores of Latinoand African American students on the one hand,and Asians and whites on the other. While aver-age scores at fourth grade were 231 for Asian stu-dents and 223 for whites, Latinos averaged only188 and African Americans 186. The 1994 Cali-fornia scores are generally lower than nationalscores and the gap between the state’s higher andlower scoring groups is even greater. The averagescore for both Asian and white students is 211while African Americans average 182 and Latinos174 – 37 points below whites or Asians (Califor-nia Department of Education, 1999).

Another traditional measure of school success isthe rate at which different groups of students leaveschool without a diploma. The most recent yearfor which data is available from the CaliforniaDepartment of Education, 1996–1997, annualdrop-out rates for African American and Latinostudents are more than double those for white andAsian students (5.1 and 4.8 percent versus 2.0 and1.7 percent annually). In addition, graduation ratesdiffer dramatically for these groups. While in1998, 89 percent of Asian and 75 percent of whitestudents graduated within four years of enteringhigh school in California, only about 55 percent

of both African Americans and Latinos from thissame cohort received their diplomas (CaliforniaDepartment of Education, Educational Demo-graphics Unit-CBEDS).

The level of preparation that these graduates havewhen they complete high school also differs sub-stantially among groups. While 30 percent ofAsian graduates and 12.7 percent of white gradu-ates were eligible to attend the University of Cali-fornia (UC) in 1996, only 2.8 percent of AfricanAmericans and 3.8 percent of Latinos were ad-missible to the state’s most selective institution ofhigher education. When both California StateUniversity (CSU) and UC eligibility rates are ag-gregated, African American and Latino studentsfare better, although their eligibility rates are stillfar behind those of Asian and white students. In1997–1998, approximately 60 percent of Asianstudents and 41 percent of white students wereeither CSU or UC eligible, while only 28 percentof African American and 24 percent of Latino stu-dents met the eligibility requirements (CBEDS,1998).

There is a clear and persistent correlation betweenpoverty, ethnicity, and the quality of education thatstudents in California receive. Teachers and teach-ing conditions are a critical link in this equation.In addition to the academic challenges that thesestudents face and that their teachers must address,teachers in high-poverty schools are more likelyto report problems of student misbehavior, absen-teeism, and lack of parental involvement. Yet theteachers who teach in these schools, on average,have less preparation than teachers in suburbanschools and are therefore less well prepared tosuccessfully address all of these issues (U.S. De-partment of Education, 1998).

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There is a clear and

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persistent correlation

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between poverty,

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ethnicity, and the

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quality of education

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that students in

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California receive.

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EFFECTS OF TEACHERS ON STUDENT PERFORMANCEIf teacher quality had little or no impact onachievement outcomes of students, as was oncebelieved (cf. Coleman, 1966; Jencks, et al.,1972),the serious shortage of qualified, credentialedteachers might be of less concern. However, agrowing body of research has demonstrated thatthe preparation and skill of teachers indeed hasan important impact on students’ learning out-comes (Hanushek, 1986, 1992). As Haycock(1998) asserts in her review of large scale studiesof teacher effects, “schools – and especially teach-ers, it turns out – really do make a difference (p.3).”For example, she found that research conductedin Tennessee on teacher effects revealed only a14 percentile point growth during the school yearfor low-achieving students in classrooms withteachers defined by the study as “least effective.”In contrast, students with the same profile whowere in classrooms with the teachers defined bythe study parameters as “most effective” gained53 percentile points during the same period. Manyresearchers, in fact, believe that teachers are themost critical piece in this puzzle. “Educationalchange depends on what teachers do and think -it’s as simple and as complex as that” (Sarason inFullan, 1991, p.117).

While there is no body of research that concludesthat teachers of the same ethnicity or social back-ground necessarily produce superior academicoutcomes for ethnic minority students, a substan-tial literature indicates the positive influences ofteachers on students with whom they share a com-mon background. For example, a number of stud-ies have shown the importance of role models fromsimilar backgrounds in the lives of ethnic minor-ity students. Many minorities who opt for a ca-reer in teaching, at one time or another in theirlives had a teacher who inspired them to continuetheir education and become teachers themselves(Foster, 1997; Buchanan, 1999). African Ameri-can women in one study reported that the AfricanAmerican teachers who served as role models forthem set high expectations. “They didn’t let themget away with anything, and corrected improperEnglish” (Foster, 1997).

Haberman (1996) cites a growing literature thatreveals the positive influences of teachers of color

on personal development and academic achieve-ment of minority students. Moreover, researchwith Latino students finds that the presence ofLatino teachers in the classroom goes beyond“simply creating role models for students” and “ispositively correlated with increased academic per-formance by such students. Teachers of the sameethnic heritage, for example, are less likely thanother teachers to place Latino students in reme-dial programs, and are more likely to identify themas gifted” (Tomas Rivera Center, 1993).

There is also evidence that new teachers preferworking with students like themselves and, giventhe current prospective teacher pool, this meansthat new teachers prefer to work with studentsfrom middle-class backgrounds who live in thesuburbs. Research indicates that these teacherstend to be more effective with the middle-classstudents whom they prefer to teach than with otherstudents (Zeichner, 1996).

Moreover, considerable research has been con-ducted on mainstream teachers’ failure to appre-ciate the unique educational challenges that mi-nority students face (Delpit, 1997) or the “fundsof knowledge” that these students bring to theclassroom from their homes and communities(Moll, et al., 1990). Without accurately assessingthe challenges these students face and withoutbeing able to tap into home and community re-sources, teachers forego important means of ef-fecting students’ academic progress.

Some of the most compelling, and therefore dis-turbing, findings in the literature on learning comefrom studies of teacher expectations. Mainstreamteachers and counselors of low-income and mi-nority students are more likely to perceive thesestudents as having low ability and therefore holdlower aspirations for them (Romo & Falbo, 1996;McDonough, 1997). Such low aspirations canhave powerful effects on student achievement.Teachers habitually send non-verbal messagesabout the amount of confidence they have in stu-dents’ abilities. Not only do teachers call on fa-vorite students more often, research has shown thatthey wait longer for an answer from a student theybelieve knows the answer than from one who theyview as less capable. Teachers are more likely to

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...a substantial

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literature indicates

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the positive

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influences of

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teachers on students

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with whom they

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share a common

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background.

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provide these students in whom they have littleconfidence with the correct answer, or movequickly on to another student (Brophy & Good,1974).

Students have been shown to be very sensitive tothese subtle teacher behaviors and to “read” theirteachers’ attitudes quite accurately (Weinstein,1989). In a series of studies conducted by the psy-chologist Robert Rosenthal, teachers’ attitudestoward their students were shown to have a sub-stantial impact on students’ academic perfor-mance. Thus, Sprinthall, Sprinthall and Oja (1998)conclude that “the Rosenthal effect” is three-fold:(1) pupils who are expected to do well tend to showgains; (2) pupils who are not expected to do welltend to do less well than the first group; and (3)pupils who make gains despite expectations to thecontrary are regarded negatively by the teacher”(p. 408). In this way, teachers’ attitudes and be-liefs can moderate students’ assessment of theirown abilities. If teachers do not believe some stu-dents are capable of excelling, there is a great like-lihood that these students will confirm their teach-ers’ expectations.

