Accumulated debates for the implementation of legalised ......marijuana, pot, ganja, grass, chanvre, cheeba, chronic, weed, reefer, Mary Jane plus many more nicknames (United Nations

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SIR WALTER SCHOOL OF PUBLIC POLICY AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS - MURDOCH UNIVERSITY

Accumulated debates for the implementation of legalised

medical cannabis in Australia. SWM617 Supervised Research Thesis

report

Michael Leo Hawkins, B.A. 31218899

Declaration:

I declare that this thesis is my own account of my own research. It

contains as its main content work which has not been submitted for

a degree at any university.

Signature: _______________________________________________________

29/10/2014

Thesis Supervisor: Professor Samuel Makinda

Michael Leo Hawkins, B.A. 31218899SWM617 Research Thesis 2014 Supervisor: Professor S.Makinda

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

COVER PAGE ............................................................................................0

DECLARATION ..........................................................................................0

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................2 ABSTRACT ...............................................................................................3

RESEARCH PROBLEM ................................................................................3

RESEARCH METHOD .................................................................................3

RESULTS .................................................................................................3 CONCLUSIONS .........................................................................................3

1THE INTRODUCTION ................................................................................4

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………….4 DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………............4 1.1 WHAT IS CANNABIS?...........................................................................6

1.2 THE HISTORICAL USE OF CANNABIS ......................................................8

1.3 CURRENT MEDICAL USE OF CANNABIS……………...…...…………….....9 CHAPTER 1 CONCLUSION ........................................................................12

2 MEDICAL DEBATES FOR THE AUSTRALIAN IMPLEMENTATION OF MEDICAL CANNABIS…………… .........................................................13 CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION………………………………………..................13 DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………………13

2.1 GENERAL CONTROVERSIES REGARDING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MEDICAL CANNABIS ..........................................14

2.2 ALTERNATIVE CANNABIS INGESTION METHODS ....................................14

2.3 MEDICAL PROPERTIES OF CANNABIS ..................................................15

2.4 ILLNESSES THAT CANNABIS CAN AID ...................................................19 CHAPTER 2 CONCLUSION…………………………………………................28

3 POLITICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEBATES FOR THE AUSTRALIAN IMPLEMENTATION OF MEDICAL CANNABIS ................................................29 CHAPTER 3 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………..29 DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………..........29

3.1 THE CURRENT LEGAL STATUS OF CANNABIS IN AUSTRALIA ...................29

3.2 POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ORGANISATIONAL ACCEPTANCE OF CANNABIS ....................................................................32

3.3 SOCIAL ADVANTAGES CORRELATED WITH THE LEGALISATION OF MEDICAL CANNABIS ...............................................................................37

3.4 ECONOMIC DEBATES FOR LEGALISING MEDICAL CANNABIS ...................43 CHAPTER 3 CONCLUSION…………………………………………………….44

4 THE CONCLUSION ................................................................................45 CHAPTER 4 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………..45 DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………..45 CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSION…………………………………………………….47 APPENDICES OF FIGURES..........................................................................48

BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................49


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Acknowledgements:

A special thank you must be given to my Supervisor, Professor Samuel

Makinda, for his support in assisting the editing and development of

this thesis. Dr Katie Attwell should also receive a mention for her

administrative role within the development of this thesis. A final

acknowledgement for her assistance in the final editing of this thesis

should go to Pauline Hawkins, DipEd.


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Abstract:

There is abundant evidence to suggest that medical cannabis is a valuable resource

both socially and medically. This thesis presents material which suggests that it is

advisable for Australia to legalise the use of medical cannabis.

Research Problem:

This thesis raises concern surrounding Australia’s current policy on medical

cannabis. Despite adequate material presenting medical cannabis to be an effective

medicine in certain cases, and the fact that many developed countries have already

adopted its use, medical cannabis is currently illegal in Australia.

Research Method:

The entirety of this research has been based on a vast array of internationally

sourced journals, books, internet and newspaper articles. All presented research is

an analysis of pre-existing texts, experiments and social declarations. Researched

material within this thesis ranges from advanced medical journals to online

newspaper articles – a broad scope and academic level of sources was purposely

selected to avoid bias, opinions and contradictions.

Results:

This thesis has established that if implemented correctly, medical cannabis can be

both a catalyst to a highly equitable industry and also a useful medicinal substance.

Medical cannabis has also been discovered to be able to positively influence

numerous social, legal and criminal inadequacies.

Conclusions:

It is apparent that Australia could ultimately benefit in numerous political, social,

legal and economic circumstances if medical cannabis were to be legalised.

Therefore, Australian policy in regards to the use of medical cannabis needs to be

reconsidered.


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Chapter 1: The Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction

This chapter of the thesis will introduce the reader to medical cannabis. Definitions

of cannabis will be given in this chapter, as will the historical and current medical

use of the substance. This chapter will provide insight into the overall hypothesis of

this thesis which debates that there is abundant evidence to suggest that medical

cannabis is an extremely valuable resource both socially and medically.

Discussion

This thesis presents accumulated material, which suggests that the implementation

of medical cannabis in Australia would be beneficial for the country. The term

medical cannabis was coined by Dr. Grinspoon and refers to cannabis used for

medical, not recreational, purpose (Aggarwal, et al. 2012, 1). This thesis has

discovered that medical cannabis can present medicinal, social, political and

economic benefits if correctly implemented. Due to the current position in

Australian law, cannabis sales are illegal, therefore medical cannabis is illegal in

Australia (National Cannabis Prevention and Information Center 2013, 3). This thesis

challenges the negative connotations attached to medical cannabis use by

presenting material that positions medical cannabis as being a substance that is

medically useful, safe and economically advantageous. Due to cannabis’ illegal

position in Australia, this thesis largely analyses writings and experiments produced

within countries that have already implemented medical cannabis.

This thesis suggests that cannabis has been presented to hold medicinal benefits,

most notably its analgesic (pain killing) effect. Cannabis is presented as a fast

working drug, which can often show medicinal effect within 48 hours (DePetrocellis,

et al. 1998, 8376). This thesis argues that in comparison to certain harmful

pharmaceutical drugs, the low chance of overdosing from cannabis suggests that

there is legitimacy in using cannabis medically. On the lines of cannabis’ medical

efficiency, this thesis presents the fact that individual cannabis strains are being

engineered to address separate medical conditions (Mullaway Medical Cannabis Pty

Ltd 2012, 14).


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This thesis highlights several methods to consume cannabis other than smoking.

Removing the action of smoking cannabis can often ease the taboo of cannabis use.

The thesis presents other advantages in regards to implementing medical cannabis,

such as how cannabis use can often replace the use of existing medications, alcohol,

tobacco or illegal drug use (Thomas and Reiman 2013, 7). This thesis also presents

material that lists numerous medical conditions that cannabis can suggestibly aid,

such as: cancer, HIV/AIDS, nausea, ‘MS’, epilepsy, strokes, arthritis, diabetes,

Hepatitis-c, ‘PTSD’, psychosis, depression, schizophrenia, spasms,

neurodegeneration, heart attack, glaucoma, ‘IBS’, sleeping problems and lack of

appetite (Pilcher 2005, 214).

Aside from the presented medical efficiency of cannabis use, medical cannabis is

presented within this thesis to hold political, social and economic advantages.

Australia is sited within this thesis to have the perfect climate for outdoor

cultivation of natural cannabis (Jiggens 2004, 3).

Australia also has a pre-existing Poppy industry that has been presented as being

capable of producing industrial quantities of medical cannabis (ABC News 2014,

State Health Minister to discuss medical cannabis trials at the University of

Tasmanias, par.4). Finally this thesis suggests that medical cannabis can lead to

many economic advantages if legalised.

The implementation of medical cannabis is presented within this thesis as being

capable of saving the Australian government considerable amounts of capital

through reduced prosecutorial, judicial, correctional and police spending (Evans

2013, 2). The thesis also presents the fact that implementing medical cannabis can

often lead to a reduction in certain crimes as well as a reduction in the overall

availability of illegal cannabis (Morris, et al. 2014, 1). By legalising medical cannabis,

certain users are no longer be forced into contact with illegal drug dealers or

arrested for trying to buy cannabis. A legal and medical supply of cannabis would

also insure that the cannabis being provided to the patients is a safe, affordable and

effective strain, not an unknown source of cannabis from a black market drug

dealer.


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This thesis raises concern in regard to the illegal status of medical cannabis under

the current Australian Drug policy. As of Early 2014, the Cancer Council Australia has

calculated that Australia has over one hundred thousand cancer sufferers (Cancer

Council Australia 2014, par.1). This figure suggests that Australia would have a

considerably large amount of individuals that could benefit from medical cannabis

legalisation. Presented within this thesis are numerous theories that have come to

present the positive medical and social outcomes that would emerge if medical

cannabis is legalised in Australia. The hypothesis of this thesis is thus that there is

abundant evidence to suggest that medical cannabis is an extremely valuable

resource both socially and medically. Therefore this thesis ultimately suggests that

it is advisable for Australia to consider researching the implementation of legalised

medical cannabis.

The remainder of this chapter will give a more detailed description of cannabis and

the ways cannabis can provide positive medical benefit. Separate forms of cannabis

will be presented within this chapter, so too are the historical and current uses of

medical

cannabis.

(Hazekamp 2007, 4)

1.1 What is cannabis?

The plant pictured in Figure 1

(Hazekamp 2007, 4) is cannabis,

scientifically known as Cannabis sativa L.

(Linnaeus). It is referred to by numerous

names worldwide such as skunk,

marijuana, pot, ganja, grass, chanvre,

cheeba, chronic, weed, reefer, Mary Jane plus

many more nicknames (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2009, 7).

Figure 1 (Hazekamp 2007, 4) shows the physical composition of cannabis bud, leaf

stem and seeds.

