BR-200

more than thirty years of pioneering space activity

ESAACHIEVEMENTSESAACHIEVEMENTS

ESA ACHIEVEM

EN

TS

BR-200

r

BR-200

November 2001

more than thirty years of pioneering space activity

ESAACHIEVEMENTSESAACHIEVEMENTS

Andrew Wilson

2

BR-200 “ESA Achievements (2nd edition)”

ISBN 92-9092-782-8 ISSN 0250-1589

Compiled/ Andrew Wilson,written by: ESA Publications Division

Published by: ESA Publications Division,ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands

Design by: Leigh Edwards &Andrew Wilson

Price: €30 / 70 Dutch Guilders

© European Space Agency 2001

3

Foreword 4

Introduction 8

Europa 30

ESRO-2 34

ESRO-1 36

HEOS 39

TD-1 42

ESRO-4 44

Cos-B 46

Geos 50

OTS 54

ISEE-2 58

Meteosat 60

IUE 64

Ariane-1/2/3/4 68

Marecs 74

Sirio-2 78

Exosat 80

ECS 84

Spacelab 88

Giotto 94

Olympus 100

Hipparcos 104

FOC/HST 108

Ulysses 112

ERS 120

Eureca 126

ISO 130

Soho 134

Ariane-5 138

Cluster 144

Huygens 150

TeamSat 156

ARD 158

XMM-Newton 162

Artemis 166

Coming Launches

Proba 170

Envisat 174

MSG 180

Integral 184

SMART-1 188

Rosetta 192

Sloshsat 200

X-38/CRV 202

Mars Express 208

CryoSat 216

ATV 218

Columbus 222

Galileo 230

ERA 234

GOCE 236

Vega 240

Metop 244

SMOS 248

Planck 250

Herschel 254

ADM-Aeolus 258

BepiColombo 260

NGST 264

LISA/SMART-2 266

GAIA 270

Solar Orbiter 274

Darwin 278

Acronyms & 280

Abbreviations

Contents

It is a privilege to be part of an organisation with such a rich heritage and exciting

potential as the European Space Agency (ESA). The Agency is at a turning point in

its history, so it is an appropriate moment to document and reflect on the many

successes of the past and those still underway, while preparing to head in

new directions for the future.

The remarkable record stretches from humble beginnings in the

1960s to ESA’s leading position today among the front rank of

space organisations, generating enormous benefits for its Member

States and their citizens. The Agency has been responsible for

developing systems that are now accepted as everyday – and

profitable – parts of our lives, leading to the creation of new

entities and companies responding to our needs.

The Ariane rocket alone has provided an impressive return

on investment. It has long dominated the world’s

commercial launch market, operated by the Arianespace

company. The new heavy-lift Ariane-5 is already building

a significant reputation as the latest addition to the

Ariane family. The Meteosat weather satellite system

developed by ESA similarly led to the creation of

Eumetsat. The ECS communications satellites led to

Eutelsat, and the Marecs maritime satellites were vitally

important to Inmarsat. These are all now enterprises of

global importance. Likewise, ESA’s science programme is

second-to-none, and our Earth-observation satellites

continue to return torrents of data. Our expertise is such

that we are welcomed as one of only five major Partners in

the International Space Station. These missions are all

included in this volume. Individual entries cover past,

current and approved future missions beyond this decade.

Despite this record, the Agency cannot afford to stand still. In

1999, European Ministers called on ESA and the European

Commission to elaborate a coherent European Strategy for Space.

In November 2000, the Councils of ESA and the European Union

adopted resolutions constituting a common framework within which all

European players involved in space activities will develop their respective

plans of action. Through these resolutions, European space policy took the

first step into a new phase in which space systems become an integral part of

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Foreword

5

the overall political and economic efforts of European states – whether members

of ESA or the EU – to promote the interests of European citizens.

The European Strategy for Space identifies three lines of action:

• strengthening the foundations for space activities,

• enhancing scientific knowledge,

• reaping the benefits for society and markets.