James Comer, the African American psychologistwhose intervention programs in ghetto schoolshave produced dramatic increases in academicachievement for African American youth, adheresto a “guiding belief that learning requires astrongly accepting relationship between teacherand student” (Steele, 1992). We would argue thatalthough such a relationship is not exclusive toteachers who share a linguistic and cultural back-ground with students, it is likely to develop moreeasily under these conditions.

The natural response to the problem of teacherexpectations is to try to change teachers’ attitudestoward low-income and minority students, andmany teacher training programs attempt to do this.However, attitudes are difficult to change, espe-cially as the result of a single class or throughexperiences of limited duration. Many research-ers have concluded that teachers’ attitudes towardtheir students and toward their role as teacher arelargely shaped by their own biography (Heredia,1998) and as we have seen, the biography of mostof California’s teachers is quite different from that

of their students. Thus, while it is critical that bothteacher training and professional developmentprograms see the goal of raising teachers’ expec-tations for all of their students as a major priority,it must be acknowledged that this is not an easytask. Later in this paper we review some of themost promising approaches to this challenge.

Beyond more accurately diagnosing students’needs and resources and holding high expectationsfor their performance, teachers need to be able tounderstand something of the circumstances inwhich their students live and to communicate withstudents’ parents. Recent research on parental in-volvement among different ethnic groups haspointed to the high correlation between parentalinvolvement in their children’s education and mi-nority students’ academic outcomes. Studies in-creasingly point to the necessity of parent andcommunity involvement for classroom and schoolimprovement (Keith, T. Z. et al., 1998; Desimone,L., 1999). Arvizu (1996) notes that “to involveparents, programs must take into account the di-versity of families, schools, and communities andtheir varying needs. Different types of schools,families, and communities require different strat-egies for involving parents” (p. 814). Yet it is verydifficult for parents who do not share the samelanguage of the teacher or who come from vastlydifferent socio-economic and cultural back-grounds to approach the teacher with concerns andquestions about their children’s schooling.

In low-income and largely minority schools,teachers commonly complain of lack of parent in-volvement and therefore perceive a lack of caringon the part of the parents (MetLife, 1998). Yetwith little connection among parents, teachers, andschools, and an increasing number of parents andteachers who literally do not speak the same lan-guage, it is difficult for parents to create a role forthemselves in their children’s schooling, thushandicapping these students academically.

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...teachers need

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to be able

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to understand

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something of the

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circumstances in

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which their students

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live and to

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communicate with

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students’ parents.

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PREPARING MAINSTREAM TEACHERS TO MEET THECHALLENGES OF DIVERSITY

The wide demographic divide betweenCalifornia’s students and its teachers will continueuntil there is a substantial increase in the minorityteacher pool. This is an important goal, but onethat no one anticipates reaching in the near fu-ture. Moreover, the demographic diversity ofCalifornia’s schools means that students oftencome from backgrounds that differ from theirpeers. And even students from the same languagegroup may have widely different backgrounds andexperience. Therefore, a critical priority for Cali-fornia is to prepare teachers from all ethnic andlinguistic backgrounds with the skills, character-

istics, and knowledge that will allow them to ef-fectively teach the diverse students in their class-rooms. The knowledge we have about the benefitof teachers of color for students from the samebackgrounds does not negate that European-American teachers can be inspiring and effectiveteachers for these students. It does, however, re-affirm that teacher preparation and developmentprograms must include substantial attention to is-sues of diversity. Such preparation and develop-ment is critical to increasing teacher quality andthe associated gains in achievement for culturallyand linguistically diverse students.

ATTRIBUTES OF AN EFFECTIVE TEACHER IN AMULTICULTURAL SETTING

The research on teacher effectiveness formulticultural students focuses on two principaldomains: (1) teacher attributes associated witheffective teachers for culturally and linguisticallydiverse students and (2) the instructional strate-gies and teaching behaviors used by these teach-ers. The research indicates that it is the combina-tion of personal qualities and attitudes with speci-fied knowledge and skills that contribute to theseteachers’ effectiveness with diverse learners.

Linda Darling-Hammond (1999) explores the at-tributes, skills, and knowledge of good teachersoverall – without reference to any particular eth-nic or language group. A prevalent idea in her workand that of others in the field, is “that an effectiveteacher is one who learns from teaching rather thanone who has finished learning how to teach” (p.2).This capacity to constantly reflect on teaching,consider its effect on learners, and change prac-tice accordingly, is a predominant theme in cur-rent discussions of teacher quality.

Building beyond that base of quality attributes forall teachers, several researchers identify key quali-ties that enable teachers to reach culturally andlinguistically diverse students effectively.Zeichner’s (1996) synthesis of the attributes nec-essary reveals the critical importance of teachers’personal experience, commitment, and beliefs.

Specific attributes include high expectations forthe success of all students, the ability to commu-nicate this belief effectively, and a personal com-mitment to achieving equity both within and out-side the classroom. These teachers firmly believethat they can make a difference in their students’lives and they establish a personal bond with stu-dents rather than viewing them as “the other.” Fi-nally, these teachers have a clear sense of theirown ethnic and cultural identities, which helpsthem to understand those of others.

Haberman (1996) suggests that an effective wayto improve the quality of teachers for culturallyand linguistically diverse students is to recruit thetype of people that studies indicate will be suc-cessful with this population. The teacher profilethat emerges from Haberman’s data is not the tra-ditional teacher education graduate: a young,white, middle-class female. Among other differ-ences, these individuals are older (between 30 and50), come to teaching after working at one or moreother jobs, are likely to have attended urban highschools, and are often preparing specifically toteach in urban schools. Thus, these individuals arefamiliar with the kinds of communities they willteach in and the students they will find there. Theseteachers are often not white, and either are in orhave been from low-income circumstances them-selves.

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...an effective way

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to improve the

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quality of teachers

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for culturally and

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linguistically diverse

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students is to recruit

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the type of people

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that studies indicate

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will be successful

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with this population.

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PRACTICES OF EFFECTIVE TEACHERS FORDIVERSE LEARNERS

There is a substantial literature on the elements ofclassroom practice that contribute to the successof cultural and linguistic minority students. Again,Zeichner (1996) does an apt job of summarizingsome of the critical elements of this practice. Theseinclude an academically challenging curriculumthat incorporates the development of higher-levelcognitive skills and the facilitation of students’creation of meaning about content in an interac-tive and collaborative learning environment. Ef-fective teachers include the contributions and per-spectives of a variety of ethnic groups in the class-room and link the curriculum to the cultural re-sources that students bring to school. They explic-itly teach students the culture of the school whilethey seek to maintain students’ sense of ethnicpride and identity. Finally, these teachers encour-age parents and community members to becomeinvolved in students’ education and they give thema significant voice in making important decisions.

