Academic Skills Essay Writing

8/3/2019 Academic Skills Essay Writing

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ACADEMIC ESSAYS

HOW TO SUCCEED IN WRITING ACADEMIC

ASSIGNMENTS

CENTRE FOR EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT



ACADEMIC ESSAYS

• Writing an academic essay is a 'creative'

enterprise and there are many variations in

approach.

• The first rule concerning how students should

write an academic essay is that you need to

try to find approaches which work for you and

which earn you the grades you deserve.




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

TEN STEPS

• 1. Research

• 2. Analysis

• 3. Brainstorming

• 4. Thesis• 5. Outline

• 6. Introduction

• 7. Paragraphs

• 8. Conclusion• 9. Style

• 10. Language




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

1. RESEARCH• Begin the essay writing process by researching your topic, making

yourself an expert. Utilise the internet, the academic databases and theon- line library. Researching enables you to be more knowledgeableabout the topic and educates you about the problem or issue.

•

An essay using only Internet sources is a weak essay and puts you at adisadvantage for not utilising better information from more academicsources.

• Take notes as you read and ALWAYS RECORD THE SOURCE because youneed to include citations in your essay.

• Make sure you do not overuse quotations.

• Take a little from a lot – read widely – this adds credibility.




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

1. RESEARCH

Q. How can I find more sources on my topic?

A. Use different Search Engines and Expand or Refine Keywords.

Q. How do I know if my sources are academic?

A. Written by scholars or researchers eg. JSTOR articles

Q. Does everything I read need to be cited?A. No. If you can find the same idea in ten different sources – that is, if

it's a common idea – it doesn't need citation. If the idea is unique, it

does need to be cited. If you're in doubt as to whether it's common or

unique, be on the safe side and cite it. Referencing your ideas never

hurts your grade. If you take an original idea and don't give credit forit, but instead try to pass it off as your own, you are plagiarising and

will receive an F on your essay.


http://www1.aucegypt.edu/academic/writers/research_databases.htm

http://www1.aucegypt.edu/academic/writers/MLA_style.htm

http://www1.aucegypt.edu/academic/writers/MLA_style.htm

http://www1.aucegypt.edu/academic/writers/research_databases.htm



ACADEMIC ESSAYS

1. RESEARCH

Q. I have got lots of research – why isn’t my essay good?

A. Essays are graded according to more criteria than just

research. You need the reasoning and evidence thatmakes the statement true. Evidence is what academicwriting is all about.

Q. What if I cannot remember where I found one of my

sources?A. Then do not use it.




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

2. ANALYSIS

• As you research your topic, you will naturally beanalysing the arguments of different authors. Inthe academic world, authors must supplyevidence and reasoning in order persuade otherscholars of their ideas.

• Clearly define the claims, write out the reasons,the evidence. Look for weaknesses of logic, and

also strengths. Learning how to write an essaybegins by understanding the principles of argument and how to analyse them.




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

2. ANALYSIS

• Identify the argument

An argument consists of two main components.

A claim and reasons for that claim.

• Neither a claim without reasons, nor reasons without a claim, is an

argument.• When analysing an argument of any text, or creating one of your own, first

identify the main claim and then locate all the reasons for it. The claim isthe debatable assertion of the essay, while the reasons offer theexplanations and evidence of why the claim is true or false. It is helpful tomap this reasoning out:

•CLAIM = ________________________________________

• Reason 1: ____________________________

• Reason 2: ____________________________

• Reason 3: ____________________________




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

2. ANALYSIS

• Assess the reasoning

• Once you have the argument mapped out, assess the reasoning. Ask yourself thefollowing questions to help you identify weaknesses of logic.

• (1.) Is there an alternative explanation that is possible? An alternative explanationi s a different reason for the same claim. Probing the alternative explanations or

reasons for a claim is an excellent way to open up weaknesses in the author's logic.• Example: Jackie Chan was late because he obviously doesn't care about the class.

(An alternative explanation for Jackie's lateness could be that he was caught in atraffic jam and therefore couldn't make it on time to class; not that he doesn't careabout it.)

• (2.) Is the evidence presented sufficient? Evidence refers to the support given for aclaim. This support may be in the form of facts, statistics, authoritative quotations,

studies, observations, experiences, research, or other forms of proof.• Example: Jackie was late because he was stuck in a traffic jam and according to the

Department of Transport , “traffic congestion is highest between 7.30 am and 9.30am” (Wong, 2006). (The writer has given evidence in the form of research for hisor her reasoning).