The first line encompasses broadening space technology and guaranteeing

access to space through a family of launch vehicles. The second sees Europe

continuing to pursue cutting-edge themes of space science and space

contributions to the understanding of our planet’s climate. It includes human

spaceflight and optimisation of the use of the International Space Station as an

infrastructure for European research in all disciplines of space science. ‘Aurora’

is Europe’s proposed long-term plan for the robotic and human exploration of

the Solar System. The third line of action has the objectives of seizing market

opportunities and meeting the new demands of our society. It bears on satellite

communications and the information technology sector, satellite navigation and

positioning (Galileo), and global monitoring for environment and security

(GMES). This is where close cooperation between ESA and the EC will be most

instrumental in putting space systems at the service of European policies

responding to citizen’s expectations.

The European Strategy for Space also covers industrial aspects and pays specific

attention to small and medium-size enterprises. Public/private partnerships are

seen as a model for committing the public sector along with the complete

industrial chain to an operational project.

In addition to being a partner in setting up joint programmes responding to

political initiatives of the European Union, ESA will act as the implementing

organisation for the development and procurement of the space and ground

segments associated with such initiatives. ESA is preparing programme

proposals on the basis of this strategy and will submit them to the ESA

Ministerial meeting scheduled for November 2001.

With these new directions, we can be hopeful that the Agency has an equally

productive future and a crucial role in the success of Europe.

Antonio Rodotà

Director-General, European Space Agency

Launch date Mission

Europa-I F1 5 Jun 1964 Launcher: test of stage-1ESRO-2A* 29 May 1967 Science: cosmic rays, solar X-rays

ESRO-2B 17 May 1968 Science: cosmic rays, solar X-raysESRO-1A 3 Oct 1968 Science: Earth auroral and polar-cap phenomena, ionosphere

Europa-I F7* 30 Nov 1968 Launcher: first orbital attemptHEOS-1 5 Dec 1968 Science: interplanetary medium, bow shock

ESRO-1B 1 Oct 1969 Science: as ESRO-1AEuropa-II F11* 5 Nov 1971 Launcher: orbital demonstration

HEOS-2 31 Jan 1972 Science: Earth polar magnetosphere, interplanetary mediumTD-1 12 Mar 1972 Science: UV, X-ray and gamma-ray astronomy

ESRO-4 26 Nov 1972 Science: Earth neutral atmosphere, ionsphere, auroral particles

Cos-B 9 Aug 1975 Science: gamma-ray astronomyGeos-1 20 Apr 1977 Science: dynamics of Earth magnetosphereOTS-1* 14 Sep 1977 Telecommunications: demonstrate European technologiesISEE-2 22 Oct 1977 Science: Sun/Earth relations and magnetosphereMeteosat-1 23 Nov 1977 Meteorology: pre-operational meteorological servicesIUE 26 Jan 1978 Science: ultraviolet astronomyOTS-2 12 May 1978 Telecommunications: demonstrated European technologiesGeos-2 24 July 1978 Science: Earth magnetospheric fields, waves and particlesAriane-1 24 Dec 1979 Commercial launcher: first of 11 Ariane-1 launches

Meteosat-2 19 Jun 1981 Meteorology: pre-operational meteorological servicesMarecs-A 20 Dec 1981 Telecommunications: maritime communicationsMarecs-B* 10 Sep 1982 Telecommunications: maritime communicationsSirio-2* 10 Sep 1982 Meteorological data distribution & clock synchronisation Exosat 26 May 1983 Science: X-ray astronomyECS-1 16 Jun 1983 Telecommunications: operational European

Communications SatelliteSpacelab-1 28 Nov 1983 First of 22 manned Spacelab missions, plus

multi-disciplinary First Spacelab Payload (FSLP)Ariane-2/3 4 Aug 1984 Commercial launcher: first of 17 Ariane-2/3 launchesECS-2 4 Aug 1984 Telecommunications: operational European

Communications SatelliteMarecs-B2 10 Nov 1984 Telecommunications: maritime communications

Giotto 2 Jul 1985 Science: Comet Halley and Comet Grigg Skjellerup encounters

ECS-3* 12 Sep 1985 Telecommunications: operational European Communications Satellite

ECS-4 16 Sep 1987 Telecommunications: operational European Communications Satellite

Ariane-4 15 Jun 1988 Commercial launcher: first of 84 Ariane-4 launches (by end-1998; in service)