The Center for Research on Education, Diversityand Excellence (CREDE) has developed a set ofstandards for effective teaching practice based ona synthesis of recommendations from literature“that is in agreement across all cultural, racial andlinguistic groups as well as all age levels and sub-ject matters” (CREDE, 1999). The five CREDEstandards include some of the same elements dis-cussed by Zeichner, as well as some that did notemerge from his review. Highly abbreviated, thesestandards are:

■ Teachers and students engage in joint activitybecause learning occurs most effectivelywhen experts and novices work together fora common goal.

■ Teachers engage in a variety of behaviorsin order to promote students’ languagedevelopment.

■ Teachers connect teaching and curriculumto experiences and skills of students’ homeand community because understanding meansconnecting new learning to previous knowl-edge.

■ Teachers have high standards, use meaningfulassessment to measure student learning, andchallenge them to engage in instruction thatrequires thinking and analysis.

■ Teachers facilitate students’ learning byengaging them in dialogue that allows themto form, express, and exchange ideas throughquestioning and sharing.

Timothy Reagan (1997) and other linguists arguethat every teacher should have some knowledgeof linguistics and that this should therefore be partof every teacher education program. Certainly, thegrowing number of English learners in the coun-try dictates this need to a large degree. However,Reagan notes that there are other equally impor-tant reasons for inclusion of these skills andknowledge, in particular, the integral nature of lan-guage and learning. Examples of the linguisticknowledge he suggests as appropriate for teach-ers include an understanding of the process of firstand second language acquisition, knowledge aboutthe differences between oral language acquisitionand learning to read, a grasp of the relationshipbetween language and culture, English-as-a-sec-ond-language teaching methodologies, and rec-ognition of normal speech and hearing in order tobe able to distinguish signs of pathology and thedifferences between these and mere language dif-ferences.

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There is a

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substantial literature

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on the elements of

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classroom practice

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that contribute to the

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success of cultural

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and linguistic

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minority students.

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UNIQUE SKILLS AND ATTRIBUTES OF EFFECTIVE TEACHERSOF ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

There is a significant body of research describingsome of the qualities necessary for effective teach-ers of English learners (LMRI, 1997). These quali-ties include: (1) proficiency in two languages andthe ability to deliver instruction in both; (2) theability to determine and integrate students’ mix ofacademic level and degree of English languageproficiency; and (3) knowledge of the rules ofappropriate behavior for at least two ethnic groups.These attributes are seen as complementary to theones necessary for teaching diverse populations.This literature also identifies characteristics dis-tilled from a variety of sources of good teachingfor bilingual contexts that create optimal condi-tions for students to learn English as a second lan-guage (Milk, Mercado, and Sapiens, 1992). Thesecharacteristics comprise a set of fundamentalskills, knowledge, and attitudes that all teachersworking with language minority students (includ-ing mainstream teachers) should possess:

■ An awareness of the kinds of special instruc-tional services that second language learnersneed at different stages of participation inbilingual and ESL programs.

■ The ability to work collaboratively in teamsthat include specialists and non-specialists inbilingual and ESL programs.

■ An understanding of how classroom settingscan be arranged to support a variety ofinstructional strategies.

■ An understanding of how pupils refer to theirexisting knowledge in order to comprehendwhat is going on in the classroom and howpupils might misunderstand instructionalcontent.

■ The ability to draw parents into classroomrelated activities and tap into the knowledgeand experience they can contribute to enhanceinstruction.

■ The ability to deliver an instructional programthat includes ample opportunity for speaking,listening, reading and writing and providesscaffolding of new concepts to help guidestudents through the learning process.

■ The ability and desire to include students inclassroom dialogue.

■ The ability to provide ongoing assessment ofstudents’ abilities in order to provide instruc-tion aimed at an appropriate level above whatstudents currently know.

■ Tolerance of student responses that divergefrom the teacher’s point of view.

■ Ability and desire to incorporate the cultureof students into the curriculum.

In addition to these elements, Garcia (1996) notesothers revealed by Tikunoff’s seminal study ofeffective teachers for English learners. Accord-ing to Garcia, these teachers use the students’ na-tive language and English for instruction alternat-ing between the two languages when necessaryto provide clarity, but not translation. They spe-cifically explain tasks and the expected outcomesof these tasks. They also communicate high ex-pectations for student learning and maintain stu-dents’ engagement by pacing instruction appro-priately. Effective teachers for English learners use“active” teaching behaviors including communi-cating clearly when giving directions, specifyingtasks, and presenting information. They constantlyand effectively monitor students’ progress andprovide immediate feedback on student success.Finally, these teachers demonstrate a sense of ef-ficacy regarding their own ability to teach.

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TEACHER PREPARATION PROGRAMS ANDTEACHER QUALITY

Although scholars can tell us something about theimportant attributes, skills, and knowledge of qual-ity teachers for linguistically and culturally diversestudents, less is known about how to build a corpsof teachers who possess these qualities. Merino’s(1999) review of the research on reform of teachereducation for work in culturally and linguisticallydiverse settings reveals few empirical studies. Shealso finds a scarcity of rich descriptions of whatteacher preparation programs actually do to ad-dress cultural and linguistic diversity and cites awidespread failure to describe or evaluate the im-pact of coursework and experience on studentteachers and their practice.

That teacher education often falls short of prepar-ing teachers for diversity is confirmed by teach-ers themselves. Periodic surveys of credential pro-gram graduates one year after program comple-tion are a tradition of research in teacher educa-tion programs. These surveys are submitted to theCalifornia Commission on Teacher Credentialingas part of the external evaluation process. The1990 survey conducted by the California StateUniversity system revealed that credential pro-gram graduates were generally satisfied with the

competencies surveyed. The exception, however,was their low level of satisfaction with the exper-tise in teaching culturally and linguistically diversestudents and in particular with the aspects of theprogram dealing with instructional strategies forteaching English learners (Merino, 1999). Re-search does provide some guidance about the kindsof programs that are likely to result in qualityteachers in general. Darling-Hammond’s (1999)synthesis of several decades of research on teacherquality indicates that certain key factors of ateacher’s initial and ongoing preparation are strongindicators of teacher quality and therefore predic-tors of student achievement. The most effectiveprograms stress a well-integrated and carefullyplanned approach that begins with an extendedperiod of formal pre-service education, includingcourses and field work, that is reinforced by theongoing support of an induction process for newteachers. Finally, the research suggests that a criti-cal aspect of effective teacher preparation is on-going professional development that helps teach-ers expand and refine their knowledge through-out their careers.