Figure 1


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‘Cannabis is divided into several subspecies: cannabis sativa, cannabis indica,

cannabis ruderalis, cannabis spontanea and cannabis kafiristanca, however there is

no significant differentiation between the sub-species’ (Srivastava, et al. 2014,

2284). Cannabis is an annually flowering plant, the male plants are taller yet less

robust than the female plants which can stand anywhere between 0.2- 6.0 meters

tall (however on average they stand 1-3 meters tall) (United Nations Office on Drugs

and Crime 2009, 7). The density of the cannabis plant: “depends on environmental

and hereditary factors as well as the method of cultivation” (United Nations Office

on Drugs and Crime 2009, 7). A more thorough description of cannabis follows:

“Cannabis is the generic term used for the psychoactive substance derived from the

three species of the Cannabis plant. The main psychoactive component in cannabis

is delta-9- tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). ‘Psychoactive’ means that it has a relatively

significant effect on the central nervous system. THC potency varies in different

cannabis products. Cannabis is generally used in three forms: marijuana, hashish

and hash oil. Marijuana is the dried flowers and leaves of the plant. It is the least

potent of all cannabis products and is usually smoked. Hashish is made from the

resin of the plant which is dried, pressed and smoked. It can also be added to food

and eaten. Hash oil, the most potent cannabis product, is thick oil obtained from

hashish. It is also smoked” (Australia. Australian Defence Force 2011, 2).

Cannabis has been presented in material to suggestibly possess over 60 chemicals

which are suggested to have positive medical effect (Allen 2014, par.1). Recently

great attention has been directed towards ‘the medical properties of chemicals

present in cannabis alongside its main consistent chemical THC’ (Deiana 2012, 46).

In summary, there has been key focus upon the chemical components of cannabis

within medicine, primarily on the chemical THC. The term medical cannabis was first

coined by Dr. Grinspoon (Aggarwal, et al. 2012, 1), Grinspoon was also one of the

first doctors to reportedly acknowledge that for ‘centuries certain cultures have

used cannabis medically’ (Massi, et al. 2003, 838). Medical cannabis has reportedly

been used within Chinese culture for thousands of years, it was cited as being used


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as a treatment ‘for at least ten ailments, including nausea and pain’ (Ware, et al.

2003, 211).

1.2 The historical use of cannabis

The practice of using cannabis for medical purpose has been clearly documented in

material since “ancient times” (Pilcher 2005, 200), cannabis has featured in the

“pharmacology of many cultures dating back to ancient times” (Pilcher 2005,

200).The earliest reference to cannabis was during the Ancient Egyptian era in 2000

BC, where cannabis was used for the treatment of “sore eyes” (Pilcher 2005, 202).

Circa 1400 BC, cannabis was documented as a flourishing trade commodity which

was marketed throughout the Mediterranean as a treatment for the ‘pain of child

birth’ (Pilcher 2005, 202). There has also been evidence of medical cannabis’ in 100

BC Indian culture and 200 BC Ancient Greek culture. Ancient Rome’s Emperor Nero

was said to have “praised the medical properties of cannabis around 70 BC” (Pilcher

2005, 202). As presented by the material, cannabis has been used medically in

numerous historical cultures throughout numerous historical eras.

Cannabis’ first notable documentation within Western medicine can be traced back

to 1788, when it had its first European pharmacopoedial reference (Moffat 2002,

55). However, cannabis was first promoted for medical use in the West as early as

1621, when Englishman Robert Burton presented cannabis to be an effective

treatment for depression in his book The Anatomy of Melancholy (Pilcher 2005,

203). Cannabis was first officially used in Western culture as a medicine for the

reduction of pain, it was the British during the 1800’s that first adopted the use of

medicinal cannabis from Indian culture (Pilcher 2005, 203). Physician William

Brooke o’Shaugnessy started administering medical cannabis in Britain after he

spent time in India, by 1809 o’Shaugnessy had already started to treat patients who

had seizures and tetanus with cannabis (Pilcher 2005, 203).

By 1842 O’Shaugnessy collaborated with Peter Squire to develop “Squires Extract”,

a cannabis based drug that was “prescribed for pretty much everything” (Pilcher

2005, 203). By the start of the 1900’s pharmaceutical companies such as Parke-

Davis, Eli Lilly and Grimault and Company were selling cannabis for conditions such


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as asthma and pain relief (Mack, Marijuana as Medicine 2000, 17). The evidence of

cannabis’ therapeutic and medical capabilities convinced the American

Pharmacopoeia to introduce the substance to their list of approved medicines in

1950 (Svrakic, et al. 2012, 91). Medical cannabis had become so widely used that

even influential people such as Queen Victoria were provided cannabis as a

medicine, Queen Victoria was administered cannabis by her court physician Dr.

Reynolds (Pilcher 2005, 203). Cannabis’s early use was so prevalent that from 1842

to 1890, cannabis stayed in “the top three prescribes medicines in the US” (Pilcher

2005, 204).

In fact, it was still possible to visit certain UK pharmacies up to 1971 and pick up a

medical prescription of cannabis (Pilcher 2005, 210). In summary, there have been

numerous materials which suggest that cannabis has been used as a medicinal tool

internationally, for centuries.

Figure 2

(Mack, Marijuana as Medicine 2000, 16)

1.3 Current medical use of cannabis

Medical cannabis is currently so entrenched within certain states of the U.S.A that

New Mexico adopted the medical use of the substance without a single trial (Greer,

Grob and Halberstadt 2014, 73). Prior to the New Mexico adoption of medical

cannabis, it had been stated that “there really is massive proof that the suppression

of medical cannabis represents the greatest failure of the institutions of a free

Figure 2

(39) is a

time line

of

cannabis’

medical

use

dating

from

8000 B.C

to 1985.


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society, medicine, journalism, science and our fundamental values” (Torres 2014,

par. 13). Due to evidence gathered from the U.S.A, it would be logical for Australia

to at least consider researching the medical value of cannabis.

Currently medical cannabis is available in numerous developed states such as “the

Netherlands, Israel, 23 states in the U.S.A, Canada and Spain” (Smith 2013, 56).

Further material has stated that in Europe, certain Cantons (States) in Switzerland

namely: Vaud, Neuchatel, Geneva and Fribourg as well as the whole of the Czech

Republic have also legalised medical cannabis (MedicalMarijuana.org 2013, par. 9

and 36).

Figure 3 (Australia. NSW Parliament 2014, 16)

Figure 3 (NSW Parliament 2014, 16) highlights the 23 states in the U.S.A which have

implemented medical cannabis.


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Perhaps the prominence of medical cannabis’ use in these mentioned countries is

the reason a 2014 bill was proposed by the Australian ACT Greens which requested

the implementation of decriminalised cannabis to approved patients. The bill would

allow patients with a terminal illness to apply for a certification that would prevent

them from being prosecuted if found possessing small quantities of cannabis. The

card would be issued by the Department of Health and based on advice from the

patient’s doctor (Australia. NSW Parliament 2014, 2).

This ACT Greens bill is supported by Australian medical professionals such as Dr

Kaye who stated that measures within this ‘bill’ would mean certain Australians

would no longer have to make the “terrible choice” of breaking the law to gain

cannabis. Dr Kaye puts forwards that “it is time for science and compassion to win

out against prejudice and hysteria” (Australia. NSW Parliament 2014, 2), evidently

Dr Kaye endorses the use of cannabis as a medical tool. It would seem democratic

that Australian doctors and patients have the option to enquire about the use of

medical cannabis. The ACT Greens bill could decriminalise cannabis use for ill

patients, yet it does not address how these Australians would be provided cannabis

(Boddy and Mcilroy 2014, par.1). The ACT Green’s bill does not aim to supply

cannabis to the patients, it just removes the criminal prosecution attached to

cannabis possession.

More efforts are needed in Australia to be able to research the potential of medical

cannabis before any decisions on cannabis supply are pursued. Medical cannabis is

a relevant issue within Australia, and the implementation of legalised medical

cannabis may become a more heavily debated issue in the future. This thesis thus

believes future efforts, such as the proposed medical cannabis bill from the ACT

Greens are needed if Australia is to successfully consider implementing medical

cannabis. However appropriate methods to cultivate the substance are clearly

needed.


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Chapter 1 Conclusion

In conclusion, this chapter has presented a description and introduction to medical

cannabis. The historical and current uses of medical cannabis have also been

presented. This thesis has raised concern that Australia has failed to adequately

research medical cannabis. Due to numerous developed countries implementing

medical cannabis in recent years, and the hypothesis that there is abundant

evidence to suggest that medical cannabis is an extremely valuable resource both

socially and medically. It is advisable that Australia at least considers researching

the efficiency of medical cannabis.


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Chapter 2: Medical debates for the Australian implementation of medical

cannabis.


Throughout this chapter the medical debates for legalising medical cannabis are

discussed, the general controversies in regard to the legalisation of medical

cannabis is also highlighted. Presented in this chapter are alternative methods of

ingesting cannabis which do not include smoking, the remainder of the chapter

outlines the medical properties of cannabis by presenting a range of illnesses in

which cannabis has been reported to aid.

Discussion

Advanced studies on cannabis have been presented in Harvard University’s research

carried out in 2007, the research revealed that cannabis can reduce cancer growth

in three weeks. The Harvard research revealed a chemical in cannabis,

tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) has the potential to reduce cancer growth. Within the

research, a controlled batch of cancerous mice was discovered to be 60% more

likely of cancer retraction when compared to mice not provided with THC

(Grotenhermen and Muller-Vahl 2012, 495). Even though this research was not on

humans, it does reiterate cannabis’ ability to combat cancer growth.