Meteosat-3 15 Jun 1988 Meteorology: pre-operational meteorological servicesECS-5 21 Jul 1988 Telecommunications: operational European

Communications SatelliteMeteosat-4 6 Mar 1989 Meteorology: operational meteorological servicesOlympus 12 Jul 1989 Telecommunications: technology demonstrationHipparcos 8 Aug 1989 Science: astrometryHST/FOC 24 Apr 1990 Science: astronomy (Hubble Space Telescope/Faint

Object Camera)

Ulysses 6 Oct 1990 Science: probing heliosphere above/below ecliptic up to solar poles

Meteosat-5 2 Mar 1991 Meteorology: operational meteorological servicesERS-1 17 Jul 1991 Earth observation: pre-operational radar

Eureca 31 Jul 1992 Science: multi-disciplinary, reusable platformMeteosat-6 20 Nov 1993 Meteorology: operational meteorological services

ERS-2 21 Apr 1995 Earth observation: pre-operational radarISO 17 Nov 1995 Science: infrared astronomy

Soho 2 Dec 1995 Science: Sun, from core to beyond Earth orbitAriane-5* 4 Jun 1996 Commercial launcher: new generation of heavy launchers

Cluster* 4 Jun 1996 Science: space plasma physics in 3D (FM1-FM4; launch failure)

Meteosat-7 2 Sep 1997 Meteorology: operational meteorological servicesHuygens 15 Oct 1997 Science: Titan atmosphere/surface probe

TeamSat 30 Oct 1997 Science/technology: experiments on Ariane-502 demonstration launch

ARD 21 Oct 1998 Technology: demonstration of Earth-return technologiesXMM-Newton 10 Dec 1999 Science: X-ray astronomy

Cluster 16 Jul 2000 Science: space plasma physics in 3D (first pair: FM6 & FM7)Cluster 9 Aug 2000 Science: space plasma physics in 3D (second pair: FM5 & FM8)

Artemis 12 Jul 2001 Telecommunications: demonstration

*launch failure Only the debut launches of Ariane-1/2/3/4/5, Europa and Spacelab are shown.

Launches of

ESA, ESRO,

ELDO and

related

missions

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Launch date Mission

Proba Sep 2001 Technology/Earth observationEnvisat Jan 2002 Earth observationAriane-5ECA Feb 2002 Launcher: 9 t GTO-capacity Ariane-5 debutMSG-1 Jul 2002 Meteorology: Meteosat Second GenerationIntegral Sep 2002 Science: gamma-ray astronomySMART-1 Nov 2002 Technology/science: lunar orbiterRosetta Jan 2003 Science: Comet Wirtanen rendezvous (2011-2013)Sloshsat Jan 2003 TechnologyX-38 V201 Feb 2003 Space station: orbital test flight of Crew Return

Vehicle prototype (in cooperation with NASA)Mars Express Jun 2003 Science: Mars orbiter & lander

MSG-2 Dec 2003 Meteorology: Meteosat Second GenerationProba-2 2003 Technology: demonstrationCryoSat Apr 2004 Earth observation: polar ice thicknessATV Sep 2004 Space station: Automated Transfer Vehicle debutColumbus Oct 2004 Space station: research laboratoryGalileo 2004 Navigation: debut of navigation systemERA ~ 2005 Space station: European Robotic ArmGOCE Oct 2005 Earth observation: Earth’s gravity field and geoidVega Dec 2005 Launcher: debut of small solid-propellant launcherMetop-1 Dec 2005 Meteorology: polar meteorological services

Ariane-5ECB1 2005 Launcher: 12 t GTO-capacity Ariane-5 debutSMOS 2005/6 Earth observation: soil moisture and ocean salinitySMART-2 Aug 2006 Technology/science: demonstrationPlanck Feb 2007 Science: map Cosmic Microwave BackgroundHerschel Feb 2007 Science: far-IR/sub-mm astronomyADM-Aeolus Jul 2007 Earth observation: global wind measurementsMSG-3 2007 Meteorology: Meteosat Second GenerationEarth Explorer 2007 Earth observation: mission to be selected(Opportunity Mission-3)1