PREPARATION FOR TEACHERS OF CULTURALLYAND LINGUISTICALLY DIVERSE STUDENTS

Two principal strategies emerge as methods forbuilding a corps of teachers who are effective withdiverse learners. A “front-end” approach is to re-cruit individuals who already have the languageand other experience that enables them to teachthese students competently. As Haberman (1996)suggests, an important consideration in preparingthe “best and the brightest” teachers for urbanschools is that these individuals may be older, withfamily responsibilities and therefore are likely toneed flexible programs. For example, manyparaeducator programs “grow their own” teach-ers by seeking paraprofessionals who have thecommunity knowledge, language skills, and teach-ing and life experience to become effective teach-ers. His conclusion is that institutions must offeralternative preparation programs in order to en-

courage individuals who have the most potentialfor success with culturally and linguistically di-verse students to consider the teaching profession.

The other principal strategy is to ensure that allpre-service teacher preparation programs mean-ingfully address diversity. Although direct researchis sparse, there is some evidence on how to pre-pare teachers to be effective with culturally andlinguistically diverse students. Preparation pro-grams identified by Darling-Hammond (1999) assuccessful in preparing teachers who are “unusu-ally and consistently successful at teaching diverselearners effectively” (p. 8) are characterized bycollaborative faculties that develop a clear visionof good teaching that is infused in a coherent man-ner throughout the course and fieldwork. The vi-

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That teacher

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education often falls

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short of preparing

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teachers for diversity

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is confirmed by

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teachers themselves.

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sion is based on well-defined and carefullythought-out standards for what a professionalteacher should know and be able to do. Programsinclude a rigorous curriculum of intellectually andpractically useful courses that use problem-basedmethods, including case studies to help studentsapply theory to problems of practice. Intenselysupervised, full-year clinical experiences that arecarefully chosen to support the ideas and prac-tices learned in coursework are critical to programeffectiveness. Finally, these programs are foundat institutions that have strong relationships withlocal schools where there is support for the re-form of both the school and the teacher educationprogram.

Zeichner (1996) finds that successful programsintegrate issues of diversity into every aspect ofthe teacher education program including all classesand field experience. The importance of infusingissues of cultural and linguistic diversity through-out the program’s curriculum and activities isemphasized also by Varvus (1994) and Olmedo(1997) in their work on teacher preparation fordiversity. Programs that take this infusion ap-proach either focus on preparing teachers to workwith diverse students without reference to any par-ticular culture or language group, or they concen-trate on preparation for teaching a specific ethnicgroup. Some universities address issues of cul-tural diversity in undergraduate courses for pro-spective teachers prior to their enrollment in cer-tification programs, and this is recommendedwhere graduate education coursework is limited.

The alternate approach to teacher preparation fordiversity is often called “add-on” and it does justthat: adds to the curriculum a few courses or lim-ited field experience in the sub-topic of culturaldiversity while the remainder of the teacher edu-cation program is unchanged. Zeichner notes thatdespite clear research evidence indicating the su-perior effectiveness of the integrated approach toteacher preparation programs, the segregated or“add-on” approach dominates in U.S. teacher edu-cation. Some educators, however, advocate astand-alone component dealing with issues of di-versity because of a concern that when teaching

this material is everyone’s responsibility, it is ul-timately no one’s responsibility, and accountabil-ity can be lacking.

Carl Grant (1994) reviewed the literature onmulticultural education regarding preparation ofmostly white, middle-class teachers for urbanschools. Grant found that the literature, althoughrarely empirical, revealed the limited usefulnessof workshops on multicultural education whenused in and of themselves. His most salient find-ing was that preservice programs that infusemulticultural education and provide immersionfield experience, including residence in a cultur-ally diverse community, offer a strong possibilityof successfully preparing effective teachers fordiverse learners. His research also revealed theimportance of university supervisors and, in par-ticular, cooperating teachers who have a thoroughknowledge of, and belief in, the importance ofmulticultural education. Finally, in the most ef-fective programs for prospective teachers, Grantfound that multicultural education takes place invarious contexts and through diverse media, forexample, readings, preservice experience inmulticultural schools, and living in a multiculturalcommunity. In addition, student teachers in thesemost-effective programs participate in projects thatrequire them to critically analyze race, class, andgender issues. Few programs, however, takeGrant’s recommended approach.

Zeichner (1996) provides a discussion of variousstrategies that have proven successful in prepar-ing teachers to work with diverse students, regard-less of the type of program in which they are em-ployed. Strategies that programs use for counter-ing low expectations include screening prospec-tive teacher candidates on the basis of cultural sen-sitivity and commitment to the education of allstudents, and providing examples of successfulteaching for culturally and linguistically diverselearners. Exemplary programs also give seriousattention to the growing research base revealingthe relationships among language, culture, andlearning that “has convincingly demonstrated thesuperiority of a situational view of intelligence andcompetence, which sees behavior as a function of

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...successful

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programs integrate

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issues of diversity

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into every aspect

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of the teacher

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education program...

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the context of which it is a part” (p. 151).

Another important strategy to help new teachersaddress social and ethnic diversity is the explora-tion of their own ethnic and cultural identity as anecessary precursor to cross-cultural understand-ing. The principal “self-knowledge” strategy thatsuccessful programs use involves an autobio-graphical component. This self-exploration allowsteachers to draw on their own personal and familyhistory to make meaningful connections regard-ing the social context of life as experienced bydifferent groups. Self-exploration is followed bya re-examination of the attitudes students hold to-ward ethnic groups other than their own, confron-tation of some of these beliefs, and a consider-ation of alternatives. Case studies and readingsauthored by people of color about their personalschooling experiences can be beneficial and aresometimes a less volatile means of exploring sen-sitive issues. It has also proven useful to providefield experiences outside the classroom that givestudents experience in interacting with parents andother adults from backgrounds different than theirown. (However, the link between this kind of ex-perience and the work teachers will eventuallycarry out in the classroom has not been made inthe research.)

Successful programs also use strategies to teachaspiring teachers about the histories of differentethnic groups and their historical and contempo-rary contributions to all aspects of life in the UnitedStates, as well as providing them with informa-tion about unique characteristics and learningstyles of different ethnic groups. However,McDiarmid and Price offer a caveat, repeated of-ten in the literature, regarding the effects on pro-spective teachers of an “ethnic studies” approach.“On the one hand, they [teachers] are taught to besuspicious of any generalization about a group ofpeople; on the other, they encounter materials andpresentations that, in fact make generalizationsabout normative values, attitudes, and behaviorsamong different groups” (in Zeichner, p. 156).Grant (1994) also cautions that such an informa-tional approach to cultural diversity, while notnecessarily harmful, does little to transform indi-viduals’ world view.