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

3. BRAINSTORMING

• Find an original idea

Brainstorming is the art of thinking critically to discover original, hidden insightsabout a topic. Assuming you've done a fair amount of research, you should nowhave a solid base of concepts to use for an essay. The task is now to find somethingoriginal to say about the topic. You must go beyond what you have read to

propose an original idea. Your essay should expose some new idea or insight aboutthe topic, not just be a collection of other scholars' thoughts and research -although you will definitely rely upon these scholars as you propose your point.

• Use different techniques

Since the days of Aristotle, a variety of "invention techniques" or "heuristics" havebeen used for coming up with ideas. The overall goal when using any method is todiscover unique ideas that take you and your reader beyond the obvious. The nine

most common methods for finding ideas are: Explore the evidence, Look beyond the obvious, Identify assumptions, Define the problem, Do more research, Ask questions, Carry a note card, Write in your Journal, Examine biases.




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

4. THESIS

• After researching, analysing and brainstorming; youshould have a worthwhile insight to convert into athesis statement which will then guide and shape youressay.

• The thesis acts as the main claim of your paper andnormally appears near the end of the introductoryparagraph. Readers anticipate and read closely your

thesis and they want to find a statement there.

• The thesis expresses in one concise sentence the pointand purpose of your essay.




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

4. THESIS

• Make it arguable

• Your thesis must make an arguable assertion. To test whether your assertion is arguable, askyourself whether it would be possible to argue the opposite. If not, then it's not a thesis – it'smore of a fact. For example:

• Not Arguable: Computers are an efficient mechanism for managing and transmitting informationin large businesses. (It's not an arguable assertion – it's a fact).

• Be specific

• The thesis must also be specific. Avoid broad, vague generalisations. Your thesis should includedetail and specificity, offering the reader the why behind your reasoning.

• Poor Specificity: We should not adopt Activity based costing. (Not specific enough – a valuestatement and doesn't provide enough reasoning for the reader).

• Good Specificity: As the cost of adopting Activity based costing (ABC) exceeds the benefit and willbe difficult to apply without extensive training for those who use it, ABC should not be adopted.

(Now the thesis is much more specific, and the reader gets a clear idea of what the essay is goingto be about.)




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

4. THESIS

• Avoid lists

• If your thesis consists of a long list of points, your essay will mostlikely be superficial. Suppose you had six reasons why WebCTshould be integrated into academic courses. Instead of trying to

cover so much ground in your essay, narrow your focus more to givegreater depth to fewer ideas, maybe discussing two or three pointsinstead.

• Long lists result in shallow essays because you don't have space tofully explore an idea. If you don't know what else to say about apoint, do more brainstorming and research. However, if you arewriting a long essay, still avoid the list in your thesis – just give thereader a general idea of your position, without being so specific.

• Academic writing almost always prefers depth over breadth.




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

4. THESIS

• Follow an "although . . . actually" format

• The "although . . . actually" format is one of the most effective waysof finding something original to say. In effect, you are telling

someone that what he or she thought to be previously true really isnot. Whenever you look beyond the obvious and give readerssomething new to consider, you are going to get their attention.Nothing works better than this "although . . . actually" format to setyou up in delivering an insight.

•

Example: Although it appears that computers may help studentslearn to write, actually they can become a detriment to thegeneration of what creative writers call flow.




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

5. OUTLINE

• Use an outline to plan

• Can you imagine a construction manager working on a skyscraper without a set of blueprints?Similarly, writers construct essays using sets of blueprints or outlines to guide them in the writingprocess.

• Drawing up an outline allows you to think before you write so that when you do write it, youwon't have to do as much rewriting. (You will still, of course, need to revise).

• Make your points brief

• When you construct your outline, keep it brief. The titles, headings, and points in your outlineshould be about one line each. Remember that you are only drawing an outline of the forest, notdetailing each of the trees. Keep each line under a dozen words. If you can't compress your pointinto a one-liner, you probably don't have a clear grasp of what you're trying to say.

• When you describe the point of each paragraph, phrase the point in a mini-claim. If the point of aparagraph is that strategic planning involves three major stages of analysis, choice and

implementation, don't just write stages of strategic planning as the point of the paragraph inyour outline – it's too brief and vague. Instead, write strategic planning involves three majorstages .This description is still brief, as it should be (one line or less), but it makes a claim thatgives it purpose in the outline.




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

5. OUTLINE

• Choose an appropriate arrangement

• Drawing up an outline allows you to see at a glance how each of the paragraphsfits into the larger picture. When looking at your paragraphs from this perspective,you can easily shift around the order to see how a reorganisation might be better.Remember that each paragraph in the essay should support the position or

argument of your paper.• In general, put what you want the reader to remember either first or last, not in

the middle. Studies in rhetoric have shown the readers remember least what ispresented in the middle of an essay. Hence, the middle is where you shouldprobably put your weaker arguments and counterarguments.