Earth Explorer 2008 Earth observation: mission to be selected(Core Mission-3)1

BepiColombo 2009 Science: Mercury orbiters & lander

Metop-2 2009 Meteorology: polar meteorological servicesNGST 2009 Science: Next Generation Space TelescopeEarth Explorer 2008 Earth observation: mission to be selected(Opportunity

Mission-4)1

Earth Explorer 2010 Earth observation: mission to be selected(Core Mission-4)1

LISA1 2011 Science: gravitational wave detectionGAIA 2012 Science: astrometry

Solar Orbiter ~ 2012 Science: solar observationsMetop-3 2013 Meteorology: polar meteorological services

Darwin1 > 2013 Science: detection/analysis of Earth-like planets

1awaiting full approval

Planned

launches of

ESA and

related

missions

8

The impetus for creating anindependent space power in Europebegan in the early 1960s. Belgium,France, Germany, Italy, theNetherlands and the United Kingdom(associated with Australia) signed theConvention in March 1962 to createthe European Launcher DevelopmentOrganisation (ELDO), with the goal ofdeveloping a satellite launch vehicleindependent of the two great spacepowers, the USA and USSR.

Similarly, Belgium, Denmark, France,Germany, Italy, the Netherlands,Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and theUK in June 1962 signed theConvention to create the EuropeanSpace Research Organisation (ESRO),for undertaking scientific satelliteprogrammes.

These partners subsequently decidedto merge the activities of ELDO andESRO into a single body, and in July1973 a ministerial conference of the10 European countries met inBrussels and laid down the principlesfor creating the European SpaceAgency (ESA). The Agency beganoperating on 31 May 1975, and on30 October 1980 the final signatureratifying the Convention gave legalexistence to ESA.

While ELDO had dramatic difficultiesdeveloping the Europa launcher,ESRO was becoming a matureorganisation. Seven scientificsatellites reached orbit by the end of

1972, proving that ESRO couldcompete with the major space powersand could manage importantindustrial contracts. By this time,there had been a fundamental changein ESRO’s aims. Its Council resolvedin December 1971 to includeapplications satellites, namely theOrbital Test Satellite fortelecommunications, Meteosat formeteorology and Aerosat foraeronautical communications. Whilethese would dominate the scienceelement financially, they wereoptional, allowing Member States thechoice of participating or not. TheScience Programme became

From humblebeginnings: the ESRO

scientific satellites(ESRO-4 is shown here)

were small bycomparison with today’s

sophisticated spacecraft,but they laid a firm

foundation for the future.

ESA

Achievements

http://www.esa.int

9

mandatory, so that long-termplanning became possible for the firsttime. Three more optionalprogrammes were added in 1973:Spacelab, Europe’s contribution tothe US Space Shuttle programme; theAriane launcher; and the Marots(later Marecs) maritimecommunications satellite.

All of these programmes wereunderway in May 1975 when ESAassumed de facto responsibility.

ESA and ScienceThe Science Programme is one of theAgency’s mandatory activities, inwhich all Member States participate.Much of the advanced technologyused today stems from the scientificprogramme: over the years it hasbeen the driving force behind manyother ESA activities.

The origins of the ScienceProgramme, the oldest in the Agency,hark back to the days of ESRO.ESRO’s seven successful scientificsatellites paved the way for ESA’sremarkable series of pioneeringmissions that have placed Europe atthe vanguard of disciplines such asX-ray, gamma-ray and infraredastronomy; astrometry; Solar Systemsciences, especially cometary, solarand heliospheric physics, as well asspace plasma physics. Driven by thelimited available means, ESA’sScience Programme has consistentlyfocused on missions with stronginnovative contents. All of themissions launched or approved so farare covered in separate entries in thisvolume, and summarised below.

Cos-B (1975): ESA’s first satellitemapped the little-explored gamma-ray sky.

Geos (1977/78): two satellites studiedthe particles, fields and plasma ofEarth’s magnetosphere.

ISEE-2 (1977): worked in tandem withNASA’s ISEE-1 studying Earth’smagnetosphere.

IUE (1978): the International UltravioletExplorer was the world’s longestserving and most prolific astronomysatellite, returning UV spectra oncelestial objects ranging from cometsto quasars until 1996.

Exosat (1983): studied the X-rayemissions and their variations overtime of most classes of astronomicalobjects in 1780 observing sessions.