Furthermore, German research in 2012 revealed that cannabis has the ability to

treat multiple illnesses. The research presented cannabis to be beneficial in aiding

illnesses ranging from: Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, Tourette’s

syndrome, Multiple sclerosis, spasms, eating problems, nausea and chronic pain

(Pilcher 2005, 214). Only considering cancer patients, over 180,000 individuals

would be eligible for treatment if Australia implemented the use of medical

cannabis (Cancer Council Australia 2014, par.1). “Todd Mikuriya MD, one of the

world’s leading authorities on medical marijuana, cites 222 medical conditions

reported to be helped by using cannabis” (Pilcher 2005, 214). If Mikuriya is correct,

and cannabis can aid over 222 illnesses, then the Australian health system can

seemingly benefit from researching medical cannabis.


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There are three prominent methods within this thesis that present cannabis as an

effective medical tool: 1) anecdotal evidence of individuals that use medical

cannabis, 2) medical journals that support the legitimacy of medical cannabis and,

3) other academic materials that support medical cannabis’ use. RCT’s or Random

Controlled tests are a clear way of seeing the benefits of medical cannabis. Certain

RCT’s have revealed that out of 99 human subjects, 82 were convinced that medical

cannabis was effective (Wodak and Mather 2014, par.13).

2.1 General controversies regarding the implementation of medical cannabis

One of the greatest concerns in regard to the legalisation of medical cannabis is the

view that cannabis use can often be a ‘gateway to harder drugs’. However vast

research has challenged this gateway drug consensus when suggesting, that an

individual’s social environment is generally the key gateway to harder drugs, not

cannabis use (Klofas and Letteney 2012, 11). Another key concern in regards to

medical cannabis being legalised is the view that cannabis use can increase the

likelihood of psychosis; however this idea has not been solidified. Most linkage

between psychosis and cannabis has been attributed to either long term or

excessive recreational use of recreational cannabis (Hall and Solowij 1998, 1613).

Medical cannabis is prescribed by doctors in regulated amounts, to assure the

patient is only relieving their pain, not abusing the substance. As far as patients

becoming addicted to cannabis are concerned, this has not been suggested as being

problematic. Cannabis has been presented as being less addictive than tobacco and

certain conventional medicines such as morphine or opium (Wodak and Mather

2014, par.6).

2.2 Alternative cannabis ingestion methods

Another key concern regarding cannabis use is how ‘smoking is bad for lungs’

(J.Baxter, H.Baker and S.Reece 2013, 6), yet this problem can be avoided. The taboo

of smoking the substance can be removed by using the cannabis in other forms such

as vapour or liquid. The cannabis substance can be heated up in a vaporizing

machine, the THC (the chemical within cannabis suggested to reduce pain) is

extracted into a vapour form that can be inhaled (Wodak and Mather 2014, par.19).


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The vaporising method ensures that the patients are not be ingesting any harmful

chemicals or carcinogens, only the medicinal THC is consumed. Other safe methods

of consuming cannabis are available such as the Sativex spray; this is an oral spray

that provides all the therapeutic benefits of cannabis. Sativex is available for use in

numerous countries worldwide, suggesting that it is a reliable method of cannabis

consumption (Wodak and Mather 2014, par.20).

Alternative cannabis products to vaporizers also exist, skin patches, inhalers and

rectal suppositories are also available (Ware, et al. 2003, 214). Further material has

provided other forms of cannabis products such as ‘oral tablets, cannabis foods and

drinking teas’ (Mather, et al. 2013, 760). It is becoming justifiable that several

taboos and concerns in regards to the legalisation of medical cannabis could be

eased if more explanation was given to those concerned. This thesis debates that

the Australian legality of medical cannabis by analysing material that suggests

cannabis is in fact a useful medical substance.

2.3 Medical properties of cannabis

Prominent research has highlighted cannabis to have an effective analgesic (pain

killing) effect on humans (Gowing, et al. 1998, 449). In fact, research has revealed

cannabis to have ‘effective analgesic effect on humans without significantly

affecting their mood’ (Lucas 2012, Cannabis as an Adjunct to or Substitute for

Opiates in Treatment of Chronic Pain, 127). The Cancer Council NSW highlighted in

their 2012 Position statement that cannabis is an effective “analgesic in patients

with moderate to severe pain” (Cancer Council NSW 2012, 1). With so many

variations of pain killers available in Australia, why would the implementation of

one more be so controversial?

Two chemicals within cannabis have been presented to be specifically

advantageous in medicine; they are the chemicals THC and CBD. THC is said to hold

analgesic, anti-spasmodic, anti-tremor, anti-inflammatory, anti-emetic and appetite

stimulant properties. Whilst CBD has been cited as containing an: anti-

inflammatory, anti-convulsant, anti-psychotic and anti-oxidant effect on humans

(Pilcher 2005, 214).


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Cannabis produces its medicinal effects by binding to receptors in the human body,

cannabis binds both to the body receptor CB1 which is in the brain, and receptor

CB2 which is in the immune system (Massi, et al. 2003, 838). It has been put

forward in the German medical journal Deutsches Arzteblatt International that ‘the

various medical properties of cannabis lay in their ability to activate the bodies CB1

and CB2 receptors’ (Grotenhermen and Muller-Vahl 2012, 500).

Cannabis is a fast acting drug, for example: as far as apoptosis (death) in cancer cells

is concerned – cancer cells can be significantly damaged within 48 hours

(DePetrocellis, et al. 1998, 8376), and complete tumour apoptosis can occur in

72hours (Preet, Ganju and Groopman 2008, 340). Neurodegeneration has also been

cited as having a fast acting recovery when treated with cannabis. Studies have

shown neurodegeneration to be prevented by up to 36% within the period of one

week (Van Der Stelt, et al. 2001, 6475).

Different strains of cannabis have been suggested to be effective in tackling

different forms of illnesses; Mullaway Medical Pty Ltd has successfully been

engineering different strength of medical cannabis products that address numerous

illnesses (Mullaway Medical Cannabis Pty Ltd 2012, 14). This medical tailoring of

cannabis is confirmed when it is presented that ‘medical cannabis is so entrenched

in Dutch society, that they have engineered different strains of cannabis to deal

with different diseases’ (Johns 2014, par.9). Such innovations as tailored cannabis

can assure that no matter the severity of illness, there can be a product designed to

suit any patient’s needs. The fact that cannabis products can now be tailored to a

doctor’s requirement, suggests that cannabis is possibly safe enough to be

implemented within the Australian medicine.

Unlike some already approved pharmaceutical medications for example opium,

cannabis is unique in the quality that it has been presented as impossible for

humans to overdose from it. Thomas and Reiman suggest this when they put

forward “there is no amount of marijuana than can result in an overdose” (Thomas

and Reiman 2013, 7). Separate material supports the safety of cannabis: ‘unlike

other pharmaceutical drugs, cannabis is safer in the way that you cannot overdose

from it’ (Smith 2013, 57). Dr. Allen reinforces the idea of cannabis ’safety when he


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states that humans can handle “extremely high doses” (Allen 2014, par.3) of

cannabis. As far as humans are concerned, it has been suggested that cannabis is

not overtly harmful. Medical research suggests that 99% of the time the main side

effect of cannabis use is “dizziness” (Degenhardt and Hall 2008, 1685). In fact it has

been presented that 71% of patients which used medical cannabis actually saw their

condition worsen when they discontinued cannabis use (Topp 2006, 12).

Mainly due to the two substances sharing similar medical qualities (Lucas 2012,

Cannabis as an Adjunct to or Substitute for Opiates in Treatment of Chronic Pain,

125), there are numerous materials that suggests cannabis can replace the use of

opiates in pharmaceuticals. Australian Senator Di Natale reiterates this point when

she suggests that ‘cannabis is far less addictive than many currently available opiate

medications’ (Sky News 2014, par.13).

‘The existence of other harmful pharmaceutical medications within the Australian

medical system’ (Gowing, et al. 1998, 446), may make it possible to replace some of

these harmful medications with the option of medical cannabis (Thomas and

Reiman 2013, 7). Previous studies on illegal medical cannabis use in Australia taken

out by the New South Wales State Government revealed that out of 128

participants, 62% of them had discontinued use of other medications once they had

used cannabis as a replacement (Swift, Gates and Dillon 2005, 5).

Further research carried out in Canada revealed that out of 404 participants, 67.8%

of them stopped using other prescribed medications once they were provided

cannabis as a replacement (Lucas, Reiman, et al. 2012, 1).

Cannabis is also presented to share similar qualities to many anti-psychotic

medications (Deiana 2012, 46); this again supports the point that cannabis could

replace some existing medications in Australia. Furthermore, material by Lucas

presents another positive correlation with legalising medical cannabis; Lucas

suggests medical cannabis can reduce alcohol and illegal drug use. A certain medical

cannabis trial presented that 36.1% of the participants had stopped using other

illegal drugs once prescribed cannabis; a further 41% of the participants were

presented to have stopped consuming alcohol (Lucas, Reiman, et al. 2012, 1).


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Figure 4

(Janichek and Reiman 2012, 3)

Figure 5

(Swift, Gates and Dillon 2005, 6)

2.4 Illnesses

that cannabis

Figure 4 (J.Janichek and A.Reiman 2012, 3) reinforces how cannabis may lead to a

decline in tobacco, alcohol and illegal drug use.

Figure 5 (W.Swift, P.Gates and P.Dillon 2005, 6) highlights how

cannabis may be an efficient replacement to existing

medications.


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can aid

Cannabis has been presented in certain material to be effective at combating

numerous illnesses; one of the most prominent is cancer. It was put forward in

research from Harvard University that ‘THC has the ability to inhibit tumour growth’

(Preet, Ganju and Groopman 2008, 339). Many chemical components of cannabis

such as THC and temazolamide (TMZ) have been presented within medical research

to ‘reduce the growth of cancer cells’ (Torres, Lorente and Rodriguez-Fornes 2011,

90).

Certain cannabinoids in cannabis are presented to fight cancer, generally via two

methods. First it can kill cancer via tumour vascularization (by reducing the capacity

of blood vessels within the tumours); or secondly it can cause cancer death by

apoptosis (cancer death by fragmentation or shrinkage) (Caffarel, et al. 2010, 3).

