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Managing Graduate Study

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contents/ PageManaginggraduateStudy 3

thenatureofgraduatework 3

Startingout:whatyouneedtodo 3

Avoidisolation:getinvolvedinuniversitylife 4

tiMeManageMentandorganiSationStrategieS 4

Seethebigpicture 4

Organiseaweeklytimetable 4

Developalisthabit 6

effectivereading 7

Readingformaximumeffect 7

Understandyourpurpose 7

Haveafocus 7

Pre-reading 7

Understandingcomplextexts 8

effectivenote-taking 8

writingaliteraturereview 10

Purposesandfunctionsofaliteraturereview 10

Commonproblemsandpracticaltips 11

Locatingtheliterature 11

Selectingtheliteraturetoreview 11

Organisingtheinformation 12

Readingcritically 12

Beginningtowrite 13

Structuringyourreview 13

Constructinganargument 14

Anoteonacademichonestyandplagiarism 15

Howisaliteraturereviewjudged? 15

editingtiPSforgraduatewriterS 15

Structuralediting 15

Editingforclarityandaccuracyofcontent 16

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contents/MotivationandProcraStination 16

referenceSandreSourceS 18

Workscited 18

Resources 18

Web-searching 18

Readingandresearchstrategies 18

Referencing 19

Onlineresourcesforgraduates 19

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ManaginggraduateStudyCongratulationsonchoosingtostudyatgraduate(grad)level.Whetheryouarecomingintoyourgradstudyfromasuccessfulundergraduateprogramorfromtheworkplace,youwillalreadyhavedevelopedmanyeffectivelearningtechniquesaswellasresearchandwritingskills.Thesetechniquesandskillsstandyouingoodsteadforyourgradwork.However,youmayalsofindthatyournewstudyexperiencesaresomewhatdifferenttotheexperiencesyou’vehadbefore.Ifyouarecomingfromugradstudy,forexample,youwillnoticethatthequantityanddepthofworkyouarenowexpectedtoproduceissignificantlyhigherthanatundergraduatelevel.Thoseofyoucomingviatheworkforcemayfindthattherearedifferentdemandscomparedtoyourprofessionalexperiences.

Whetheryourgraddegreeisviaresearchorcoursework,thesheervolumeofthematerialyouwillbehandlingrequiresahighlevelofmanagementandorganisation.That’swherethisbookletcanhelp.Itoffersinformationandadvice,andpointsyouinthedirectionofotherresourcesregardingsuccessfulgraduatestudy.

RememberthatyoucanconsultadvisersattheASU(AcademicSkillsUnit)orGSA(UniversityofMelbourneGraduateStudentsAssociation)throughoutyourcandidatureorcourse,andthattheMelbourneSchoolofGraduateResearch(MSGR))providesmanyusefulresourcesandcourses.

1.thenatureofgraduateworkMostgraduatestudentsfindthatthenatureandvolumeoftheirworkismoredemandingthanpreviouslyexperienced.Thereisaneedtobemorecriticalandmoreanalytical.Youneedtobeabletodelveintotopicsindepth,todevelopandexpresscomplex,sustainedtheoriesandarguments.Theseexpectationsarebothchallengingandexciting;however,theprocesscanalsobeintimidatingattheoutset.

Toreallyimmerseyourselfinyourgradstudieswhilststillattendingtotherestofyourlife(family,work,socialandleisureactivitiesareallimportanttoo)youwillneedtocallon,andfurtherdevelop,allofyourprevioustimeandprojectmanagementexperience.

Assemestersarerelativelyshort,courseworkstudentshavetomastercoursecontentveryquickly.Researchstudentshavelongertoreadabouttheirtopic,butmustdevelopgreaterdepthofknowledgewhileworkingindependently.Forbothgroupsitisimportanttopreparearealistictimetableandgetgoingearly.Planningatimetableforcompletionoftaskshelpstodevelopgoodstudyroutinesandtakeadvantageofyourbeginning-of-degreeenthusiasm.

Starting out: what you need to do• Ensureyouhaveadedicated,comfortable,privateandergonomically-soundwork

place.Considerlighting,storage,internetaccessandequipmentneeds.Canyousitandworkatyourworkstationcomfortablyforseveralhours?

• Developabalancedworkweekwhichincludesleisureaswellasstudy,workandfamilycommitments.

• Establishlong,mediumandshort-termgoalstohelpkeepyouontrackandmonitoryourprogress.

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• Talkwithyourlecturers/supervisors:clarifyexpectationsofeachotheranddiscusswaysyoucanworktogethermosteffectively.

• Clarifytheadministrativetasksrequiredofyouasagraduatestudent–whatforms,reportsorpapersmustyoucomplete?

• KnowyourrightsandtheservicestowhichyouareentitledfromboththeUniversityandyourdepartment.

Gradworkcanbeisolating.Whetheryouarecompletingcourseworkoramajorresearchproject,plantoavoidthecommongraduatepitfalloffeelingdisconnectedandalone.

avoid iSolation: get involved in univerSity life• Gettogetherwithagroupofothergraduatestudentsforregularmeetingsto

shareideas,academicdiscussions,progressorproblems,ortopresentwork-in-progressinasupportiveenvironment.

• Finda‘thesisbuddy’–astudentworkingatasimilarstageinasimilardisciplinewhocanprovidestudysupportandcompanionship.

• Attenddepartmentalandgraduateseminarsorganisedbyyourdepartmentorschool.Consideralsoattendingseminarsrunbyotherdepartmentsandatothertertiaryinstitutions.

• ParticipateinconferencesandGSAandMSGRevents.• Volunteertoassistwithagraduatejournalortheactivitiesofaprofessional

association.• Joinindepartmentalandgraduatesocialevents.