Finally, exemplary programs provide teachers withknowledge about instructional and assessmentstrategies that enable teachers to draw on theknowledge and backgrounds of their students inorder to design the most appropriate classroomexperiences. They furnish teachers with knowl-edge regarding how to discover what students al-ready know and how to use students’ learningstrengths, knowledge, and experience as a foun-dation for building new learning. For example,Moll (1992), notes that for teachers of Englishlearners it is critical to utilize all “available re-sources, including the children’s or the parents’language and knowledge, in creating new, ad-vanced instructional circumstances for the stu-dents’ academic development” (p. 23).

An increasingly prevalent idea in the literature isthe developmental nature of learning to be an ef-fective teacher for linguistically and culturally di-verse students, characterized as an ongoing pro-cess rather than a discrete learning period afterwhich one is an expert. This is not unique to teach-ers of culturally and linguistically diverse students,but according to Zeichner it may be even morecritical for them. In his report on the role ofcoursework, field experiences, cooperating teach-ers, and university supervisors in preparing teach-ers for linguistic and cultural diversity, he com-ments:

The implication is that prospective teach-ers need to learn how to be and do all ofthe things that are discussed in this reportby the time that they begin their first yearof teaching. Given what we know aboutwhat student teachers bring to teacher edu-cation (e.g. the lack of interracial experi-ence), and about the complexity of the pro-cess of teachers’ learning to teach acrosscultures, this is probably an unrealistic ex-pectation (p. 162).

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...the literature...

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revealed the limited

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usefulness of

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workshops on

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multicultural

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education when

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used in and of

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themselves.

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THE ROLE OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENTThe approaches to training teachers for culturaldiversity that are found in exemplary programsrepresent an ideal. However, the reality is thatmany teacher preparation programs are not exem-plary and many new teachers face their first class-room ill-prepared to teach the diverse students theyencounter there. In addition, many existing teach-ers who were trained long before diversity issueswere included in teacher preparation programs willremain in the classroom for years to come. Bothfactors mean that professional development is acritical avenue for helping teachers understand andmeet the challenges of teaching California’s lin-guistically and culturally diverse students byequipping them with appropriate skills.

Unfortunately, few school districts are preparedto provide the kind of professional developmentthat teachers need to strengthen these skills. A re-cent statewide survey conducted by SRI Interna-tional showed that while teachers reported par-ticipating, on average, in 122 hours of professionaldevelopment in 1997–98, only about half felt thatthey had learned anything new as a result. One infive (20 percent) claimed that it was a waste oftime. A primary reason for this is that professionaldevelopment activities tend to be disjointed se-ries of workshops with little relationship to eachother, and little follow up (Shields, et al., 1998).

Grant and Secada (1990), in a review of programsthat prepare teachers for diversity, found that fewgood evaluations exist of such efforts, but whetherthey are successful or not, most focus on attempt-ing to change teachers’ attitudes toward diversityrather than emphasizing skill development. Thus,teachers may gain some insights into cultural di-versity, but are not likely to carry with them manyskills for actually working with culturally diversestudents to enhance their achievement. We havefound a couple of exceptions to this pattern. Cali-fornia Tomorrow, in partnership with the MellonFoundation, conducted a three year experiment intwo heavily-immigrant California high schoolswith a focus on enhancing the schooling of En-glish learners. The goal of the experiment was totest whether a school-wide reform effort involv-ing administrators, teachers, and students, in dia-logue with each other, could change the academic

outcomes for English learners. Teachers were pro-vided opportunities to reflect on and critique theirown teaching, and received ongoing professionaldevelopment on project-oriented and interactiveinstruction geared to the needs of English learn-ers. A unique and important element of the pro-fessional development was structured presenta-tions by students on what they felt they neededand what could be offered in the classroom to aidtheir aspirations. At the end of three years, theschools had made significant progress in enhanc-ing student outcomes: school retention, access tocollege preparatory curricula, and English lan-guage literacy, as well as in teacher efficacy(Olsen, Jaramillo, McCall-Pérez, White, &Minicucci, 1999).

Another program that focuses on skill develop-ment for teachers, in addition to changing attitudes,is the Puente program. Puente’s goal is to helpunderrepresented high school students, particu-larly Hispanics, make a successful transition intocollege. While the program provides a number ofservices directly to students, it also has an exten-sive professional development component for highschool English teachers. In a 10-day summer in-stitute, with continuing sessions at intervals dur-ing the school year, teachers are exposed to a com-prehensive and highly articulated series of work-shops that focus on teaching and assessing theprogress of (largely) Latino students in high schoolEnglish. The workshops cover Latino literature,including methods for incorporating it into the corecollege preparatory curriculum; Latino culture,including how to incorporate cultural artifacts andfolklore into the core curriculum and how to uselocal community resources in developing curricu-lum; collaborative learning and teaching strate-gies, with opportunities provided throughout thesessions to engage in collaborative activity; andinstruction in writing and assessment that incor-porates a Latino perspective and voice. An evalu-ation of the Puente professional development pro-gram yielded exceptionally high satisfaction rateson the part of participating teachers. Moreover,when surveyed after attending the series of work-shops, 88 percent of teachers responding (N=25)reported that they either had already used or in-tended to use in their own classrooms more than

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half of the material they had learned (Gándara etal., 1997; 1998).

Such positive responses to intensive professionaldevelopment efforts that also focus on skill de-velopment suggest that, when carefully con-structed, such activities may provide great ben-efit to both teachers and students. However, rela-tively little attention has been paid to developingprograms that focus on student diversity on a large

scale. For example, in the aftermath of the initialclass-size reduction implementation, an outcomeof which was that more English learners were inmainstream classrooms with teachers who had nospecial preparation for teaching them, research-ers found no evidence that any professional de-velopment activities provided by the schools hadbeen dedicated to helping teachers to address thespecial needs of English learners (PACE, 1998).

BILINGUAL TEACHER PREPARATION ANDPROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

There is a growing body of knowledge regardingeffective teaching practices for linguistic minor-ity students but evidence on effective staff devel-opment and preservice instruction based on theseprinciples is lacking (Hakuta and August, 1997).Three principal frameworks are identified as driv-ing teacher education content for language minor-ity students. These include (1) one that identifieseffective practices through nomination or throughlinking teacher practices to student achievement(Garcia, 1996), (2) another that looks at how teach-ers and teacher educators collaborate on research-ing and implementing these effective practices,and (3) one that focuses on the implementation ofeffective practices through coaching or mentoring(Merino, 1999).

Extant models of bilingual teacher mentoring thathave had some success in promoting job satisfac-tion and teacher learning include a language matchbetween mentor and new teacher as well as en-couragement to take college courses and/or par-ticipate in staff development in bilingual/biculturaleducation-related topics. Programs that have seensome success are in schools that provide newteachers with release time for mentoring activi-ties.