Research has suggested that THC can successfully reduce ‘the growth, number,

amount and severity of lung cancers’ (Caffarel, et al. 2010, 1). It was concluded in

the American Association for Cancer Research report for 2006 that, ‘the apoptosis

of tumour cells when exposed to cannabinoids, validates the use of cannabis in

medicine’ (Carracedo, Gironella and Lorente 2006, 6748).

Figure 6 (Gardner 2013, 1)

Figure 6 (Gardner 2013, 1) shows the almost periodical regression of a brain

tumour (the white mass in the center of the brain) after 15 months of cannabis


20 | P a g e

Cannabis has been presented to be effective towards fighting breast cancer by

inhibiting cell growth. The National Academy of Sciences (U.S.A) has presented that

cannabis is effective at combating the ‘fast acting tumours in breast cancer’

(DePetrocellis, et al. 1998, 8375). Cannabis has also been presented as being

efficient in fighting brain tumours; research published in the British Journal of

Cancer supported this. The journal revealed that a proportion of terminal patients

were administered cannabis to aid their cancer treatment, the research revealed

that patients who used cannabis, saw an increased lifespan of 46-60% when

compared to patients not provided cannabis (Guzman, et al. 2006, 197). This British

research has suggested that cannabis can aid sufferers of breast cancer. This

positive correlation between breast cancer reduction and cannabis cannot be

solidified within Australia unless there is a change in the current national drug

policy, which allows medical cannabis research.

Research published within the US National Library of Medicine has presented how

prostate cancer can be decreased if exposed to cannabinoids (Mimeault, et al. 2003,

1-12). Similar study published by the American Journal of Cancer also presented

cannabis to be effective in combating pancreatic cancer (Carracedo, Gironella and

Lorente 2006, 6748). The US National Library of Medicine has also published

material which suggests that cannabis is effective in combating the side effects of

leukaemia (Jia, et al. 2006, 549). Separate research has similarly presented cannabis

to be effective in combating multiple cancers such as lung cancer (Preet, Ganju and

Groopman 2008, 342), liver cancer (Vara, et al. 2011, 1099) and glioblastoma

(Torres, Lorente and Rodriguez-Fornes 2011, 90). There is clearly material which

suggests cannabis can be effective in fighting multiple forms of cancer, with

Australia being a high risk country for cancer, it is considerable that any medication

that could combat cancer would be embraced within Australia.

Material has also presented cannabis to be effective in reducing certain side effects

of HIV/AIDS. By increasing the bodies’ appetite, cannabis is presented to be an

effective tool in combating the weight loss symptoms that frequently accompany

the HIV illness (Gowing, et al. 1998, 447). Cannabis is also presented as a key

suppressant of vomiting; vomiting is often presented as another side effect of

HIV/AIDS (Smith 2013, 57). The Clinical Science Journal also presents research that


21 | P a g e

suggests cannabis is beneficial for HIV/AIDS sufferers, trials were taken out on

HIV/AIDS patients that revealed cannabis to be effective in increasing appetite and

vomit suppression (Haney, et al. 2007, 545). This information suggests that cannabis

can be an effective medicine for HIV/AIDS sufferers.

Nausea is a further illness that has been suggested to be suppressed when treated

with cannabis, the efficiency of cannabis in its relation to suppressing nausea is

supported when a trial presented that 86% of the participants saw a reduction in

nausea once they had consumed cannabis (Swift, Gates and Dillon 2005, 5).

As mentioned, cannabis has been demonstrated in numerous materials to have

‘positive effect appetite and food intake’ (Smith 2013, 56). Cannabis is said to

produce hunger in the brains feeding receptors, therefore increasing the food

intake of cannabis users (Australia. National Cancer Institute 2014, par.11). The

Cancer Council NSW Factsheet has highlighted cannabis as being particularly

effective for patients suffering “weight loss and muscle wasting” (Cancer Council

NSW 2012, 2). Being presented in the Fact Sheet of the Cancer Council NSW,

medical cannabis is visibly gaining professional attention in Australia. If Doctors

within the Cancer Council have already advocated for the legalisation of medical

cannabis, it is clear that medical cannabis has a prominent and informed medical

backing within Australia.

Sufferers of Multiple Sclerosis or ‘MS’ have also been presented within material to

benefit from cannabis use. Cannabis is reportedly able to “alleviate an entire range

of symptoms associated with MS” (Smith 2013, 57). It has been suggested in the

1998 American Drug and Alcohol Review that ‘spasms associated with MS may be

relieved once the patient has used cannabis’ (Gowing, et al. 1998, 447). It has been

suggested that cannabis is such an efficient medicine for MS that even the placebo

of using cannabis has been presented in certain cases as being beneficial in MS

patients (Thomas and Reiman 2013, 5).

The medicinal properties of cannabis are also presented to be productive in

combatting the main effects of epilepsy. The effectiveness of cannabis in regards to

treating epilepsy is notable in the case of an unnamed West Australian youth. The

youth went from ‘being unable to efficiently walk and talk, to being able to run and


22 | P a g e

string full sentences together, after just one week of cannabis treatment’ (Murray

2014, 37). Epilepsy and cannabis have had a long historical correlation; in 1878 the

U.S.A published the first medical journal which confirmed that cannabis is an

effective tool in reducing epileptic fits (Phillips 2014, par.16 ). In 2003, the British

Medical Association concurred that cannabis is effective in combating epilepsy; they

approved a cannabis based drug for use on certain epileptic patients (Phillips 2014,

par.5 ). It has been cited that certain epileptics in Australia have resorted to

dangerous and illegal methods to gain cannabis, methods such as associating with

‘underground drug networks’ (Murray 2014, 37) . It is a concerning fact that

epileptic patients in Australia disregard their own safety in order to obtain cannabis,

cannabis that would be available to them legally if they lived in a ‘medical cannabis

country’ such the Netherlands or Czech Republic.

Seizures are commonly associated with epilepsy; however they can emerge from

many numerous medical conditions. Within Australia there have been certain cases

of cannabis being successful in reducing seizures; one example is the case of Tara

O’Connell. Tara used to suffer up to 200 seizures a day, since Tara started using oil

made from cannabis her “seizures have stayed away” (Su 2014, par.7). A second

example of cannabis aiding epilepsy can be seen in the case of a British infant who

was “convulsing almost constantly” (Phillips 2014, par.1). The Doctor administered

the child with cannabis oil and supposedly “stopped the seizures almost

immediately” (Phillips 2014, par.3). Material has presented there are certain cases

which have highlighted the positive effect medical cannabis has on reducing

seizures, therefore seizures are another condition that could be medicated if

Australia legalised medical cannabis.

Strokes are another condition which have been reported as treatable when exposed

to cannabis. THC has been presented in certain cases by the US Department of

Health and Human Services to protect the brain from strokes, it does this by

reducing the likelihood of ‘low blood flow to the brain’ (Allen 2014, par.1). If

research by the US government has revealed a positive relationship between

cannabis and the reduction of strokes, why has the Australian government not

considered these findings?


23 | P a g e

Cannabis has also been suggested to be beneficial to sufferers of arthritis; tests

carried out at London Imperial College showed the inflammation of arthritis

sufferers can be decreased by up to 50% when cannabinoids were administered

(Reichard 2012, par.12). With positive British results in regard to cannabis’ effect on

arthritis, Australian researchers should also have ground to test the efficiency of

cannabis on arthritis.

Cannabis has also been presented as being effective in reducing the likelihood of

diabetes; research has suggested that cannabinoids can reduce the likelihood of

diabetes by up to 58% (Torres 2014, par.36). One research carried out on

experimental mice, presented that only 30% of the mice which had been using

cannabis showed signs of diabetes, compared to a 90-100% rate of diabetes within

mice that were not provided cannabis (Reichard 2012, par.13). International

material has revealed a correlation between cannabis use and the reduction of

diabetes, therefore diabetes is yet another example of an illness that could be

addressed, if medical cannabis were to be legalised in Australia.

Hepatitis-c is a further illness that cannabis has been presented to be successful in

reducing; the Wyoming Institute of Technology conducted supporting research that

presented results which supported cannabis’ efficiency in combating hepatitis-c. In

human trials on Hepatitis-c sufferers, 99.8% of the subjects were cured of the

illness; the remaining 0.2% showed advanced signs of hepatitis-c reversal (Stone

2013, par.3). This research by a respectable institution enforces the view that

cannabis has a potential to reduce hepatitis-c. With a presented cure ratio of nearly

100%, there should be grounds for an Australian study on cannabis’ medical

potential in relation to hepatitis-c.

Individuals who suffer from sleeping problems such as insomnia are also presented

to benefit from cannabis use; this is simply because sleep is often found to increase

with cannabis use (Ware, et al. 2003, 211). Research published in the International

Journal of Drug Policy has cited cannabis to be an effective medicine for patients

who have trouble sleeping (Walsh, et al. 2013, 511). A survey of 127 insomnia

patients revealed that 86% had seen an improvement in their sleeping pattern once

they were provided cannabis (Swift, Gates and Dillon 2005, 5). Cannabis could


24 | P a g e

possibly help a range of Australian insomniacs which include shift and FIFO (fly-in

fly-out) workers with sporadic work schedules. Being a non-fatal illness, insomnia

can also offer Australian researches a vital chance to study the long term effects of

cannabis use on humans.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is yet another illness that cannabis has been

presented to be effective in addressing. The Journal of Psychoactive Drugs has put

forward that during a test on 80 participants with PTSD, 75% of the participants had

showed improvement once they were provided cannabis. The journal came to the

conclusion that cannabis is directly associated with a reduction in PTSD (Greer, Grob

and Halberstadt 2014, 73). This evidence is reinforced in the case of US Army

veteran Matt Kahl who declared ‘cannabis to be the only medication that allows

him to control his PTSD’, Kahl admitted that he went from being ‘suicidal to stable,

once he was provided cannabis as a medication’ (Diente 2014, par.5).