Giotto (1985): first close flyby of acomet (Comet Halley, March 1986),followed by bonus encounter withComet Grigg-Skjellerup in July 1992.

Ulysses completed itsoriginal mission of

probing theheliosphere at all

latitudes and is nowswinging around on a

second passage,while the Sun is at its

most active

http://sci.esa.int/

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1985 was an important milestone inthe history of ESA’s ScienceProgramme. It saw the approval ofthe long-term Horizon 2000programme of scientific research inspace, designed to ensure thatEurope would play a key andbalanced role beyond the end of thecentury. Executing Horizon 2000required a special financial effortfrom the Member States, amountingto a progressive budgetary increase of5% per year from 1985 to a steadyplateau in 1994. Horizon 2000encompassed the missions alreadyapproved (Hubble Space Telescope,Ulysses, Hipparcos and ISO) andadded four Cornerstone missions,plus Medium-size (‘M’) missionsselected competitively. Cornerstone-1combined two missions into theSolar-Terrestrial Science Programme:Cluster and Soho. The CS-2 High-Throughput X-ray SpectroscopyCornerstone is XMM-Newton; theCS-3 Cometary Cornerstone isRosetta; the CS-4 Far-Infrared andSubmillimetre SpectroscopyCornerstone is Herschel. The selectedMedium missions are: M-1 HuygensProbe; M-2 Integral; M-3 Planck.

Hipparcos (1989): produced the mostaccurate positional survey of morethan 100 000 stars, fundamentallyaffecting every branch ofastronomy.

Hubble Space Telescope (1990): 15%contribution, including the FaintObject Camera, to this majorinternational space telescope.

Ulysses (1990): continuing the fieldsand particles investigation of theinner heliosphere at all solarlatitudes, including the solar poles.

ISO (1995): world’s first infraredastronomical observatory hasprovided a fresh perspective on theUniverse.

Soho (1995): first Horizon 2000Cornerstone, studying the Sun’sinterior, as well as the corona andits expansion into the solar wind.

Cluster (1996): part of first Horizon2000 Cornerstone, to investigate

Above: the Horizon 2000 space science plan was formulated in 1985. Right: it was extended byHorizon 2000 Plus 10 years later, and jointly termedHorizons 2000. Financial constraints and theCluster launch failure led to the later Medium (blue)missions being replaced by Flexi and SMARTmissions.

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plasma processes in Earth’smagnetosphere using foursatellites. Lost in first Ariane-5launch failure; replacementssuccessful in mid-2000.

Huygens (1997): the first probedesigned to descend through theatmosphere of Saturn’s moonTitan, arriving in 2004.

XMM-Newton (1999): the X-rayMulti-Mirror mission is the mostsensitive X-ray astronomy satelliteyet, finding millions of new objects.

Cluster (2000): duplicatereplacements of the four Clustersatellites, observing plasmaprocesses in Earth’smagnetosphere.

Preparatory work began in 1993 onthe follow-up Horizon 2000 Plusprogramme to cover new missions for2007-2016, including three newCornerstones. The MinisterialMeeting in September 1995 approved

the long-term programme butimposed a 3% annual reduction inpurchasing power on the ScientificDirectorate. Then, when the fourCluster satellites were destroyed bythe Ariane-501 failure in June1996, it became inevitable that theScience Programme had to berevised.

The Cornerstones were maintained,but the medium M-missions werereplaced by smaller missions inorder to regain programmeflexibility. The new classes are ‘F’(Flexible) with purely scientificgoals, and ‘SMART’ (Small Missionsfor Advanced Research inTechnology), which can provide in-orbit proof of technologies,particularly for Cornerstones, andcarry, as a secondary goal, scientificexperiments. Mars Express wasconditionally approved in November1998 as the first Flexi mission (F1)and confirmed following the May1999 Ministerial Council meeting.SMART-1 (2002) will demonstrate

Viewing the Sun with Soho’s Extreme Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope(EIT). EIT keeps a daily watch on the Sun’s weather at four differentultraviolet wavelengths. (ESA/NASA/EIT)

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Scientists hope thatXMM-Newton will help

to solve a number ofcosmic mysteries,

ranging from the enigmaof black holes to the

origin of the Universeitself. Inset: soft X-ray

image of CometMcNaught-Hartley,

January 2001.