2.tiMeManageMentandorganiSationStrategieSOneofthemostchallengingaspectsofgradstudyistheexpectationthatyouwillworkindependentlyandberesponsibleforyourownprogress.Todothissuccessfully,acombinationofdedicationandgoodworkpracticesisrequired.Inparticular,goodtimemanagementisessential.

See the big pictureDependingonwhichcourseyouarestudying,the‘bigpicture’willdiffer.TimemanagementissuesforMastersbycourseworkcandidatesdiffertothosewritingaminorthesis,anddifferagainforthosedoingaPhD.Theprocess,however,hassimilarities:

• Listalloftheitemsthatneedtobedone,inorderforyoutocompleteyourstudies.

• Determinetheorderthatthesewillneedtobeconductedin.• Allocatethelengthoftimetheymighttake(alwaysplantospendabouttwice

whatyouinitiallythinksoundsright!).

Forexample,a3-yearPhDtimelinemayinitiallylooklikethefollowingone.IfyouareundertakingaPhD,youcanfillinyourowndatesintherighthandcolumn.

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Timeintocandidature Progress/requirements Date

0months OfferofprobationaryPhDcandidature

AcceptandenrolatMelbourneSchoolofGraduateResearch

8months ConfirmationreportformsenttocandidatebyMSGR

9-11months Candidatesubmitsasubstantialreporttotheirsupervisor(s)andpresentsthisreportbeforetheirConfirmationCommittee

11-12months ConfirmationreportformsubmittedtoMSGRwithsignaturesofcandidate,supervisorandchairoftheConfirmationCommittee

12months Candidatureconfirmed

2years AnnualprogressreportcompletedandsubmittedtoMSGR

2yrs,9months 80wordsummarysubmittedtoMSGR;

NominationofexaminersbyHeadofDepartment

3years 3copiesofthesissubmittedtoMSGRintemporarybindingwith‘StatementofSupervisor’form

Thebasicoutlineisagoodstartingpoint,fromwhichyoucanstarttoaddmoredetail.Whateverformofhigherdegreeyouareundertaking,makeanearlyappointmentwithyoursupervisororcourseadviser.Discussthemajortasksthatneedtobeundertakenandtheestimatedtimeframesforthese.Whenwouldyoubeexpectedtohavecompletedyourbasicresearchand/orliteraturereview?Whenwouldyoubeexpectedtohaveafirstdraft?Howlongshouldyouallowforrevisionandediting?Thiscreatesaworkingtimetablethatidentifieswhenyouarerequiredtocompleteeachcomponentorsectionofwork.

organiSe a weekly timetableOnceyouhaveanoverallpictureofwhatyouneedtoachievebycertainstagesofyourcandidature,youcanworkoutwhatyouneedtogetdoneinagivensemester.Thenyouneedtodevelopaweeklyprogramtohelpyoucompletethenecessarytasks.

Whenpreparingaweeklytimetable,besuretoallowtimeforalluniversity,work,socialandhouseholdcommitments.Trytoscheduleyouracademicactivitiesatyourbestworkingtimes–areyouamorningperson,anafternoonperson,oranightowl?Ifyouusuallysufferamid-afternoonslumpinconcentration,forexample,itwouldn’tbeeffectivetowriteatthistimeofday.Perhapsusethistimetomeetfriendsortodohouseholdchores.

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Considertheconcentrationlevelsrequiredfordifferentacademicactivitieswhenyouareschedulingthem.Youreallydon’tneedtobeatyourbrightestwhenphotocopyingarticlesorcheckingreferences.However,readingarticlesorwritingafirstdraftrequirespeakconcentration.

Thegreatadvantageofusingadetailedtimetableisthatitallowsyoutoplanyourtimeuse,ratherthanlettingeventstakeyouoverorjustrespondingtocrisesastheyarise.Itkeepsyoufocusedonthetasksyouneedtocompletetoreachyourgoalsandenablesyoutomonitorandevaluateyourprogress.Bewarned,however.Atthebeginning,youarelikelytooverestimatewhatyoucangetdoneinagivenweek.Don’tthrowyourtimetableoutthewindowwhenthishappens.Instead,reviseyourplan–whatisrealisticforyoutogetdonethisweek?Wherecanyoumakemoretimeorusetimemoreefficiently?Recognise,too,thatcircumstancesanddemandsoftenchangeandthatagoodtimetableisflexible.

‘Publish’yourtimetablesuchthatit’svisibletothesignificantpeopleinyourlife(partner,children,supervisoretc)-thismayhelpotherstoidentifythebest(andworst)timestointerruptyou.

develop a liSt habitCreateadaily‘to-do’listoftasks–preferablythenightbefore.Thiswillavoidthegreattime-wasterofnotknowingwheretostart.Foryourlisttobeuseful,allitemsmustbespecific,measurableandabletobedonewithinareasonablyshorttimeframe.Forexample,‘Workonliteraturereview’istoobroad.Wherewouldyoustart?Howwouldyouknowwhenthetaskwas‘done’?Bycontrast,‘Readthreearticles’or‘Completesectiononmethodologydifferences’arespecificandfinite–youknowwheretostartandwhenyouwillbefinished.

adailyto-dolist–anexample:• FindHarringtonreferenceinlibrary–borroworphotocopy• Readandtakenoteson2NaffineandStagnettiarticles• Draftsectionforchapter4comparingThreadgold’sapproachwithTownsend’s• BuyanewUSBstick• EnterarticlesreadyesterdayontoEndNote• Ringdentist• Supermarketshopping

*Note:whenwritingthelist,ensurethatyou’vetakenintoaccounttheamountoftimeyouneedtocompleteeachofthetasksonyourlist.Isthisreallyoneday’swork?Then,basedonthetypeofwork,yourbestconcentrationtimesandothercommitments,planyourday.