The cannabinoid, cannnabidiol (CBD) has been credited in a publication by the Drug

Testing and Analysis Journal as being highly effective towards reducing psychosis.

The journal states that CBD has non-psychoactive properties that help the brain

reduce the likelihood of psychosis (Deiana 2012, 46). With mental health being an

ongoing issue within Australia, it may be beneficial for the country to invest in

studies which analyse the relationship between cannabis and psychosis.

Still on the topic of mental health, cannabis has also been presented to have a

positive effect on sufferers of depression. Denson and Earleywine put forward in

their article Addictive Behaviours, those cannabis users often “had less depressed

mood, more positive effect, and fewer somatic complaints than non-users” (Denson

and Earleywine 2005, 1). The same article researched the benefits of recreational

cannabis use compared to medical cannabis use, it was discovered that recreational

smokers tended to be less depressed than medical users. This research suggested

that it was most likely the individual’s illness, not the cannabis use that was catalyst

to their depression. One of the key concerns in regards to medical cannabis being

legalised is the view that cannabis can increase the likelihood of psychosis; however

this article has suggested this opinion to be generally incorrect.


25 | P a g e

Conventional anti-psychotic medication has been noted to frequently have little

effect on schizophrenic patients, for this reason cannabis has been suggested to be

an appropriate alternative to generic schizophrenia medications (Deiana 2012, 46).

Further research from Canada has again suggested that cannabis does not have a

negative effect on schizophrenic patients (Morris 2014, par.1). This suggests it may

be possible for the Australia to consider treating schizophrenic patients with

cannabis, if their conventional medication is not working.

Certain material has presented cannabis to be effective in reducing the negative

side effects of spinal cord injury. The spasticity, spasms and pain that prominently

accompany spinal cord injury are suggested to be relieved if cannabis is used

(Gowing, et al. 1998, 447). With Australia being a keen participant of contact sport

such as rugby and AFL, there is a high probability that spinal damage will be an

ongoing problem within Australian society. Therefore medical cannabis should be

researched within Australian sport science.

Research has presented cannabis to be effective in reducing neuronal damage also

known as neuro degeneration; in 2001 the Dutch Journal of Neuroscience published

results that supported these findings. The journal suggested that THC was

successful in reducing neuronal damage by up to 36% within only 7 days (Van Der

Stelt, et al. 2001, 6475). The neuropathic properties of cannabis have also been

presented within the Australian Drug and Alcohol Review of 1998 when it was

suggested that cannabis ‘has the ability to reduce neuro pain' (Gowing, et al. 1998,

451). Having been cited in the Australian Drug and Alcohol Review as holding

therapeutic value almost 17 years ago, it is surprising that Australia still lacks

professional research regarding medical cannabis’ medical potential.

Further material has suggested cannabis could benefit certain individuals prone to

heart attack by reducing blood flow, cannabinoids are suggested to reduce the

probability of heart attacks by up to 66% (Torres 2014, par.21). Heart attacks are

genetic, so theoretically cannabis could be used as a preventative medicine to

reduce the likelihood of heart attack. Unless Australia changes its cannabis policy,

preventative cannabis use for heart attack prone individuals will stay theoretical.


26 | P a g e

It has been put forward in the Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology that

cannabis ‘is effective in reducing inflammatory bowel disease (IBS)’. The journal

states that in a human study, 5 out of 11 IBS sufferers experienced complete

remission, and 10 out of 11 saw improvement once provided with THC (Naftali, et

al. 2013, 1276). Having personally witnessed a series of IBS adverts on Australian

Free to air television, it is clear that the illness is not an irrelevant issue in Australia.

If Australia legalised medical cannabis, cannabis could be used as a natural

alternative to current IBS medications.

The vision impairment Glaucoma is the final condition presented within this thesis

to be respondent to cannabis treatment; by reducing the blood flow to the eye,

cannabis has been shown to be effective in clearing the ‘blurry’ vision of glaucoma

sufferers (Gowing, et al. 1998, 448).

Figure 7 (Colorado Department of Health and Environment 2014)

Figure 7 (Colorado

Department of Health

and Environment 2014)

highlights the symptoms

that Colorado, U.S.A

medicates with cannabis.


27 | P a g e

(Swift, Gates and Dillon 2005, 5)

The ‘discontinue’ rate of medical cannabis supports its reputation as a useful

medicinal product, only 10% of medical cannabis users surveyed in the U.S.A have

discontinued use (Mather, et al. 2013, 760). The fact that only a small percentage of

medical cannabis users decide to discontinue use, suggests that users of cannabis

are reporting a medical improvement. The American Medical Association supports

that cannabis is a legitimate medicine; in 2009 the association added the substance

to their list of approved prescription drugs (Mather, et al. 2013, 759). This raises the

debate, why to date has Australia ignored the medicinal properties of cannabis

presented by the U.S.A?

Figure 8 (W.Swift,

P.Gates and P.Dillon

2005, 5) outlines

numerous amounts

of illnesses that have

been medicated with

cannabis in

Washington, U.S.A.

Figure 8


28 | P a g e


It has been suggested through an array of material in this chapter, that cannabis can

be used to address numerous illnesses in Australia. Ranging from cancer to MS, this

chapter has presented multiple conditions that have been treated internationally

with cannabis. This chapter has presented the general controversies in regard to

cannabis use, followed by numerous ingestion methods that are available for

cannabis. This thesis suggests that Australia would benefit from researching the

medicinal effects of cannabis, throughout new research the Australian government

could discover certain capabilities of cannabis that were not recognised in past

trials.


29 | P a g e

Chapter 3: Political and Socio-Economic debates for the Australian

implementation of medical cannabis.


Throughout the duration of this chapter, the current legal status of medical

cannabis in Australia is discussed. Presented within this chapter of the thesis are the

economic and social advantages that can accompany legalising medical cannabis.

The political, social and organisational acceptance of medical cannabis within

Australia and internationally are also discussed.

This chapter will start by presenting the current legal status of cannabis in Australia.

The social, organisational and political acceptance of cannabis in Australia is then

discussed. The chapter concludes by presenting the social and economic advantages

that have been presented to accompany the implementation of medical cannabis.

Discussion

3.1 The current legal status of cannabis in Australia

Currently Australia does not legally allow the use of cannabis in its Therapeutic

Goods Administration (Baxter, Baker and Reece 2013, 1). Cannabis was originally

banned in 1925 following the result of a League of Nations summit; Victoria was the

first state to outlaw cannabis in 1928. However the League of Nations ban did not

take full effect in Australia for another three decades (Mather, et al. 2013, 759). On

the back of limited research, cannabis was categorised as harmful as cocaine, heroin

and morphine then therefore made illegal (Fitzgerald 2013, par.16). Following the

League of Nations ban, cannabis was categorised as illegal in Australia and

internationally. 89 years after the 1925 League of Nations summit on cannabis,

countless numbers of individuals have been jailed due to cannabis use and millions

in government capital has been spent on enforcing the cannabis ban.

Australia is signatory to numerous international agreements that restrict the use of

cannabis in any form (Australia. NSW Parliament 2014, 8). For instance, Australia is

signatory to the 1961 United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, this bans

the use of medical cannabis (Australia. NSW Parliament 2014, 8). The 1988 UN


30 | P a g e

Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Dangerous Psychotropic Substances also

restricts Australia from being able to import cannabis (Australia. NSW Parliament

2014, 8). There are also numerous Commonwealth laws that restrict the use or

importation of cannabis in Australia. Such laws as the 1995 Criminal code Act, 1901

customs Act, 1956 Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations, 1967 Narcotic Drugs

Act, 1989 Therapeutic goods Act and the 1990 (Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and

Psychotropic Substances) Act all ban the use of cannabis (Australia. NSW Parliament

2014, 8-9). Clearly Australia is signatory to numerous agreements that restrict the

use or importations of cannabis within the country, these mentioned laws are the

key reason that medical cannabis is illegal in Australia.

‘As mentioned, there are ‘international legal obligations’ that currently prohibit

Australia from using medical cannabis, these obligations mean that citizens found in

possession of small amounts of cannabis can receive large fines (Topp 2006, 13).

Australia is signatory to further international treaties which makes it illegal to sell,

use or produce any cannabis product such as the 1995 Commonwealth Criminal

Code section 307.5-307.7 which outlines how it is illegal to import or export any

form of cannabis, and section 307.1-307.4 that highlights how it is also illegal to

possess any form of cannabis (Australia. NSW Parliament 2014, 22). According to

current Australian law, cannabis is a class 9 illicit drug, which puts it in the same

category as heroin and LSD (acid) (Smith 2013, 56).

Drug laws within Australia are primarily enforced on the state level, however in

Australia cannabis comes under a full national restriction (Smith 2013, 56). In the

Australia Capital Territory (ACT), South Australia (SA) and the Northern Territory

(NT) cannabis has been decriminalised, this means although still illegal, the

repercussions for having cannabis are smaller in these states. In the ACT if someone

is caught with up to two cannabis plants or 25 grams of dried cannabis they can

receive a $100 fine, In SA individuals with100 grams of cannabis or one plant can

receive a $50-$150 fine and in the NT 50 grams of cannabis or two plants could

bring an individual a $200 fine (National Cannabis Prevention and Information

Center 2013, 1).


31 | P a g e

Figure 9 (National Cannabis Prevention and Information Center 2013, 2)

In contrast to the ACT, SA and the NT, cannabis is completely illegal in the remaining

states of Australia. This means individuals found in possession of cannabis can

endure much more detrimental penalties than those in the decriminalised states of

ACT, SA and NT. In New South Wales, cannabis possession of 15 grams is given two

cautions before criminal charges may be placed. Victoria allows up to 50 grams of

cannabis but only offers two cautions before charges are placed. Tasmania offers

three cautions of up to 50 grams, while Queensland only offers one caution of 50

grams. Western Australia could be seen to have the strictest penalties, any

individual found with 10 grams of cannabis are automatically made to face a

criminal charge, fine or “cannabis intervention session” (National Cannabis

Prevention and Information Center 2013, 3). The cannabis intervention session is a

rehabilitation program that aims to assist offenders in quitting cannabis use.


outlines the differing cannabis laws within the three Australian states that

have decriminalised cannabis.