The first four Clustersatellites were lost in

1996, but a replacementset was launched

successfully in pairs in2000.

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ISO’s infrared view of the HelixNebula, showing the shells of gasand dust ejected as a Sun-like starcollapsed. The resulting central whitedwarf star is too hot to show up in theinfrared. (ESA/ISOCAM/P. Cox et al)

ESA’s Huygens Probewill parachute throughthe atmosphere ofSaturn’s moon Titan in2004.

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technologies for the MercuryCornerstone, and SMART-2 (2006)for LISA and IRSI/Darwin. On1 October 1999, ESA requestedproposals for F2 and F3, selectingfive of the 50 for assessment studiesMarch-May 2000: Eddington, Hyper,MASTER, Solar Orbiter and Storms;the Next Generation SpaceTelescope was already part of theprocess.

In October 2000, the ScienceProgramme Committee approved apackage of missions for 2008-2013.BepiColombo became CS-5 (2009,Mercury Cornerstone) and GAIACS-6 (2012). LISA is also aCornerstone (Fundamental Physics)but to fly in collaboration with NASAat a cost to ESA of a Flexi mission.F2 and F3 are Solar Orbiter andNGST; their order depends onNASA’s schedule for NGST. A

reserve Flexi mission,

Eddington (to map stellar evolutionand find habitable planets), wasalso selected in case the NGST andLISA schedules of NASA slip beyond2013.

The Cornerstone IRSI/DarwinInfrared Space Interferometer, tosearch for Earth-like planets aroundother stars, falls beyond the horizonbut work on it continues towardsfuture funding.

Future Science Programmelaunches are therefore planned as:

Integral (2002): the InternationalGamma-Ray Astrophysics Lab willobserve gamma-ray sourceswithin our Galaxy and beyond,including exploding stars, blackholes, gamma-ray bursts andpulsars.

Rosetta (2003): arriving at Comet

Giotto was the first spacecraft to ventureclose to a comet, but Rosetta will make

intensive in situ observations for 2 years.

Integral will observethe most energetic

events in the Universe.(ESA/D. Ducros)

Inset: a calibrationimage from Integral’s

SPI imagingspectrometer (CESR).

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Wirtanen in 2011, Rosetta will orbitthe nucleus for 2 years of intensivestudies, depositing a lander.

SMART-1 (2002): to demonstrate keytechnologies, including primarypropulsion by a solar electricthruster, critical for BepiColombo.

Mars Express (2003): this orbiter andexobiology lander will intensivelystudy Mars.

SMART-2 (2006): to demonstrate keytechnologies for LISA andIRSI/Darwin.

Planck (2007): the mission to mapthe structure of the CosmicMicrowave Background, inunprecedented detail. Launched intandem with Herschel.

Herschel (2007): using one of theleast explored windows on theUniverse, it will observe the births

of stars and galaxies throughoutthe history of the Universe.Launched in tandem with Planck.

BepiColombo (2009): two Mercuryorbiters and a lander, arriving2011, in collaboration with Japan.

NGST (2009): 15% contribution toNASA’s infrared observatory forprobing back to the time of thevery first stars.

LISA (2011): three satellites information to detect gravitationalwaves for the first time, incollaboration with NASA.

GAIA (2012): building on Hipparcosto create a high-precision 3-Dmap of 1000 million stars in ourGalaxy and beyond.

Solar Orbiter (2012): Sohosuccessor to study the Sun towithin 45 solar radii.

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ESA and Earth ObservationIt has become increasingly recognisedover the past 20 years that many keyaspects of monitoring and managingour planet can be adequatelyaddressed only by observing the Earthfrom space. In this respect, ESA’s rolehas been critically important.

The Earth’s environment and climateare determined not only by complexinteractions between the atmosphere,oceans, land and ice regions, but alsoby mankind’s ability to affect them.Our future depends on the carefulmanagement of our resources and onan improved understanding of theinteractions creating our ecosphere.

The first of seven Meteosatmeteorological satellites, originatingunder ESA’s auspices, appeared in1977 to monitor the weather of Europeand Africa from a vantage point overthe Equator. The success of that firstsatellite led to the formation of theEuropean Organisation for theExploitation of MeteorologicalSatellites (Eumetsat) in 1986, whichtook over direct operational control inDecember 1995.