Aswithweeklytimetables,beawarethatto-dolistsneedregularrevision.Ifyouarenotgettingthroughalltheitemsonyourlist,acknowledgethetasksyouhavecompleted,thenrestructuretheothertaskstomakethemmoremanageable.Somethingsmayhavetobecarriedovertothenextday;othertaskscanbepostponedorevendumped.Tickingitemsoffyourlistshouldhelpprovidemotivation,oratleastgiveyouconfidencethatyou’removingforward!

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3.effectivereadingForbothresearchandcourseworkstudents,readingtakesupasignificantamountoftimethroughoutyourcandidature.Theremaynotbetimetoreadandtakedetailednotesoneverythingandyouneedtothinkcarefullyaboutprioritising.Itisalsoimperativethatyoureadaseffectivelyaspossible.Thismaymeanbreakinghabitsthatduplicateworkandavoidinglengthyre-readingofmaterial.Herearesomepointerstohelpyoureadasefficientlyandeffectivelyaspossible.

reading for maximum effectBewareofthistrap:readingforhours,onlytofinallyraiseyourheadandthink‘wellthatwasinterestingbutIdon’tthinkIcanuseit’.Indiscriminatereadingcanwastedaysandevenweeksofyourcandidature,leavingyoufrustratedandnonethewiser.Thegoodnewsisthatyouwon’tfallintothistrapifyouunderstandyourpurposeforreading,haveafocuswhilereadinganddevelopgood‘pre-reading’habits.

understandyourpurposeAllreadingshouldbedoneforaspecificpurpose.Beforeyoustartreading,thinkaboutthis:Areyouscanningforparticularfactsorskimmingtoestablishanunderstandingoftheauthor’sgeneralargument?Areyouanalysingtheevidenceputforwardbyaparticularstudyordeconstructingtheassumptionsunderpinningacertainlineofargument?

Toreadefficiently,beawareofyourpurposeandtailoryourreadingandnote-takingtothetaskrequired.Ifyouarereadingforbackgroundorpreparingforatutorial,youcanreadmorequicklythanifyouwanttowriteabouttheauthor’sevidence.Skimmingtheintroduction,conclusionandopeningsentencesofeachparagraphmaybeenough–atleasttoestablishwhetherthistextisusefultoyouand,hence,justifiesmoredetailedattention.

Ofcourse,ifyouneedtowriteacriticalevaluationofthetext,youwillneedtoslowyourreadingpace,checkyourunderstandingregularlyandreadallexamplesanddetails.Inotherwords,yourpurposeshoulddeterminehowyoureadandyoushouldnotbereadingallmaterialinthesameway.

haveafocusYourreadingwillbemorefocusedifyouaskyourself:‘WhatdoIexpecttolearnfromthispassage/chapter/article?’Ifyouhavespecificquestionsinmindbeforeyoubegintoread,youaremorelikelytoactivelyengagewiththetextbylookingforanswersandmakingconnections.Yourtutorialandlectureguidesmayprovidequestionstoaskofyourreadings.Ifnot,theywillindicatethecriticalissuesonwhichtofocusandyoucandevelopyourownquestionsfromthese.

Pre-readingPre-readingisasetofactivitiesthatgivesyouanovervieworoutlineofthematerialinatextbeforeyoustarttoreadlinebyline.Thegreatbenefitofpre-readingisthatitimprovescomprehensionandunderstanding.Italsohelpsyoutoidentifywhichinformationisrelevanttoyourpurposeand,thus,requiresmoredetailedreading.

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Somestrategiestopre-readanarticle:• Notethetitleanddate–isthisarticlecurrent?• Lookatthestructure–howmanysectionsarethere?Howaretheyarranged?• Readtheabstract–notethearticle’saimsandtheauthor’smethodology.• Readtheintroductoryparagraph–howwillthearticleandtheargument

proceed?• Lookatmajorandminorheadings–whatisbeingprioritisedhere?• Lookatdiagrams,graphs,chartsandanyillustrations.• Readtheconclusion–arethefindingsrelevanttoyourtopicorlineofinquiry?• Readthefirstsentenceineachparagraph(oftenthetopicsentencecontaining

themainpointoftheparagraph).• Lookatthereferences–whatschoolofthoughtdoesthisauthorseemtobe

alignedwith?Whichauthoritiesdotheyappeartorelyon?

Topre-readabook,allthepointsabovewillapplyandyoucanalsomakeuseofthetableofcontentsandtheindex.

underStanding complex textSYoumayneedtoreadacomplextextmorethanonceifitisgoingtofeatureinyourwrittenwork.Takecarefulnoteseachtimetoensurethatyou’regettingmoreinformationoutofeachre-read(notjustre-readingbecauseyou’veforgottenwhatwasthere!).

Ifyouarehavingdifficultyunderstandingarequiredtextafterpreviewingthetextasdescribedabove,tryreadingtheeasiestsectionsfirst.Onceyouhaveasenseofwhattheyareaboutandhowthetextproceeds,gobacktothemoredifficultsectionsandreadslowly.Trytoidentifytheauthor’sargumentormainpointsparagraphbyparagraph.Thinkabouthowwhatyouhavereadfurtherstheargumentorrelatestothemainfocusofthetext.Distinguishbetweenthepointsbeingmadeandtheillustrations,examplesorevidenceputforwardtosupportthese.

Ifthetheoreticalperspectivesorkeyconceptsareunfamiliar,youmayfirstneedtoreadamorebasictextthatdealswiththesedirectly.Ifyouarestillunsure,consultyourtutor,supervisororothergraduatestudentsinthedepartment.