32 | P a g e

Figure 10

(National Cannabis Prevention and Information Center 2013, 4)

3.2 Political, Social and Organisational Acceptance of Cannabis

Cannabis has been reported as being the world’s most frequently consumed illicit

drug (Hall 2000, The cannabis policy debate: finding a way forward, 1690). That

statistic does not differ in Australia, the Cancer Council New South Wales has

reported cannabis as being the most commonly used illicit drug within the country

(Cancer Council NSW 2012, 1). In 2010, the Cancer Council reported that 1.9 million

adults within Australia have tried cannabis (Cancer Council NSW 2012, 1). Research

has calculated that 40% of the country has tried cannabis, including 300,000

Australians that use cannabis daily (Smith 2013, 56). The consumption of cannabis

within Australia is much higher than the average country, Australia and their

geographical neighbours New Zealand are cited as being the countries with the

most prevalent cannabis use (Baxter, Baker and Reece 2013, 1). In summary, certain


highlights the methods put in place by Australian states that consider cannabis

illegal. Note that unlike the ‘decriminalised’ cannabis states in Australia, you

cannot simply pay a fine if you are found in possession of the substance.


33 | P a g e

material has presented a significant percentage of the Australian population to find

cannabis an accepted and frequently used substance.

Illicit substances such as opium are frequently used as ingredients in modern

medical products. This concern was raised in Australia when Premier Campbell

Newman questioned ‘why is opium currently used in medical practice yet cannabis

is not’ (Vogler 2014, par.4)? This concern is again expressed when it is quoted by

Murray that “We grow opium poppies in Australia in secure locations for their

accepted use in our most effective painkillers…[S]urely we can do the same with

marijuana” (Murray 2014, 37).

Cannabis has been presented to hold similar painkilling attributes as opium.

Cannabis being a less addictive substance than opium would mean that the

implementation of cannabis in opium’s place could reduce the likelihood of opium

dependence or withdrawal symptoms becoming problematic for patients

(McGowan 2014, 70). It appears possible to consider the use of cannabis in

circumstances where opium addiction has been problematic. The use of cannabis in

place of opium seems possible due to the similarities between cannabis and opium,

the possibility that cannabis might be less addictive than opium can also be seen as

being advantageous.

Former NSW Premier Bob Carr is a passionate campaigner for medical cannabis

implementation in Australia (Hansen 2014, par.12). In 2003, the Carr government

announced its intention to introduce a four year medical cannabis trial; however

cannabis supply issues prevented the trial from ever taking place (Australia. NSW

Parliament 2014, 5). Australia had another chance to change their law on medical

cannabis in 2013 when a New South Wales Parliament Committee put forward an

amendment to facilitate terminally ill patients the right to possess up to 15grams of

cannabis for medical purposes (Coultan 2013, par.1). However, this proposal was

denied by the New South Wales Government, it was denied due to a ‘lack of

evidence supporting cannabis, and its relation to pain relief’ (Hawke 2013, par.13).

Australian politician MP Kaye was quoted as being ‘disappointed’ with the

conclusion to the 2013 New South Wales amendment, similarly former Australian

MP O’Grady was also said to be correspondingly dejected. O’Grady suggested that


34 | P a g e

‘good policy is evidence based’ and a medical cannabis trial needed to have been

performed before the amendment was denied (Hawke 2013, par.9). This thesis

believes processes such as the bills from the O’Grady and Carr governments’ are the

most ethical way of approaching legalised medical cannabis. In order for medical

cannabis to be implemented there must first be ethical bills presented to the

Australian government that entail professional research and analysis on medical

cannabis.

Political support of medical cannabis’ implementation in Australia is again visible in

the forms of medical cannabis bills being drafted by John Kaye of the NSW Greens

party; this bill will see certified patients legally allowed to possess small amounts of

cannabis for medical use. Similarly the NSW Nationals MP Kevin Anderson is also

drafting a separate medical cannabis bill; Anderson is quoted to ‘not condone the

use of drugs’ (Hansen 2014, par.16) however after researching cannabis’ positive

benefits, Anderson decided to pursue the medical cannabis bill (Australia. NSW

Parliament 2014, 2). Both Kaye and Anderson’s bills are expected to be released by

the end of 2014, so too is a separate Western Australian medical cannabis bill

(Washer and Langman 2014, par.4-5).

Green’s Senator Di Natale reinforces her wish to see Australia legalise medical

cannabis when she states that ‘it is cruel to deny patient’s medical cannabis, since

research has presented its legitimacy’. The same material reiterates this point when

it is stated that Liberal co-convenor Stone suggests that ‘Australia join other

developed states with the implementation of medical cannabis’ (Sky News 2014,

par.8). This acceptance of medical cannabis at a political level in Australia

thoroughly enforces the relevance and legitimacy of this overall thesis.

The debate regarding medical cannabis’ implementation in Australia is often

prominent in political material. Medical cannabis has been thoroughly promoted by

numerous Federal and State politicians in Australia such as: NSW Premier Mike

Baird, WA Labor Leader Mark McGowan, MP Mal Washer and MP Melissa Parke

(McGowan 2014, 70). Mark McGowan, leader of the Western Australian (WA) Labor

Party has supported medical cannabis since 2010. McGowan had a friend that

passed away at thirty years of age, Prior to his passing, McGowan’s’ friend’s only


35 | P a g e

highlight to the day was apparently “when he smoked cannabis in a quiet courtyard

to ease his pain” (McGowan 2014, 70). Ever since McGowan’s friend passed away,

the leader of the WA Labor Party has advocated for the use of medical cannabis.

With the Leader of the WA Labour Party advocating the use of medical cannabis, it

only seems logical that Australia pursues the issue more thoroughly. McGowan

adequately summons his view the following quotation: “We need laws to support

people with chronic or terminal illnesses who find cannabis relieves their symptoms

and pain” (McGowan 2014, 70). A final bill presented by Australian Capital Territory

(ACT) MP Rattenbury presented that an overwhelming 70% of Australians support

the use of medical cannabis (Rattenbury 2014, 1). Visible in the forms of the

multiple medical cannabis bills presented in Australia as well as the advocacy from

multiple politicians, it is clear that there is a large amount of political support for

medical cannabis in Australia.

There is a vast amount of organisational support for medical cannabis presented

from the U.S.A, this is visible in the form of surveys taken out on medical doctors

(MD) and police officers in the U.S.A. Revealed within the survey is that, 69% of

MD’s believe that cannabis should be available for medical use (Medical Cannabis

Australia 2014, New Poll: 69% of Physicians in the U.S. Believe Cannabis Has

Legitimate Medical Benefits, par.1). A second survey taken out on 11,000 police

officers revealed that 65% of them not only believed cannabis should be available

for medical use, but also believed cannabis should be decriminalised or legalised

throughout the U.S.A (Medical Cannabis Australia 2014, New survey: 64% of Law

Enforcement Officers Want Cannabis Laws Reformed, par.1). It seems logical to at

least research medical cannabis within Australia due to the 69% of MD’s and 65% of

police officers in the U.S.A that promote the legalisation of medical cannabis. These

surveys are not the opinions of biased individuals; they are the opinions of qualified

doctors and law enforcement officers. Former US President Bill Clinton clarifies that

the U.S.A implemented medical cannabis due to “a lot of evidence that it helped

patients” (Edwards 2014, par.3), why has the Australian government not analysed

this “evidence” of cannabis being medically beneficial for their selves?


36 | P a g e

It is not only surveys in the U.S.A that promote the use of medical cannabis; surveys

within Australia have presented a 69% support rate for the outright implementation

of medical cannabis. Furthermore, 74% of the surveyed individuals were more

favourable of a medical cannabis trial prior to a possible implementation (Wodak

and Mather 2014, par.5). Similar figures are again supplied by the 2010 National

Drug Strategy Household Survey Report by the Australian Institute of Health and

Welfare; the Survey presented a 70% support rate for the implementation of

medical cannabis and a further 75.5% endorsement rate of a trial (McGowan 2014,

70). Research by Lenton and Ovenden has presented further Australian social

acceptance of cannabis, they put forward that 64% of Australians support the use of

medical cannabis (Lenton and Ovenden 1996, 790). Yet again, Australian support for

medical cannabis can be seen in the form of the Help End Marijuana Prohibition

(HEMP) party, the party placed 8th out of a possible 77 registered parties in the 2014

Western Australian Senate election (Green 2014, par.16).

Influential institutions in Australia such as the Cancer Council have recently

expressed their support for the implementation of medicinal cannabis in Australia

(Godfrey 2014, Growing support for medical cannabis, par.16). The Cancer council

NSW has reportedly ‘recognised the medical capabilities of cannabis and has

suggested decriminalisation of cannabis to approved patients’ (Cancer Council NSW

2012, 1). Along with the NSW Cancer Council, the NSW Nurses and Midwives

Association (NSWMNA) which has over 59 thousand employees (Godfrey 2014, Key

nursing union backs medicinal cannabis, par.1) has also “formally endorsed”

(Holmes and Kiejda 2014, 1) that Australia decriminalise cannabis for terminally ill

patients. The NSWMNA has suggested that the government “support the use of 15g

of dry cannabis on patients who have AIDS and other terminal illnesses” (Coultan

2013, par.1).

The Australian Medical Association has recently acknowledged the “therapeutic

potential” (Sky News 2014, par.10) of cannabis. The Association has “called for

clinical trials on the use of cannabis in order to establish its potential” (Cook and

Smith 2014, par.13). The World Health Organization (WHO) is another organisation

that supports the decriminalisation of medical cannabis, the WHO has

‘acknowledged the therapeutic capabilities of cannabis in regard to its efficiency in


37 | P a g e

reducing nausea and vomiting’ (Cancer Council NSW 2012, 5). Material has

presented that there are influential medical associations in Australia and abroad

that encourage the legalisation of medical cannabis. This promotion of medical

cannabis from influential organisations and associations within Australia and

abroad, suggest that Australia would benefit from again researching the efficiency

of medical cannabis.