• Some writers urge a climactic arrangement, one that works up to your strongestpoint, which is delivered as a kind of grand finale. Another successful arrangement

is the inductive argument, in which you build up the evidence first, and then drawconclusions. A problem-solution format involves presenting the problem first andthen outlining the solution. Whatever your choice, choose an arrangement thatpresents a clear, logical argument.




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

6. INTRODUCTION

• Get the reader's attention

• The first goal in your introduction is to grab the reader's attention and generate some interestabout the topic. To grab the reader's attention, you might present

• an interesting fact

• a surprising piece of information

• an exciting quotation• an intriguing paradox

• an explanation of an odd term

• a short narrative/anecdote (not fiction)

• a provocative question

• Jump right into the Issue

• After getting the reader's attention, just jump right into the issue and begin directly, perhapsdescribing a specific, concrete situation – the context of the problem you're exploring. Avoidbeginning your essay with broad statements or bland generalisations such as traditionalmanagement accounting is becoming an issue . . or Throughout time academics have wondered . .




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

6. INTRODUCTION

• Do not begin so broad and general that the first several sentences could fit nearlyany essay in the world.

• For example:

• Too General: Rising oil prices has been an issue throughout time.

• More Specific: The question of rising oil prices has focused attention on the issueof energy resources due to the increasing number of price increases in the lastseveral years.

• The entire introduction should lead toward the presentation of your arguableassertion, or thesis, whereby you take a stand on the issue you are discussing.

Deliver your thesis at the end of the introduction so that your reader knows whatgeneral position you will take in your essay. You don't need to spell out all thedetails of your thesis in the introduction, but you should give the reader a goodidea of what your argument is.

• As you do this, avoid saying The author will discuss . . . Or The author intends toargue . . .




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

7. PARAGRAPHS

• Choose a singular focus

• Each paragraph should have a clear, singular focus to it. If there is an overriding error students make in writing essays,

it is shifting topics within the same paragraph, rather thancontinuing to develop the same idea they began with.

• A paragraph is a discrete unit of thought that expands onespecific idea, not three or four. If you find yourself shiftinggears to start a new topic, begin a new paragraph instead.

• Someone once compared the beginning of a newparagraph to the changing angle of a wall. When the angleof the wall changes, a new wall begins.




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

7. PARAGRAPHS

• Begin with a topic sentence

• Nothing will help you keep a tighter focus on your paragraphs thantopic sentences. A topic sentence is generally the first sentence of the paragraph, and it describes the claim or point of the paragraph,

thus orienting the reader to the purpose of the paragraph. Whenyou use topic sentences, your reader will invariably find it easier tofollow your thoughts and argument.

• The entire paragraph is focused around the stated topic sentence.Additionally, headings are used to make it even clearer and easierto follow.

• If you're writing a long research essay (10 + pages), you mightconsider using headings.




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

7. PARAGRAPHS

• Develop the idea

• Invariably students shift topics and lose focus within their paragraphs because theydo not know how to adequately develop their ideas. They usually know theparagraph needs to be longer, but they don't know how to expand their idea to fillthat length. Indeed a paragraph should be at least half a page long, but usually no

more than one page.• How, then, if you don't have enough to say, do you fill that paragraph length?

Instead of broadening the focus, which will only be another form of topic shifting,try implementing these techniques for development:

• illustrate your idea with examples

• give an authoritative quotation

• anticipate and respond to counterarguments

• back your ideas with more evidence

• offer another perspective to the idea

• brainstorm more insights about the idea

• elaborate on causes/effects, definitions, comparison/contrasts




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

8. CONCLUSION

• Recap your main idea

• In the conclusion recap your ideas in a clear, summary. You want yourreaders to understand the message you intended to communicate.

• Leave a memorable impression

•It's not enough just to restate your main ideas – if you only did that andthen ended your essay, your conclusion would be flat and boring. You'vegot to make a graceful exit from your essay by leaving a memorableimpression on the reader by

• giving a thought-provoking quotation

• describing a powerful image

• talking about consequences or implications• stating what action needs to be done

• ending on an interesting twist of thought

• explaining why the topic is important




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

8. CONCLUSION

• Keep It Short and Simple (KISS)

• Keep your conclusion short, probably ten lines or less, and

avoid fluff. You're just trying to make a clever exit, andpresumably all the really important points have been made

previously in your essay. You should not introduce any

totally new ideas in the conclusion.

•

You should not merely repeat your thesis either.