Inadditiontokeepingnotesontheinformationinthetext,jotdownthoughtsandresourcesthathelpedyoutounderstandthematerial.Thesemaybeimportantsteps/breakthroughsthatyouneedtodirectyourreadersto,onceyouwriteupyourownwork:forexample,“DiagraminSmithetal.wasreallyclear”or“NeededtounderstandbasicsofXbeforeYmadesense”.

4.effectivenote-takingTakingcopiousnotesthatyoudon’tendupusing,ortakingtoofewnotessothatyouhavetogobacktothelibraryandhuntdownthereferenceagain,canwastepreciousstudytime.Effectivenote-takingisaveryusefulskill,andonethatcanusuallybefurtherdevelopedbystudentsatalllevels.Atgraduatelevelparticularly,youarelikelytosinkinaseaofpaperandinformationunlessyouhaveefficientandreliablenote-takingstrategies.

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Someideasforusingyourcomputertostreamlineyournote-taking:• Typeyourreferencesup(forexample,inEndNote)attheendofeachstudysession.• Saveyourfavouritebibliographysearchestoavoidhavingtoretypethem.• Cutandpastereferencesandquotesfromemailorwebsearchesstraightinto

computerfiles.• Avoidretypinghandwrittennotesbytakingnotesdirectlyontothe

computer.EndNotehasspaceforthiswitheverylibraryentryandnotonlykeepseverythingorganisedbutenablesyoutoelectronicallysearchyournotes.

Aswithreading,beawarethatyourpurposeshoulddeterminethekindofnotesyoutake.Ifyouarereadingtextsinpreparationforatutorial,briefsummaries(2-3sentences)ofeachreferenceshouldbesufficient.Ifyouarereadingtoprepareforanessay,youneedtowritemoredetailednotesontherelevantsectionofthearticleorchapter.

Sometipstohelpyoutakeeffectivenotes–efficiently:• Keepapeninhandatalltimeswhenreading.• Keepallnotesonatextonthesamepage(s),clearlyheadedwiththeauthor,title

andpublicationdetails.• Afterpre-readingthetext,writeasentencesummarisingthetopicofthetextand

themainargument.• Notedownthequestionsyouwantthetexttoanswer–andwhetheritdoes!• Takenotesinyourownwords.Thisaidsconcentrationandisasteptowards

writinguplater.• Avoidhighlightingandunderlininginsteadoftakingnotes(assumesyouwillre-

read).Supplementhighlightingorunderliningwithyourownnotes,commentsandquestionsinthemarginofaphotocopy.

• Donotrewritenotestomakethemneater(dosomethingactivewiththematerialinstead–summariseorparaphraseit,forexample).

• Paraphraseandsummariseratherthancopyoutlongquotations.• Makenotesofyourresponsesandcriticismsasyouread–thiswillhelpgenerate

argumentslater.• Ifyouthinksomethingmaybeusefullater,makeanoteofitnowandanoteof

whatyouthoughtyoumightdowithit.• Bemeticulousincopyingquotesyouwanttouseandbesureyoucan

differentiatebetweenquotes,paraphrasedorsummarisedsections,andyourowncommentsorideas.

• Keeptrackofyourreferencesasyougoandensureallnotespagesareclearlylabelled.

Rememberthatyourassessmenttasksexamineyourabilitytoanalyseandcontributetotheliteratureinyourfield.Yourresultsdependonyourabilitytoreview,comment,critiqueandargue(ratherthanyourabilitytosummariseorreproducefacts).Ifyournote-takingstrategiesarefocusedonthesecriticalskills,itismucheasiertoturnyournotesintothekindofwritingexpectedatgraduatelevel.

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5.writingaliteraturereviewClearandeffectivenotesinyourownwords,andjottingsofyourowncriticalideas,areasteptowardsafirstdraftofanyessay,assignment,chapterorreport.Whenyouarereadytostartwriting,yournotesshouldideallyformthebasisofyourfirstdraft.

Thenextstepistotranslateyourreadingandanalysesintoanacademicdiscussion.Remember,yourworkhasnosignificanceuntilitissuccessfullycommunicatedtoothers.Aswellasaconfidentgraspofthesubjectmaterial,tocommunicatesuccessfullyyouneedtheabilitytoexpressyourselfinwritten,academicEnglish.Youalsoneedanunderstandingofthecommonelementsoftheacademicgenreinwhichyouareexpectedtowrite(forexample,report,exegesis,essay,thesis,discussionpaper,synopsisandsoon.)

Commonly,oneofthefirstpiecesofwritingyouarerequiredtoproduceaspartofyourgraduateresearchisaliteraturereview.Aliteraturereviewisacriticaldiscussionandassessmentoftheexistingmaterialsdealingwithresearchandknowledgeinagivenfield.Whilethelengthandcomplexityofaliteraturereviewvariesdependingonthecontextandscopeofyourresearch,literaturereviewshavecommonpurposes,featuresandfunctions.Understandingthesemakestheprocessofwritingaliteraturereviewmucheasier.

purpoSeS and functionS of a literature reviewTheaimofacriticalreviewistodemonstratethatthewriterhasextensivelyresearchedtheliteratureandcriticallyevaluateditsquality.Thisisanessentialstepinlargerresearchprojectsforanumberofreasons.

theliteraturereview…• setsupthetheoreticalframeworkforandcontextualisesyourownresearch• helpsyoutomakeuseofandextendothers’workand,mostimportantly,avoid

theirmistakes• helpsyoufindyourown‘researchspace’,ensuringyouruniquecontributionand

limitingunnecessaryduplication• demonstratesyourunderstandingofkeyconcepts,studiesandquestions.