An influential actor for the promotion of medical cannabis in Australia is twenty-

four year old Daniel Haslam. Daniel has terminal bowl cancer and uses cannabis to

reduce his nausea, poor appetite and constant vomiting (McGowan 2014, 70).

Nationally, Daniel and his mother have collected over 200,000 signatures

advocating the decriminalisation of medical cannabis for the terminally ill

(McGowan 2014, 70). Daniel has featured in television programs, newspapers and

online articles advocating medical cannabis. It is stories like Daniel’s that are putting

pressure on the Australian government to reconsider their stance on medical

cannabis. Surveys on over 3,400 Australia citizens present that the 51-65 year old

age bracket is the section of the population that are most inclined to embrace the

legalisation of medical cannabis (Cook and Smith 2014, par.2). Presented by the

statistics, mature adults are amongst the individuals promoting the use of medical

cannabis in Australia. It seems unethical to be denying informed individuals the

right to be using medical cannabis, if the substance does hold medicinal value.

3.3 Social advantages correlated with the legalisation of medical cannabis

Certain individuals may be critical that the implementation of medical cannabis

could have violent or dangerous social side effects. However it has been

documented the environment, neighbourhood and social circumstances are the

main catalyst to violence in areas where medical cannabis is available. This idea is

presented in studies on areas in the U.S.A with ‘cannabis dispensaries’, cannabis

dispensaries are businesses where medical cannabis is sold (Williams and Freisthler

2011, 2). Sources of violence in areas where cannabis dispensaries are operational

are presented to often suffer from similar catalysts of violence as areas without

medical cannabis.


38 | P a g e

Catalysts of violence in these areas range from: ‘percentage of one person

households, unemployment rates’ (Kepple and Freisthler 2012, 527) and “scale of

income differences between rich and poor” (Wilkinson 2004, 1). Articles have even

suggested that in Colorado where cannabis has recently been legalised, the overall

crime rate has decreased by approximately 10.6% (Sarich, Colorado Sells $19 Million

in Weed in March: $1.9 Million Goes to Schools and Crime Down 10% 2014, par.5).

Further articles state that Denver, a town in Colorado has seen an estimated 14.6%

drop in property crime and a further 2.4% drop in violent crimes since the medical

dispensaries opened (Sarich, Colorado Crime Rates Down 14.6% Since Legalizing

Marijuana 2014, par.2). An overall drop in crime of 10.6% has been presented in

Denver since medical cannabis was legalised (Diente 2014, par.8).

Further material presents that the legalisation of ‘medical cannabis dispensaries can

be correlated with a reduction in homicide, assault and other crimes’ (Morris, et al.

2014, 1). The research suggests that the increased security measures within

cannabis dispensaries such as: internal and external security cameras, doormen and

requirement for all customers to carry valid identification can eventually increase

local security. It has been suggested that security upgrades within cannabis

dispensaries can inevitably lead to an overall reduction in homicide, assault and

burglary crime rates within the vicinity of a medical cannabis dispensary (Morris, et

al. 2014, 2). Further material presents cannabis to possibly reduce domestic

violence within married couples. During a nine yearlong study that used numerous

married couples as test subjects, the study presented that cannabis use was related

to a lower level of domestic violence between the tested couples (Hillin 2014,

par.2).


39 | P a g e

Figure 11 (Morris, et al. 2014, 5)

Figure 12 (Sarich, Colorado Sells $19 Million in Weed in March: $1.9 Million Goes to Schools

and Crime Down 10% 2014)

Figures 11 (R.Morris, et al. 2014, 5) illustrates a drop in violent and property crime

within one year of medical cannabis implementation.

Figures’ 12 (Sarich, Colorado Sells $19 Million in Weed in March: $1.9 Million Goes to Schools

and Crime Down 10% 2014) illustrates the correlation between medical cannabis

implementation and a decreased homicide and aggravated assault rate in Denver, U.S.A.


40 | P a g e

Although cannabis is illegal in Australia, it has already been presented in this thesis

that Australians are some of the largest consumers of cannabis in the world (Baxter,

Baker and Reece 2013, 1). However many Australians still fear using cannabis due to

its current legal status (Topp 2006, 13), this point is supported when it is stated that

many Australian cancer patients fear breaking the law to obtain cannabis (ABC

News 2014, The Cancer Council calls for mature debate on cannabis, par.8). 76% of

surveyed non-cannabis users in Australia suggested that legal repercussions and

fear of arrest currently deter them from using medical cannabis (Swift, Gates and

Dillon 2005, 7). Research has presented that 62% of surveyed Australians would use

medical cannabis if it were legal (Janichek and Reiman 2012, 1). Accessing illegal

cannabis can put a patient in contact with criminal networks (Australian Medical

Association 2014, 4); therefore many ill Australians rightfully choose to go without

the substance.

(Diehm and Hall 2013)

Despite its illegal status, it has been suggested that a large number of Australians

would still be inclined to use cannabis for medical reasons if it were not for the high

prices of the substance (Topp 2006, 13). 51% of Australians stated that at an

average of $25 per gram, cannabis is too expensive to use as a frequent medicine

(Swift, Gates and Dillon 2005, 7). If cannabis were to be legalised, it has been

suggested that the price would significantly drop from $25 per gram. As presented

Figure 13 (Diehm and

Hall 2013) highlights

how implementing

medical cannabis may

reduce its high prices.

Figure 13


41 | P a g e

in Figure 13 (Diehm and Hall 2013), it has been suggested that cannabis price could

fall from $375 dollars per ounce to $38. This drop in price would ultimately mean

that more individuals could afford to use cannabis for medical reasons.

Due to cannabis being illegal in Australia, many individuals can and have been

arrested for possessing the substance. In a survey of 147 Australians that illegally

purchase cannabis to use for medical reasons, it was presented that 27% of the 147

individuals surveyed had been either been “arrested, cautioned or convicted in

relation to their cannabis use” (Swift, Gates and Dillon 2005, 7).

An example of Australian’s being arrested for self-prescribing themselves medical

cannabis can be seen in the case of Cassie Batten and Rhett Wallace who were

taken into custody after being found with small amounts of cannabis oil, the couple

had used the oil to treat their own epilepsy (Harrison, Spooner and Donnelly 2014,

par.1-2). A similar case of an Australian being arrested for using cannabis for

medically is evident in the case of a 59-year-old South Australian man who was

suffering leukaemia; he was imprisoned for two years after being convicted of

growing cannabis (Wodak and Mather 2014, par.3).

This high level of cannabis related conviction is troubling for many reasons, for

example the Australian Medical Association suggests that criminal convictions can

often “negatively impact” on an individual’s life, long after their conviction. For

example, “a criminal conviction can negatively impact on a person’s employment

prospects and their accommodation and travel opportunities” (Australian Medical

Association 2014, 4).

Suggestibly there is an ethical debate regarding individuals being arrested for using

cannabis for medical purpose. If these imprisoned Australians were citizens of a

medical cannabis country such as the Czech Republic or Netherlands, they would be

free to use cannabis medically and without imprisonment.

(Diehm and Hall 2013)


42 | P a g e

When 400 Western Australians were surveyed in regard to their opinions on

cannabis’ legality, it was presented that 2/3rds of the respondents were concerned

that cannabis being illegal could eventually overburden the court system with

unneeded cannabis cases (Lenton and Ovenden 1996, 783).

Within Evans’ literature, a similar opinion is presented when he puts forward that

decimalising cannabis for ill patients could ultimately ‘free up the prison system’

(Evans 2013, 5). It has been presented that decriminalising cannabis could save the

government of the U.S.A an estimated 13.7 Billion in prosecutorial, judicial, and

correctional and police spending (Evans 2013, 2). If Australia were to follow the

path of the U.S.A in respect to medical cannabis, Australia could benefit financially

like the U.S.A has.

The Dutch coffeshoppe design is a unique social experiment that has been

successful in the Netherlands, the Dutch government made it legal to purchase and

consume cannabis in specific “coffeshoppes”. The Dutch government suggested this

‘cannabis friendly zone’ would provide an environment for users of cannabis to use

and obtain their cannabis in safety. By providing an environment solely for the

purchase of cannabis, cannabis users were able to avoid meeting up with criminal

groups or drug dealers to obtain their cannabis. Since there was no longer a

required contact with drug dealers, the coffeshoppes were seen to reduce the

consumption ‘harder drugs’. It was presented that cannabis users in the

Netherlands were no longer as freely exposed to other ‘harder drugs’, because

these coffeshoppes only exposed them to cannabis use (MacCoun and Reuter 2011,

69). In theory, a similar policy to the Dutch coffeshoppe design can be a possible

way of administering medical patients’ cannabis in Australia. Perhaps it would be

possible to construct a medical coffeshoppe that only serves individuals with a valid

medical script or card. However if this medical coffeshoppe was to be pursued any

further, there would have to be supporting research by the Australian government

to suggest medical cannabis is beneficial to these patients.

If medical cannabis were to be pursued in Australia, European trends suggest that

the overall number of illegal cannabis crops will decrease (Decorte 2010, 271). This

reduction in illegal cannabis crops can reduce the amount of drug dealers and


43 | P a g e

certain illegal activity within the country. This idea is reinforced by Klofas when he

puts forward that in specific cases in the U.S.A, the implementation of medical

cannabis has been correlated with a reduction in street, gang and drug crime. Klofas

concludes his support of medical cannabis when stating that ‘cannabis purchased

within a medical facility is safer than individuals purchasing cannabis from a drug

dealer (Klofas and Letteney 2012, 4).