A shortcoming of bilingual mentoring programslies in the scarcity of experienced bilingual teach-ers. One study found that the most successfulmentoring relationships pair teachers from thesame grade level and subject area. Given that thereis often only one bilingual teacher per grade level,this type of relationship is not possible in many

situations (Torres-Guzman, 1996). A long-termremedy to the situation lies in preparing moreteachers with bilingual skills. This course of ac-tion is affected greatly, however, by the currentmovement towards English-only instructionbrought about by the passage of Proposition 227.Anecdotal evidence suggests that the recruitmentof new bilingual teacher candidates has becomemore difficult in the current circumstances. Thus,until such time as we see a real increase in thenumber of bilingual teachers, Torres-Guzmán sug-gests expanding mentoring relationships to pairnon-bilingual and bilingual teachers who bothserve English language learners and and/or em-ploying alternative or additional criteria to thosecurrently used for selecting bilingual teacher men-tors.

In a somewhat ironic twist, the success of theCLAD credential, coupled with the passage ofProposition 227, has had the effect of wronglyconvincing many people in the schools that thereis no longer a need to prepare bilingual teachers.In fact, the need has never been greater. TheBCLAD, or bilingual education credential, pre-pares teachers to work with linguistically diversestudents in their primary language and English,and provides the more in-depth understandings oflanguage acquisition and cultural influences ondevelopment that the CLAD does not. Moreover,a bilingual teacher is prepared to work not justwith students but also with parents and commu-nities, the importance of which is emphasized inso much research in this area.

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A shortcoming of

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bilingual mentoring

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programs lies in

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the scarcity

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of experienced

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bilingual teachers.

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EFFORTS TO INCREASE QUANTITY AND QUALITY OFCALIFORNIA TEACHERS

The need to increase the numbers of teachers andat the same time to increase the quality of teach-ers, especially for linguistically and culturally di-verse students, creates a significant policy di-lemma. That is, how do we address both at thesame time? Which takes precedence? And, howdo we address quantity without seriously compro-mising quality?

Over the past decade and a half, extensive policymeasures designed to increase teacher quality andquantity were enacted. Some involve attempts toexplore, describe, document, and make recom-mendations about various facets of teacher prepa-ration, certification, and/or recruitment. Somefairly extensive efforts to change the skills andcompetencies required to earn a teacher creden-tial were undertaken in the last few years, notablythe drafting of CLAD and BCLAD authorizations(1994) to replace the bilingual emphasis and lan-guage development specialist credentials.

Others are designed to increase the number ofclassroom teachers through various means suchas forgivable loans and grants like the Cal GrantT, awarded exclusively to students for financingtheir teacher certification studies. Other attemptsto increase quantity include efforts to expeditecertification and expand the subjects and or stu-dents that teachers are authorized to serve withcertain credentials. An example of this type of ef-fort was the legislation allowing teachers with nineyears of classroom experience to earn a form ofCLAD credential with only 45 hours of course-work (SB 1969, 1994).

Examples of policy designed to improve the over-all quality of teachers include the legislation re-quiring applicants for teacher education programsto take a proficiency test (SB 1225, 1983). Finally,some efforts that were not designed with teacherquality or quantity in mind at all have neverthe-less had a tremendous impact. The prime exampleof course is class-size reduction enacted in 1996.

Most recently, the 1999–2000 California Stateeducation budget of $44.5 billion dollars, a $3.9billion dollar increase over the prior year, includedefforts to address both the quality and quantity of

teachers in California schools (California Depart-ment of Finance, 2000). Several budget items al-located funds to efforts focused on teacher prepa-ration, improving teacher quality, and/or increas-ing the quantity of teachers prepared to work inthe state’s schools. These included a more thanfour-fold increase in the funding for BeginningTeacher Support and Assessment (BTSA) induc-tion programs; the Teacher Peer Assistance andReview program to provide assistance for teach-ers who request it, or who are deemed by a re-view team to need it; a $100 million allocation toincrease beginning teacher salaries to $32,000;funding for institutes to prepare teachers to teachreading; $160.7 million allotted to expand theclass-size reduction in two courses in grade nine;and $50 million for one-time performance awardsto teachers and other certificated staff in under-achieving schools that demonstrate significant im-provement in students’ academic achievement.

While the amount of reform has been impressive,it has two distinct drawbacks. It has been largelypiecemeal, paying scant attention to how differ-ent policies interact. And it has lacked focus onhow reforms might impact cultural and linguisticminority students. For example, the recent legis-lation to establish grade-level passing standardscould have complicated and painful consequencesfor English learners. This reform will provide theopportunity for students who do not meet grade-level standards to attend summer school andachieve grade level proficiency. However, if stu-dents do not achieve grade-level proficiency theywill be retained. As a result of Proposition 227,many English learners are being schooled in a lan-guage they do not understand, or are in Englishlanguage development classrooms where lan-guage development rather than academic contentis the focus. It is almost inevitable that studentswho do not speak English but who are schooledwholly in English will take longer to gain impor-tant academic skills and knowledge than studentsfor whom English is their primary language.

On its surface, this social-promotion law does takeinto consideration the potential impact on lan-guage-minority students, stating specifically that

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English learners will not be retained solely be-cause of a lack of English skills. However, theeffects of schooling exclusively in English mayvery well cause these students to fall behind aca-demically as they struggle to learn English andcore academic subjects at the same time. There-fore, the result of the combination of these tworeforms may be an eventual disproportionate ef-fect on English learners who could conceivablybe required to repeat grades more than once.

Several of the reforms enacted in 1999 missedexcellent opportunities to specifically address is-sues of teacher quality for linguistically and cul-turally diverse students. Two notable examples il-lustrate this point. The new-teacher induction pro-gram, BTSA, has proven effective, particularly inregard to pairing a high-quality mentor with a newteacher. However, no provision was made in theBTSA expansion legislation for planning how toprovide quality induction for teachers of linguis-tic and culturally diverse students when a short-age of these teachers has existed for years andpersists today. Since this means there will be fewavailable mentors, it would appear that inductionfor these teachers will have to rely less on thementoring component of the program and moreon courses or inservice. This is especially unfor-tunate, given the demonstrated benefits of qualitymentoring relationships and the more limited im-pact of many professional development efforts.

A second example, class-size reduction, was origi-nally enacted without regard to planning for howto prepare adequate numbers of teachers for theadditional classrooms. This year the measure wasextended to two core ninth grade classes state-wide. Despite what we’ve learned from CSRimplementation so far, that is, that it has had anegative impact on teacher quality in many urbanand rural areas, no provisions were made in thecurrent legislation to address this aspect of ex-tending the policy to additional classrooms.

In reviewing these policy efforts, it is clear thatvery few were designed strictly for or even in-clude provisions that specifically target preparingteachers for culturally and linguistically diversestudents. In fact, the overall result of some well-intended policies may be bad outcomes for someculturally and linguistically diverse students. Un-fortunately, the students who are most often nega-tively affected [by well-intentioned policies] aregenerally those who are already benefiting theleast from our schools. Unless we make the needsof these students a specific priority, we are un-likely to achieve the desired and long-needed im-provements in educational outcomes for these stu-dents.