Awell-writtenliteraturereviewgainsandfocusesyourreader’sattentionontheissuesorquestionsyouwanttoinvestigate.Considerhoweffectivelythefollowingopeningtoaliteraturereviewachievesthis:

Of the many who have looked at the relationship between age and performance in universities none has as yet produced a definite answer to the apparently simple question ‘Do mature age students do better or worse than younger students?’ (Woodly1985asquotedinBell1999,p.93).

Anyonewhoreadsthissentenceistemptedtoreadon:Whatistherelationshipbetweenageandperformanceinuniversities?Whyhaven’tpreviousresearchersbeenabletoanswerthisquestion?Doesthecurrentresearchsupplythemissing‘definitiveanswer’?

Aliteraturereviewshouldhelpthereaderinvolvethemselveswithyourresearchproblembyexplainingnotonlythetopicofyourinvestigationbutalsowhathasbeendonebeforeandthecontributionyourownprojectmakes.Inshort,itprovidesreasonsandaframeworkforreadingthesubsequentdataanddiscussion.

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Toachievethis,itisnotenoughtodescribewhatothershavediscovered.Youneedtoviewtheirworkwithyourowninsight.Aneffectivereviewpresents,analysesandsynthesisesmaterialfromarangeofsources.Itthenconcludeswithaworkinghypothesis–atentativeexplanationthatyouwillgoontoexploreandtest–notananswer.

common problemS and practical tipSTowritealiteraturereviewyouneedtofind,andread,awiderangeofliteratureaboutthetopic.Begintakingnotesassoonasyoubeginreadingaboutyourtopicarea–noteanythoughtsorideasthatmighthelpindevelopingabroadplanandtheirappropriatenesstodifferentsectionsofthereview.Herearesometipsonlocatingandselectingliterature,keepingtrackofreferencesandreadingcritically.

locatingtheliteratureThefirststeptowardswritingagoodliteraturereviewisacomprehensiveliteraturesearch.Accessawiderangeoftheavailableliteratureinyourarea.Rememberthattheageofmaterialisimportant.Generallyreferencesshouldbeup-to-dateresearch.Startwiththeseminalreferenceeveryoneelsequotes,andusebibliographiesandreferencelistsfromthisandothermajortextstodirectyoutomoresources.

Methodsoflocatingliteratureinclude:librarycatalogues(bothonandoffcampus),relevantCD-ROMdatabases,onlinelibrarysearches,librarylinksonthewebandotherWWWresources.Librariansareawonderfulsourceofassistanceandawealthofinformationwhenstartingyourresearch.Signupforaninformationsessiononsearchingcurrentlibraryinformationsystemsifyouarereturningtostudyafterabreak.

SelectingtheliteraturetoreviewWhenyoustartaliteraturereview,it’snormaltobeoverwhelmedbythesheervolumeofmaterialonanygiventopic.Aswellasreadingactively,youwillneedtobediscriminatinginyourreading.Agoodplacetostartiswithotherpeople’sreviewsofthefield:Whichauthorsareprolific?Arethererecurringthemesandissues?Whatisthemostrecentand/ormajorstudyonyourtopic?

Don’tbeconcernedthatyourfieldhasbeenreviewedbefore.Thedifferentfocus,methodsandquestionsguidingyourresearchnecessitateadifferentfocusforyourreview–howeverslight.Organiseorconceptualisethefielddifferentlyandyourevaluationofthemeritandimportanceofthevariousstudiesandauthorswillbedistinct.

Trytosetareasonablelimitonthenumberofreferencesyouconsultandincorporateinyourreview.Thebestwaytodothisistoreadsomesuccessfulreports,assignmentsordissertationsproducedbyothergraduatestudentswithinyourdepartmentinrecentyears.Havealookatyoursupervisor’sthesisandotherresearchpapers,reportsorbooksthatyouthink,orareadvised,providegoodmodelstoimitate.Howlongistheirliteraturereview?Howmanyreferencesarecited?Howmanyareanalysedindetail?

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organisingtheinformationYouwillneedanorganisedsystemforkeepingtrackofyourreferences.Methodsinclude:

• EndNoteorsimilarreferencingsoftware.FormoreinformationonEndNote,checkthelibrarywebsitehttp://www.lib.unimelb.edu.au/endnote

• Acomputerapplicationsuchasanelectroniccardfile,spread-sheetordatabaseprogram

• Apaper-basedfileofbibliographicinformation,withcross-referencing

Whenyoufindanarticle,putthepublicationdetailsstraightintoyourreferencingsystemlistingthematerialbyauthor,source,contentarea,callnumberand/orwebsite.Ifyouphotocopiedthematerial,notethesource,authorandlibrarycallnumberonthecopy.

readingcriticallyTopresentacriticalreviewoftheliteratureyoumustthoroughlyevaluatethematerial,askquestionsandsiftthroughinformation.Todothis,youmustreadbothcriticallyandactively,andkeepyourpurposeforreadinginmind.Previewingandskimreading(asdiscussedabove)helpfocusyourthoughtsandidentifykeyissuesorarguments.Keepquestioningasyoureadandkeepthemainfocusofyourreview–andyourresearch–inmind.