3.4 Economic debates for legalising medical cannabis

A final debate that is presented for the implementation of medical cannabis is the

illusive profit local governments can gain from the industry, Klofas calls it a “very

influential source of income and wealth” (Klofas and Letteney 2012, 4). In the U.S.A,

the Colorado medical cannabis industry generated approximately $1.5 million USD

solely in the month of January 2014 (McKay 2014, par.1).

Colorado generated $5.3million USD after three months (McKay 2014, par.1), it has

been calculated that Colorado can expect to generate approximately $18million

USD from medical cannabis by the end of 2014. (Phillips 2014, Colorado Pulls In

Millions In Marijuana Tax Revenue, par.1). In 2011 cannabis totalled as an equitable

11 Billion dollar industry in the U.S.A (Klofas and Letteney 2012, 4), this equitable

cannabis industry could financially benefit Australia if they were to industrialise

medical cannabis like in case of the U.S.A.

Medical cannabis might not only provide the chance for the Australian government

to gain a new lucrative industry, it could also generate careers for many individuals

in this new industry. In the cases of medical cannabis being supplied in Canada and

certain states of the U.S.A, “there are a wide range of direct and indirect

employment gains being measured” (Washer and Langman 2014, par.24). New

careers can develop upon medical cannabis becoming implemented such as

cannabis trimmers, farmers, journalists and business owners (McKay 2014, par.3).

Within the U.S.A, over 2,000 medical cannabis centers employ several thousand

employees (Knight and Smith 2014, par.6). In reference to Washington, 10,000 new

jobs have arisen due to the legalisation of both recreational and medical cannabis

(Sarich 2014, Colorados marijuana legalization creates 10000 new jobs, par.1). Over

2,000 new jobs have been produced within the last few months alone and


44 | P a g e

Washington has been witnessing one of the lowest unemployment rates in the

U.S.A (Sarich 2014, Colorados marijuana legalization creates 10000 new jobs, par.1).

It has been presented in numerous materials that Australia has a perfect climate to

grow natural outdoor cannabis. This is supported when Jiggens presents that “In

1964, a massive infestation of wild cannabis was found growing along a stretch of

the Hunter River between Singleton and Maitland in New South Wales” (Jiggens

2004, 3). This ability to grow outdoor cannabis is economically advantageous, since

certain countries that already have medical cannabis for example Canada, spend

“huge energy costs” on sustaining their indoor medical cannabis grows (due to

inadequate natural climate for growth) (Washer and Langman 2014, par.21). Due to

their frequently cold European weather, it would be fair to assume the Netherlands

and Czech Republic would also suffer from the same growing predicament as

Canada.

With a climate and farming industry that is prosperous for growing crops (National

Farmers Federation 2012, 5), the medical cultivation of cannabis can be seen as

smart economics for Australia. Tasmania already has a successful pharmaceutical

poppy industry that could make an ideal and secure facility to grow medical

cannabis. The Tasmanian farmers lobby have been quoted to have “welcomed the

idea of growing medical cannabis in the state” (ABC News 2014, State Health

Minister to discuss medical cannabis trials at the University of Tasmania, par.19).


In summary this chapter has discussed the current legal status of cannabis in

Australia, followed by the political, social and legal acceptance of medical cannabis

in the country. This chapter has presented medical cannabis to be a substance that

can have certain political, social and economic value. Medical cannabis’

implementation can lead to a reduction in crime, increase in economic revenue and

increase in job opportunities. Medical cannabis can also reduce government, police

and judicial spending. Therefore it has been presented within this chapter that

medical cannabis can often be a valuable industry; if implemented correctly a

medical cannabis industry could be financially beneficial for Australia.


45 | P a g e

Chapter 4: The Conclusion


This final chapter will summarise the overall hypothesis of this thesis by concluding

that there is abundant evidence to suggest that medical cannabis is an extremely

valuable resource both socially and medically. This thesis suggests that due to a lack

in solid research on medical cannabis, Australia is lagging behind the numerous

developed countries have already implemented cannabis for medical use.

Discussion

As presented by certain developed states adopting the use of medical cannabis in

recent years, medical cannabis has become an increasingly accepted medical tool

internationally. Further research on medical cannabis in Australia could finally

resolve the issue of cannabis’ legitimacy in medical use. Such a trial could possibly

present the Australian government enough information to legalise medical

cannabis.

This thesis has presented that medical cannabis use can be an effective way of

treating numerous medical conditions. Cannabis has been presented throughout

this thesis to be an efficient analgesic (painkiller) for humans, for this reason it has

been heavily documented that cannabis can be used as an effective substitute for

certain pharmaceutical medications as well as alcohol, tobacco and other illegal

drug use. This thesis has presented many alternative methods to cannabis use that

do not involve the heavily tabooed act of smoking, methods such cannabis oil,

spray, edible foods, tablets and vaporisers are all available.

Unlike many conventional medications, cannabis is suggested to be a fast acting

drug; results are often visible within 2-3 days. Also unlike many pharmaceutical

drugs, cannabis is unique in the fact that humans are suggested to be unable to

overdose from its use, in fact the main side effect to cannabis use if often

‘dizziness’. Another method that suggests medical cannabis to be safe is the fact

that cannabis can now be personally tailored to a patients needed requirement.

This ensures that the patient is neither receiving more or less that their required

dose of cannabinoids.


46 | P a g e

Cannabis has been tested and supplied to many patients internationally for the

treatment of numerous illnesses. Internationally, cannabis has already been

prescribed to sufferers of: cancer, HIV/AIDS, nausea, ‘MS’, epilepsy, strokes,

arthritis, diabetes, Hepatitis-c, ‘PTSD’, psychosis, depression, schizophrenia, spasms,

neurodegeneration, heart attack, glaucoma, ‘IBS’, sleeping problems and lack of

appetite; not to name them all.

Besides medical advantages, the implementation of medical cannabis within

Australia can also provide numerous political and socio-economic advantages.

Currently individuals who illegally source themselves cannabis, often run the risk of

being jailed or fined if caught by police with cannabis. If medical cannabis were to

be implemented in Australia, patients will no longer run the gauntlet of being

imprisoned or having to associate with drug dealers to obtain cannabis.

Legalised medical cannabis will provide a safe grade of cannabis, to legitimate

patients from a safe and legal environment. Medical cannabis legalisation has been

presented within this thesis to correspond with a decreased crime rate and reduced

amount of illegal cannabis grows in Europe. Significant research has also presented

medical cannabis to be a significant catalyst towards a reduced rate of violence and

assault. Further social acceptance of cannabis is evident within Australia, as it is the

largest consumed drug in the country. Australian citizens are also cited as being

one of the largest consumers of cannabis in the world along with geographical

neighbours New Zealand. This thesis has ultimately suggested that the

implementation of medical cannabis can assist with numerous social conundrums in

Australia.

Legalising medical cannabis could also be an economically advantageous move for

the Australian government. As presented by certain cases in the U.S.A, medical

cannabis is a multi-million dollar industry which could open many employment

opportunities in the country. Presented in certain examples from the U.S.A, by

legalising medical cannabis the Australian government could save millions of dollars

in prosecutorial, judicial, correctional and police spending. As evident by wild

cannabis crops found in Australia, the country has a suitable climate for outdoor


47 | P a g e

cannabis cultivation; Australia also has a pre-existing, highly functional farming

industry that could successfully cultivate medical cannabis.

Possible methods to implement the legal sales of medical cannabis in Australia

could come in the forms of decriminalised cannabis use for the legitimately ill, as

mentioned in the bills presented by Australian politicians that include Anderson,

O’Grady and Carr. Other methods such as a medical coffeshoppe that follows the

design of the Dutch coffeshoppe are also possible. However if any of these

processes are to occur, Australia needs to hold mature political debate as well as

medical research on the topic of medical cannabis. In order to successfully

implement medical cannabis the Australian government must change its current

drug policy on cannabis. This thesis has presented material which suggests that it is

advisable for Australia to consider changing its current legislation on cannabis by

first researching the use of medical cannabis.


The hypothesis of this thesis is that there is abundant evidence to suggest that

medical cannabis is an extremely valuable resource both socially and medically.

Overall this thesis has provided evidence to suggest that if implemented correctly,

medical cannabis can be a valuable resource both socially and medically. In

conclusion this thesis has debated that by following the example of countries that

have already legalised medical cannabis; the implementation of medical cannabis’

in Australia is not only medically beneficial but also socially, politically and

economically beneficial. Therefore this thesis suggests that Australia first research

the efficiency of medical cannabis, in order to finally resolve the debates

surrounding the implementation of legalised medical cannabis in Australia.


48 | P a g e

Appendices of Figures:

Figure 1 (Hazekamp 2007,4) ................................................................... 6

Figure 2 (Mack, Marijuana as medicine 2000,16) ................................... 9

Figure 3 (Australia. NSW Parliament 2014, 16) ..................................... 10

Figure 4 (Janicheck and Reiman 2012,3) ............................................... 18

Figure 5 (Swift, Gates and Dillon 2005, 6) .......................................... 18

Figure 6 (Gardner 2013, 1) .................................................................. 19

Figure 7 (Colorado Department of Health and Environment 2014) ...... 26

Figure 8 (Swift, Gates and Dillon 2005, 5) ............................................ 27


............................................................................................................. 31

Figure 10 (National Cannabis Prevention and Information Center 2013,

4) .......................................................................................................... 32

Figure 11 (Morris, et al. 2014, 5) ......................................................... 39

Figure 12 (Sarich 2014, Colorado Sells $19 Million in Weed in March:

$1.9 Million Goes to Schools and Crime Down 10%) ............................ 39

Figure 13 (Diehm and Hall 2013) .......................................................... 40


49 | P a g e

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Documents

Accumulated debates for the implementation of legalised ......marijuana, pot, ganja, grass, chanvre, cheeba, chronic, weed, reefer, Mary Jane plus many more nicknames (United Nations