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Unfortunately, the

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students who

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are most often

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negatively affected

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[by well-intentioned

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policies] are

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generally those

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who are already

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benefiting the least

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from our schools.

CONCLUSIONSThe problems of strengthening California’s teach-ing force to better meet the needs of its diversepopulation are complex. To a very large extent,California’s teaching force is the product of its ownpublic schools – schools which have had little suc-cess in preparing underrepresented students to goon to college. Thus, relatively few Native Ameri-cans, Latinos, African Americans and SoutheastAsians are equipped to pursue a career in teach-ing. And those who are prepared have more andmore been opting for careers with better pay andhigher prestige. The educational pipeline runs al-most dry at the point of delivering students of colorand linguistically diverse students into teacherpreparation programs.

Very little effort has been expended in recruitingthose well-prepared, but underrepresented, stu-dents to pursue teaching. This is especially unfor-tunate because, as Haberman (1996) notes, it iseasier to begin with the “right” people – aspiringteachers who have the backgrounds and inclina-tions that give them the most potential for successwith culturally and linguistically diverse students– than it is to educate those with less diverse back-grounds.

The “right” teachers are not necessarily those fromthe same underrepresented communities as the stu-dents, but more often than not, these individualshave insights, experiences, and skills that are dif-ficult to replicate in the short space of time thatteacher preparation programs have to train newteachers. Certainly, the acquisition of a second lan-guage will rarely occur in that time frame.

Moreover, these individuals may be the “right”teachers because they tend to come from the same

geographic areas where many of the teachers whoare currently graduating from teacher preparationprograms do not want to work. Because teachersare drawn to teaching in near proximity to wherethey live (Murnane, et al., 1991; Shields, et al.,1998), the inclusion of more teachers from theseunderrepresented communities could have a salu-tary effect on the problem of unequal distributionof the teacher force. There is also reason to be-lieve that teachers who share the backgrounds ofthese students are more likely to persist both inthe teacher corps and in schools with high minor-ity populations. For example, Murnane and hisassociates (1991) found that African Americanteachers teaching in largely African American in-ner-cities were twice as likely to remain in theteaching force after five years as white teacherswho taught in those schools.

Unfortunately, new teachers are not apt to find agreat deal in their credentialing programs that willprepare them for the kinds of students they willbe teaching, and those teachers who are alreadyin the teaching force receive very little supportand guidance on how to address the needs of eth-nic minority, low income, and linguistically di-verse students. The evidence suggests that feel-ings of lack of efficacy contribute to the teacherattrition problem (Darling-Hammond, 1999),which is a fundamental cause of California’steacher shortages. The majority of California’s stu-dents are students of color; the majority of itsteacher force is not. Diversifying the teachingforce is a strategy that can attack multiple prob-lems simultaneously.

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To a very large

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extent, California’s

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teaching force is the

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product of its own

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public schools –

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schools which have

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had little success

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in preparing

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underrepresented

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students to go

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on to college.

There is no shortage of recommendations to in-crease the effectiveness of the existing teachingforce and to augment that group with more teach-ers who bring the skills, experience, and languagecompetencies that are so critical to better prepar-ing California’s diverse student body. In fact, thechallenge is not to simply provide recommenda-tions, but to weigh carefully which of the manyrecommendations that one might make wouldlikely have the greatest impact on the problem.

For maximum effectiveness, policy recommenda-tions should be coordinated and synergistic. There-fore, we look to The Status of the Teaching Pro-fession (Shields, et al., 1999) as a baseline of rec-ommendations to improve both the quality andquantity of California’s teacher workforce. Wethen build on this foundation, recommendationsthat are aligned but more explicitly focused onthe specific need to address the needs ofCalifornia’s diverse students. We have attemptedto select those recommendations we think are mostkey and to organize them by category: Pipeline/Recruitment, Preservice, Professional Develop-ment, and Research.

PIPELINE/RECRUITMENT STRATEGIESTo diversify the teaching force, it makes sense toconcentrate efforts where the target population isfound in greatest numbers. In California, mostLatino high school graduates who go on to col-lege and a high percentage of African Americanand other first-time college-goers fromunderrepresented groups attend community col-leges. Currently, we lose most of these studentsbefore they complete a bachelor’s degree. Amongthe reasons that figure most prominently into thisloss are financial pressures, inadequate careercounseling, and lack of focus in their studies. Thus,we recommend that the state consider:

■ A teacher preparation program that begins atthe community college, with focusedcoursework and counseling, and forgivableloans to support both the student and thestudent’s education. Such an initiative couldhelp stem the drop-out problem among

students of color in the community collegesand significantly augment the teacher pool. Asa part of this program, a specialized associateof arts degree awarded to these students at thecompletion of the community college coursework could prepare them to work as class-room aides, serving dual objectives of helpingstudents to acquire needed experience to andsupplement their incomes while they continuetheir studies.

■ A system of sign-up bonuses to encourage theselection of teaching as a profession. Thearmed services (as well as some schooldistricts) pay substantial sign-up bonuses, aswell as funding the education of promisingrecruits, to enhance their pool of candidates.Surely the need for qualified teachers is asgreat as the need for military recruits. Sign-upbonuses should be paid to qualified teachercandidates who have the skills, background,and experience that are needed to teachdiverse students. Thus, individuals withmultiple language competencies and experi-ence living and working among culturallydiverse populations should be eligible for asign-up bonus large enough to attract peoplewho clearly have other, often more compel-ling occupational options.

■ The expansion of forgivable loans to allowteacher candidates to focus solely on obtain-ing their credential. Students who are alreadyin the college pipeline who have specialknowledge of minority communities andlanguages and who have demonstrated aninterest in teaching should be eligible forforgivable loans sufficient to ensure that theycomplete their undergraduate degrees andcredentials in a timely manner and quicklyenter the teaching force. This recommenda-tion involves increasing resources to existingefforts rather than devising new ones. Forgiv-able loan opportunities already exist but it isour suggestion that students receive sufficientfunding from these loans to allow them toforgo other work and focus solely on theirteacher preparation studies.

The University of California (as well as other bac-

RECOMMENDATIONS

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To diversify the

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teaching force,

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it makes sense to

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concentrate efforts

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where the target

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population is found

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in greatest numbers.

ers who are people of color, and print ads (includ-ing billboards, bus placards and posters) placedin channels of communication likely to reach eth-nic audiences. We recommend:

■ A greater emphasis on and expansion of theuse of images of diverse teachers in promo-tional efforts and appeals to individuals withdiverse backgrounds.