Thefollowingquestionshelpyoureadthematerialinanactivemannerandsharpenyouranalyticalskills.

the author Whowrotetheinformationandwhereandwhenwasthisworkpublished? Istheauthorarecognisedexpert?the purpose Whyandforwhomwastheinformationwritten? Whatwastheauthortryingtodiscoverandwhyisthisinformationorresearch

important?the approach Whatisthetheoreticalperspectiveoftheauthoranddoesitdifferfromcurrentbelief

aboutthetopicarea? Whatissue,paradigmorphilosophyinfluencedthewriter’sperspectiveandhowdo

theydeveloptheirideas? Areunderlyingassumptionsand/orknowledgeexplicitlystated? Isthereanybiasorinconsistencyininformationpresented?the content Whatisthecontrollingfocusinthematerial? Doesthisauthorfocusonbreadthordepthofinformation? Issupportinginformationwellresearchedandaccurate,anddoesitsupportorlinkto

thediscussion? Whataspectsareincludedoromitted,bothfromliteratureexaminationsandresearch

projects? Canyouacceptthefindingsastrue?

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Arefindings,discussionsandconclusionslogical? Howdoesthisperspectiveortheresultsdifferfromothers? Howdothesefindingsapplytoyourownwork?the structure Doestheintroductionindicateaims,thesisandmainpointsofinformation? Istheframeworkusedtoorganisethematerialclearlyexplainedandlogical? Istheargumentorfocusbalancedanddoesthecontentlinkwell?Style and format Isthepresentationstylesimple,complex,narrative,analytical,persuasive,ordidactic? Howdoesthisstyleinfluencethereader’sresponsetothematerial?

Thesequestionsarenotexhaustivebuttheywillformthebasisofacriticalreview.Askingthemasyoureadwilltendtoslowyourreadingprocessdownbecauseyouwillbethinkingasyougo.However,doingyouranalyticalworkearlymakestheprocessofwritingacriticalreviewmucheasier.Ifyoutakecomprehensivenotesinyourownwordsasyoureadandthink,youhavedonethereallyhardworkbeforeyoustarttowrite.

beginning to writeOneofthemostdifficultthingsaboutaliteraturereviewistoknowwhentostopreadingandstartwriting.Ingeneral,youshouldbeginwritingassoonasyouhaveabasicunderstandingofyourtopicarea.Thisnotonlyensuresthatthetaskofwritingisnotendlesslydeferred,butalsothatearlyattemptstomapoutthefieldcanhelpidentifytheneedforfurtherreading.

Periodicallyreviewyourdraftandaddcomments,questionsandideas.Trytomakeconnectionsandcomparisonsbetweendifferentarticles,authorsandstudies,particularlyifyourreadinghasbeenspreadoutoveralongperiodoftime.Rememberalwaysthatyourreviewmustbeacriticalanalysis,notacatalogue.Itshouldbewritteninacademicprosethatisclear,concise,unambiguous,objectiveandaccurate.Itshouldnotbepompousordifficulttoread.

graduatewritingrequires…• researchthatiscomprehensiveandthorough• argumentationthatusestheliteraturetosupportdiscussion,considersall

aspectsofthetopicorproblem,anddemonstratesevidenceofcriticalanalysisofavailableinformation

• structureandpresentationthatconformstoanominatedacademicstyle• writingthatisclear,unambiguous,accurate,objectiveandconcise.

StructuringyourreviewToensurethatyourliteraturereviewisacoherentpieceofwork,youneedaplanandanoverallstructure.Someofthisplanningworkcanhappenasyouread,butyoumayalsoneedtobrainstormaplanforthereviewasawhole.Theconceptsmustbepresentedinanorderthatmakessensewithcleardivisionsinthesetsofideastobediscussed.

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Therearemanydifferentwaystoorganiseinformationinaliteraturereview,forexample:

• Chronologically• Bytheoreticalperspective• Inorderofimportance• Bymethodologicaltype• Underissues-basedheadings• Byproceduralapproach

Theoneorganisationalstructuretoavoidatallcostsistopresentmaterialfromoneauthor,followedbyinformationfromanother,thenanother.Forexample,Brown(1995)foundthis,Smith(1997)foundthat,Jones(2000)foundtheother,andGreen,SandersandJackson(1999)foundsomethingelse.Thisreadsmoreasalistratherthanadiscussionofthesimilarities,differences,strengthsandsoon.

Makingdecisionsaboutthewayinwhichyougroupauthorsandlinkideaswillhelpyoutoavoidthisproblem.Attempttosynthesisethematerialinawaythatallowsyounotonlytoreportwhathasbeenalreadywrittenbutalsotocompareandcontrast,tocriticallyreviewandtocommentontherelativemeritsofthepresentedliterature.Thechecklistbelowisnotexhaustivebutprovidesagoodstartingpoint.

yourreviewshouldestablish:• theconclusionsreachedinimportantearlierresearch,bywhomandwhen• iftheseconclusionsareinagreementorconflictwitheachother• themainissuesorcontroversiesthatsurroundtheproblemyouare

researching• themeritsandlimitationsofearlierstudies,theoriesand/ormethodologies• significantgapsinpreviousresearchandnewpossibilities• howpreviousresearchinformsyourunderstandingandinvestigationofthetopic.

constructinganargumentTowriteacohesiveliteraturereview,youneedtopresentaclearlineofargument.Thatmeanstakingallthosecriticalcommentsyoumadeinyournoteswhenreading,andusingthemtoexpressanacademicopinionorconsideredpositiononthestateofknowledgeinthefield.Factsandtheoryintheliteraturemustsupportyourposition.Examples,referencesandquotationsshouldbeusedwhereappropriate.