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

9. STYLE

• When using ideas or phrases from other writers

in your own essay, you must correctly cite in

your text exactly where the ideas or phrases

come from. Correctly identifying these ideas and

phrases is called in-text citation and the page

at the end of your essay listing these sources you

used is called a Bibliography page.

• You must follow the Harvard Author Date style for yourin-text citation and Bibliography.

• See your Handout.




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

9. STYLE

• 1. Make sure all authors cited in the body of your essay also appear on the Bibliography page.

If you use secondary sources from Jones, Smith, and Johnson in your essay, these three authorsshould appear with full documentation on the Bibliography page.

Likewise, all the authors or sources listed on the Bibliography page should appear in the body of your essay. There should be no sources listed on the Bibliography page that were not cited in your

actual essay.

• 2. Only quote catchy or memorable phrases or sentences.

If the source you're quoting is unremarkable and dry in its expression or opinion, don't bring thatunremarkable, dry text into your own writing as well. Paraphrase this material instead, andfollow up your paraphrase with the author's name and date of publication in (parentheses). Onlyquote catchy, memorable, quotable phrases, and keep the quotations short - one or two linesusually.

• 3. Don't rely too much on the same source.

If you have four or five quotes from the same author , this will compromise your own authorityabout the issue. Rather than limiting your research to one or two authors, draw upon a widevariety of sources, and quote only little bits from each. Having variety will ensure that you arewell read in the subject and that you've examined the issue from multiple perspectives.




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

9. STYLE

• 4. Follow up your quotations with commentary, interpretation, oranalysis.

Avoid just dropping in the quotation and then immediately movingon, assuming the reader fully understands the meaning, purpose,

and application of the quotation just presented. You must alwayscomment on the quotation in some way, even if your commentaryis a simple re-explanation of what the quotation means (In otherwords . . .). Remember that you're taking the quotation from anarticle you've read, but the reader only gets a glimpse of that wholearticle and lacks the context that you have, so it might be more

difficult for the reader to understand it. Because the essay issupposed to represent your ideas, not just those of another, youmust find some way to comment or analyse what you summarise orquote.




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

9. STYLE

• There are three main ways to integrate source material into your essay: (1)direct quotation, (2) paraphrase, and (3) mixed quotation.

• You should usually paraphrase the source material, and only directly quote

it or give a mixed quotation when the phrasing of the quotation isinteresting .

• 1. Direct Quotation

• Direct quotation involves quoting word for word one or more sentencesfrom an author or source. When you quote, be sure to introduce your

quotation with a signal phrase. A signal phrase is a clause that lets thereader know who the author or source is. Note how the signal phraseprecedes the quotation.

• According to Robert Kaplan (2006), “................”




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

9. STYLE

• 2. Paraphrase

• Instead of quoting the author word for word, paraphrasing involvesputting the original phrasing into your own words. Be careful tosubstantially reword the original. If you leave just several words in a rowunchanged, it will be considered plagiarism – because you are essentiallystealing someone else's phrasing.

• When you paraphrase you can choose whether or not to use a signalphrase. If you do not use a signal phrase, you must identify the author inparentheses following the paraphrase. Here are a few examples:

• The Harvard professor Robert Kaplan (2003), argues that managers whoare deprived of relevant accounting information usually end up making

sub-optimal business decisions.• Sub-optimal business decisions occur when managers are deprived of

relevant accounting information (Kaplan, 2003).




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

PLAGIARISM

• Its original meaning, "to kidnap“ is a serious academic offence that can

result in your failure of the course and possible suspension from the

university. It is important that you know what plagiarism entails so thatyou can avoid the consequences. Ignorance is no excuse.

• Plagiarism occurs whenever a student attempts to pass off someone else's

ideas as his or her own, rather than giving due credit to the author. Even if

the student mentions the source, if he or she fails to put quotation marks

around phrasing not his or her own, it is considered plagiarism because

the student is attempting to pass off phrasing that does not belong to him

or her.




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

10. LANGUAGE• Give Your Eyes Rest

The more you read your essay, the more blind you become to it. Don't

keep reading hour after hour until your mind registers the entire text at a

glance, without seeing the details. What you must do is rest your eyes;take a break. Give yourself a day or two between revisions before coming

back to your essay with fresh eyes and a renewed perspective.

This is why you should not leave your assignments to the last minute.




ACADEMIC ESSAYS

10. LANGUAGE

• Know What to Look For When you Proofread

• Refer to your Assessment Criteria. There are twelve areas to look for: logic,

evidence, development, focus, structure, unity, integration, in-text

citation, bibliography, grammar, clarity, style.

•

Check off each category as you examine your essay.

• Finally, be sure to use the spell-checker in Word.


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Academic Skills Essay Writing