PRE-SERVICE TRAININGCLAD and BCLADThe State of California currently offers two cre-dentials aimed at preparing teachers to teach di-verse populations – the CLAD and the BCLAD.On the books, the state is very near to having suf-ficient numbers of CLAD-credentialed teachers tomeet the targeted needs of the state. In part, this isbecause many already-credentialed teachers havebeen able to earn a CLAD-type authorization un-der a grandfather clause that requires an excep-tionally low level of preparation – 45 hours ofcoursework that is sometimes compressed into acouple of weekends. Many teachers who haveexperienced CLAD training note that it is a placeto start, but that it does little more than heightentheir awareness that they must increase theirknowledge and skills of how to effectively workwith these students. Thus immediate attention isrequired to strengthen the CLAD credential andencourage more teachers to pursue the BCLAD.We recommend that the state of California:

■ Strengthen the CLAD credential and integrateit with the regular credential. The CLADcredential must be seen as a floor and not aceiling in the preparation of teachers fordiverse classrooms. Measures such as AB1969, which included a grandfather clause forexisting teachers and allowed them to earn anauthorization to teach EL students with verylittle training, should be reconsidered.

■ Initiate a high-profile campaign to recruitmore teachers for the BCLAD credential,sending the message that the credential is stillan important valuable tool for California’steachers. To motivate more individuals to seekthe BCLAD credential, pursuit of the creden-

calaureate-granting institutions in California)graduates thousands of students each year withbachelor’s degrees, many of whom could be suc-cessful teachers but who have never even consid-ered this career, in part because the university doesnot encourage this option. A recent review of thepostgraduate occupational status of psychologydegree-holders from one of the UC campusesyielded the finding that many worked in relativelylow-paying, non-professional positions outsidetheir field of preparation, but very few had pur-sued teaching. Students reported never havingbeen encouraged by their department counselorsto consider teaching. Therefore, we recommend:

■ An active campaign within the university todirect its graduates, and especially those whowould help to diversify the teacher corps, intocareers in teaching. This would include easingthe way for direct entry into the credentialprogram on the university campus.

Many teachers leave the profession every year andthus there is a large pool of qualified, credentialedteachers who are not currently in the teachingforce. Often they leave teaching due to family situ-ations that are temporary in nature. Some leavebecause they are attracted by more lucrative of-fers outside the classroom. Publicity surroundingthe need for teachers as a result of the class-sizereduction initiative drew some of these teachersback into the classroom, but many more might beinduced to re-enter. We recommend:

■ Signing bonuses and guarantees of preservingall seniority accrued before leaving teaching.These benefits should be portable to anydistrict to which the teacher applies. Inaddition, teachers should receive credit forrelevant experiences acquired in the interim.A particular priority should be placed onattracting those teachers who help to diversifythe teaching force, and/or who can demon-strate skills in working with diverse students.

An impressive recruitment campaign, CalTeach,is currently underway in California to attract moreteachers. This outreach effort includes Spanish lan-guage advertising, television ads portraying peopleof diverse ethnicity as teachers, celebrity endors-

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tial should be subsidized by the state and thestate should provide funding to local districtsto augment the salaries of its holders.

■ Require experience with diverse communities.The research is consistent in finding that im-mersion experiences for teachers are the mosteffective means of learning how to work withdiverse students. Therefore, teacher prepara-tion should include opportunities for futureteachers to work and experience life first-handin diverse communities for some period of timeas a part of the credentialing requirement.

Four-Year DegreeWhile California’s fifth-year, post-baccalaureatecredential has often been touted as a model forthe nation, it is also a fact that it places an addi-tional burden on students in terms of foregone in-come and additional educational costs. This canbe most daunting for low-income students of color.Many potential bilingual teachers fall within thiscategory. Therefore, we recommend that:

■ The state continue to develop and offerintegrated Bachelor of Arts/credentialingprograms that operate on a 12-month calendarand provide sufficient support for students topursue their degree and credential full timeand year round. This allows students to enterthe classroom, fully credentialed and with thesame degree of preparation they would attainfrom a five-year program, within four years,but without the burden of debt associated withprograms of longer duration. However, it isalso important to rigorously monitor andevaluate this program to ensure that it doesnot trade quality for efficiency.

Implemented on a large scale, this initiative wouldrequire that more resources be redirected intoteacher preparation at the institutions of highereducation (IHEs). Therefore, we recommend that:

■ The state work with the IHEs to provideincentive funds in the form of additionalresources matched to existing campus re-sources that are redirected to this task, andthat a priority be placed on staffing these

programs with faculty who are experts intraining teachers for cultural and linguisticdiversity.

Professional DevelopmentThe literature is clear and consistent that effec-tive practices for preparing teachers to teach di-verse students must be infused into the entirepreparation program, and possibly prior to thatthrough the undergraduate program. Nonetheless,the literature is equally clear that although thereare some admirable examples of programs thattake the infusion approach recommended in theresearch, the majority do not, and many pay onlycursory attention to issues of linguistic and cul-tural diversity.

This neglect in preservice programs makes theimportance of focusing on the skills and knowl-edge teachers need to work effectively with thesestudents essential in professional developmentactivities. In order to enhance student achieve-ment, such skill development needs to go beyonda human relations approach. Furthermore, theseskills and knowledge should be an integral part ofthe planning of all professional development ratherthan an add-on or afterthought. Therefore we rec-ommend that:

■ Professional development should focusspecifically on the instructional strategies,skills, and knowledge shown in the literatureto be present in successful programs fordiverse learners, including an infusion ofcontent related to issues of teaching culturallyand linguistically diverse students into allaspects of the program.

ResearchAlthough there is a growing body of research oneffective strategies for increasing the quantity andquality of teachers for California’s diverse stu-dents, there is much we still need to know. Forexample:

■ To what extent are the CBEST (CaliforniaBasic Education Skills Test) and RICA(Reading Instruction Competence Assess-ment) exams preventing potential teachers

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The literature is

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clear and consistent

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that effective

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practices for

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preparing teachers

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to teach diverse

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students must be

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infused into the

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entire preparation

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program.

from diverse backgrounds from pursuing ateaching job?

■ Why do we lose 40 percent to 60 percent ofthose who earn credentials from the fieldbefore they ever take a teaching job? To whatextent is this related to the feelings expressedby some teacher education students that theydid not feel prepared by their programs to beeffective teachers for culturally and linguisti-cally diverse students?

■ What are the sources of the high rates ofattrition from the ranks of teachers, particu-larly among those working with diversestudents?

■ What kinds of institutions, both public andparticularly private, are attracting the mostminority teacher candidates? What are theseinstitutions doing in order to attract thesestudents?

■ How successful in preparing teachers who aremore effective with diverse learners are thealternative routes to teacher credentials,including internships and district credential-ing programs? How successful are theseprograms at increasing the diversity of theteacher corps?

■ How can we most effectively increase thestatus of the teaching profession in order toattract more qualified candidates, particularlyfrom underrepresented communities?

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