Eachsectionofthereviewneedstobeclearlyconnectedandlogicallyordered.Theoutlinestatementintheintroductionshouldmaketheorderoftheargumentsclear,asinthefollowingexample:

The aim of this paper was to review the literature on parent-therapist collaboration, and to provide suggestions for occupational therapists to use when working with parents in clinical practice. Historical and current perspectives in working with parents and families are presented, followed by discussion of some of the main issues identified in the literature and their implications for occupational therapy practice. Finally, areas requiring further study are identified. (HannaandRodger2002,p.14)

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anoteonacademichonestyandplagiarismPlagiarismoccurswhenyouparaphraseordirectlyquoteideas,factsorargumentswithoutappropriatecitation.Anythingyougetfromareference,evenifyouwriteitinyourownwords,needstohaveacitationorfootnote.

Becausealiteraturereviewisbasedontheworkofotherauthors,youmustbeverycarefultoseparateanauthor’sideasfromyourown.Theexaminerunderstandsthatinformationthatisnotreferencedisyouridea.Organisationandscrupulousnote-takingandcitationarethebestwaystoensurethatyourworkiscorrectlyreferenced.

how iS a literature review judged?Thefollowingquestionsaregenerallyconsideredintheevaluationofaliteraturereview:

Structure • Isthereviewclearlyintroducedandconcluded?• Doesthecontentflowlogically?• Isthematerialorganisedappropriately?• Doesitconformtoacademicwritingrequirements?

Selection of the material• Isallrelevantinformationincluded?• Istheliteraturefromarangeofsources?

Referencing• Areallbibliographicdetails(bothin-textandreferencelist)accurate,completeand

consistentlydocumented?

Critical evaluation of the literature• Hastheliteraturebeenpresentedandevaluatedclearlyandobjectively?• Doestheamountofdetailincludedonanissuerelatetoitsimportance?• Istheresufficientevaluationofdesignandmethodologicalissues?• Areauthors’conflictingandcomplementaryideaspresentedanddiscussed?

Interpretation • Hasthisdiscussionofthecurrentliteraturecontributedtothereader’sunderstanding?• Doconclusionspresentanoutcomeofthereview?

6.editingtiPSforgraduatewriterSCarefuleditingcanimprovethequalityofyourwritingsignificantly.Forbestresults,edityourworkacoupleoftimeswithaparticularpurposeinmindeachtime.

Structural editingThedevelopmentofaninitialplanhelpstoensureyouhavealogicalandcoherentframeworkforpresentingyourideas.Thisoverallplanmaychangeasyoureadandunderstandmoreaboutyourtopicandreceivefeedbackfromyoursupervisor.Youmaychoosetomovedifferentsectionsaroundorevendeleteirrelevantparts.Thisensurestheoverallstructuresupportsyourthesisandyourideaspresentinasequentialandclear

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manner.Whileitremainsflexible,theplanisthescaffoldingforyourmaterial–ifthestructureisnotsound,itisdifficulttoholdtheideastogetheranddevelopalogicalargument.

Wheneditingforstructure,trytoidentifythetopicandcontributionofeachparagraphinaparticularsectionofyourwork.

Questionstoaskyourself:• Doestheparagraphhaveapoint?• Isthemainideaclearlyexpressed?• Doesitcontributetothetopicofthesection?• Isitintherightplace/order?• Doesitlinkwiththeprecedingandfollowingparagraphs?• Arethereanygapsinthelogicorevidence?• Arethepointssufficientlysupportedbyexamplesandillustrations?• Isitjustrepeatingwhatotherparagraphsinthesectionalreadysay?

editing for clarity and accuracy of contentAfteryourstructuraledit,readyourworkagain–thistimelookingateachsentenceandreflectingonitsaccuracy,clarityandgrammaticalcorrectness.

checkthefollowingpoints:• Arestatementsbasedonevidence,notunsupportedopinionsorassumptions?• Ispunctuationcorrect?Canthesentencebemisinterpreted?• Arethesentencestoolongortoocomplicated?• Arethereanyclichés,colloquialismsorvague-soundingwords?• Arealltechnicaltermsusedaccurately?• Arequotationsexact?

Rememberthatyoucanusuallyenhancetheclarityandimpactofwritingbyplacingthemainideaatthebeginningofthesentence.Writingalsosoundsmoreprofessionalandcredibleifunnecessarywordsareomitted.Yourjobistomakethereader’sjobaseasyaspossible.Avoiddoublenegatives,wordsthatoverlapinmeaningandphrasingsthatcanbereadindifferentways.

7.MotivationandProcraStinationNomatterhowwellintentionedyouareatthebeginningofyourcourse,atsomestage,completingworkonyourwritingoryourresearchbecomesextremelydifficult.Working,ofteninisolation, isdifficultandifmotivationisflagging,itbecomeseasiertobeinterruptedbyanythingandeverythingthatmighttakeyouawayfromyouracademicwork.Lackofmotivationandprocrastination–puttingtasksoff–areofteninterrelated.

Manygraduatestudentshavedifficultyatsometimeduringtheirstudieskeepingmotivatedabouttheirwork.Sometimesthisisduetoboredomwiththetaskortopicorthewholesubject,orevenwiththechosencourse.Perhapsthedesireforknowledgehasdiminishedortheenergytowriteupyourfindingsislackingonceyouhavefoundoutwhatyouwantedtoknow.

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Alternatively,discoveringawiderangeofinterestsapartfromstudy,needingtotakeonmorepaidworktosurvive,orexperiencingpersonalproblemscanalsomakeitdifficulttomaintainmotivation.Ofcourse,therearenoeasyanswerstotheseissues–theymayneedattentionfromqualifiedprofessionals.Sometimes,however,lackofmotivationforstudyisakindofsophisticatedprocrastinationproblem.

Thefollowingareourtoptenpracticalsuggestionsforovercomingtheinabilitytobeginortoperseverewithyourthesisorcoursework.

1. Getintothehabitofwritingdownyourideaswhenyouhavethem,andfollowupyourideasquickly.Ifyoutrytogetsomemomentumgoingwhileyouarefeelingfreshandenthusiastic,youwillbelesslikelytoputthingsoffcontinually.

2. RemembertoDIN(DoItNow).Thetaskwilltakethesameamountoftimewheneveryoudoitandifyoudoitstraightaway,yourelievetheburdenonyourmemory.

3. Remindyourselfthatfeelingguiltyisawasteofenergy.Bedecisiveabouthowyouuseyourtime.Eitherdecideyoureallydeserveabreak,orputinanhourofworkbeforeyougotodosomethingmoreexciting.

4. Setsmallgoals–youaremorelikelytoachievethem.Identifyspecifictasksthatneedtobeaccomplished,andbreakthesetasksdownintothingsthatcanbecompletedin30to60minutes.Thatway,youcancrossitemsoffastheyaredone,andthishelpsyoutofeelthatyouaremakingprogress.

5. Developthelisthabit.Useyourdiary,putawhiteboardinyourroom,butkeepdaily‘to-do’lists.(Ifyoufindyourselfnotgettingthroughthetasks,shortenthelist.)

6. Thinkaboutthetimeofdaywhenyouaremostproductiveandscheduleyourmoredemandingacademicworkattimesthatcoincidewithyourmoreproductivethinkinghours.

7. Considerwhereyouworkbest.Manypeoplefindworkingoncampushasfewerdistractionsthanathome.Ifyoufindtheatmosphereoncampusisagoodinfluenceonyou,thentrytodomostofyourworkthere.

8. Gethelpfromotherpeople.Letyourhousematesorfamilyknowwhenyourstudytimesare,andaskthemnottodisturbyou,ortellthemhowtheycanhelp.Meetwithotherstudentstoshareexperiences,discussideasortosharefrustrations.Talkwithyoursupervisorandgethis/herhelp,ideasandsupport.

9. Spoilyourselfwithrewards:amovieafteryouhavesubmittedadraft,achocolatebaraftereachsuccessfulinterview/experiment/datacollection,orcheckingthemailafteranhourofreadingorwriting.Learntocongratulateyourselfonwhatyouhavedone,ratherthanchastiseyourselfforwhatyou’veneglectedornotcompleted.

10. Mixyouractivitiessothatyoudon’tspendmorethan30to60minutesontheonetask—youcancompletemanynearly-finishedtasksinthatway.Mixinsomereallyinterestingactivities(evenunrelatedoneslikereadinganovelorusingFacebook)alongwiththeshortsessionsofboringmaterial.

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Lackofmotivationcanfollowillnessorbetheresultofphysicalweakness,soit’sagoodideatopayattentiontoyourhealthandfitness.

Anotheraspectofyourlifethatmayneedattentionisyourfriendships:sometimesatoo-intentfocusonstudymayhaveisolatedyoufromyourfriends,andwhenlackofmotivationhits,youmayhavefewpeoplewithwhomtoshareyourfeelings.

Whateveryoudo,don’tforgetthatlifestillhappens.Getoutintotherealworldforalittlewhile,seesomefriends,getthingsinperspective,andremindyourselfofyourlong-termgoals.Therewerereasonswhyyoudecidedtodothisdegree–rememberthem?

8.referenceSandreSourceSworkS citedBell,J.(1999).Doing Your Research Project.Buckingham:OpenUniversityPress.

HannaK.andRodger,S.(2002).‘Towardsfamily-centredpracticeinpaediatricoccupationaltherapy:Areviewoftheliteratureonparent-therapistcollaboration’ Australian Occupational Therapy Journal49:14-24.

reSourceSTheAcademicSkillsUnitatTheUniversityofMelbourneprovidesarangeoffreepamphletsontheirwebsite:www.services.unimelb.edu.au/asu/

web-searchingInformationonInternetSearchinghttp://www.lib.unimelb.edu.au/elib/www.html

OnlineCourseforResearchSkillshttp://library.curtin.edu.au/study-and-research-tools/online-tutorials/infotrekk/

ListofUsefulAcademicSearchEngineshttp://www.academicinfo.net/refengines.html

Databases,websitesandotheronlineresourcesbysubjecthttp://library.curtin.edu.au/subjectguides/index.phphttp://unimelb.libguides.com/index.php

ListofEmailNewslettersandDiscussionListshttp://tile.net/lists

EvaluatingSourceshttp://libguides.jcu.edu.au/evaluating/http://library.curtin.edu.au/study-and-research-tools/online-tutorials/infotrekk/trek8.cfm

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readingandresearchStrategiesReadingStrategies:usingtheSQ3RMethod

http://www.ucc.vt.edu/lynch/TextbookReading.htm

ReadingStrategies

http://www.studygs.net/crtread.htm

Note-TakingSystems

http://www.sas.calpoly.edu/asc/ssl/notetaking.systems.html

ConductingaLiteratureReview

http://unimelb.libguides.com/lit_reviews

ProofreadingYourWork

http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/proong.html

referencingCitationStyleswithintheUniversity

http://www.lib.unimelb.edu.au/cite/index.html

GuidetoCitationStyles(APA,MLA)

http://www.murdoch.edu.au/dirs/citegdes.html

CitingandReferencing

http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/tutorials/citing/

DocumentingElectronicResources

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/584/02/

onlineresourcesforgraduatesMelbourneSchoolofGraduateResearch

http://www.gradresearch.unimelb.edu.au/

UniversityofMelbourneGraduateStudentAssociation(GSA)

http://www.gsa.unimelb.edu.au/

PhD:FirstThoughtstoFinishedWriting

http://www.uq.edu.au/student-services/phdwriting/

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noteS

AcAdemic skills unit

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Managing Graduate Study