It has been estimated that the totalbenefits from improved weatherforecasts due to Meteosat alone equateto about €125 million annually in cost

savings for all industries and€137 million in saving of life andreduction in environmental damage.Agriculture alone saves €30 millionand civil aviation €11 million eachyear. In addition, the capacity ofweather satellites to gather long-termmeasurements from space in supportof climate-change studies is ofgrowing importance.

Meteosat will soon be replaced by theMeteosat Second Generation (MSG)will be introduced. Jointly funded byESA Member States and Eumetsat,the programme began in 1994 toenhance the performance of today’ssatellites, incorporating a much-improved imager and the firstinstrument capable of observing theEarth’s radiation balance fromgeostationary orbit.

Polar-orbiting meteorological satelliteswill be added in late 2005 with thefirst of three Metop (MeteorologicalOperational) spacecraft developed byESA and Eumetsat. This will not onlycontinue and improve meteorologicalobservations previously provided byUS NOAA satellites in the ‘morning’polar orbit, but it will also endowEurope with an enhanced capabilityfor routine climate monitoring.Notable improvements include routineobservations of sea-surface windfields, ozone levels and much higher-

The series of seven Meteosats has returnedhundreds of thousands of Earth images fromgeostationary orbit. (Meteosat-7 image,Eumetsat)

The Meteosat SecondGeneration (MSG) will

debut in 2002 to extendservices to Europe’s

meteorological agencies.

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resolution temperature and humidityprofiles.

ESA’s first remote-sensing satellite,ERS, continues to make majorcontributions in areas as diverse asglobal and regional ocean andatmospheric science, sea ice,glaciological and snow coverinvestigations, land surface studiesand the dynamics of the Earth’scrust. For example, global maps ofsea-surface winds are routinelyprovided as inputs to numericalweather forecasting. The 1991 launchof ERS-1 was followed in 1995 byERS-2, which added the GlobalOzone Monitoring Experiment toaddress an area of growing concern,namely atmospheric chemistry, andin particular to generate global ozonemaps every 3 days.

ESA’s large Envisat secondgeneration remote-sensing satellite isexpected to be in orbit in 2001. It willnot only ensure continuity of manyERS observations but will addimportant new capabilities forunderstanding and monitoring ourenvironment, particularly in the areasof atmospheric chemistry and oceanbiological processes.

The Agency’s strategy for Earthobservation beyond 2000 wasendorsed by ESA’s Council in March1998 after being approved inprinciple by the Ministerial Council ofOctober 1995 in Toulouse. ESA’s‘Living Planet’ programme follows onfrom Envisat, and is designed tocover the whole spectrum of userinterests ranging from scientificresearch to applications. Research-driven Earth Explorer missions willbe paralleled by Earth Watchmissions, designed to focus onspecific applications and serviceprovision to satisfy market needs.

Member States subscribe to theoverall Explorer financial envelope, so

Final preparations for the launch of Meteosat-5.(ESA/CNES/CSG)

http://earth.esa.int

that each project no longer has to beapproved separately. As has longbeen the case in ESA’s ScienceProgramme, this allows a coherent,long-term set of missions to bedeveloped.

The Earth’s environment is a highlycomplex system coupling the

Envisat flight model during integration andalignment tests atESTEC. (ESA)

18

atmosphere, oceans, biosphere andcryosphere. Despite its importance,many aspects of this Earth systemare still poorly understood and we arestruggling to assess global threatssuch as climate change, stratosphericozone depletion and troposphericpollution, as well as more localisedevents such as the 1999 El Niñoevent, fires in South East Asia andthe devastating earthquakes inTurkey. Observations from space canprovide the required globally coherentdata.

Explorer offers two mission types:Core and Opportunity. The largerCore missions are selected through atraditional process involving extensiveconsultation with the usercommunity. Opportunity missions areintended to respond quickly to flightopportunities or to userrequirements, and are not necessarilyESA-led. In this way, the programmecombines stability with flexibility,notably the ability to respond quicklyto an evolving situation. Coremissions cost the Agency no more

ESA’s two ERS remote-sensing satellites have operated almost perfectlysince their launches in 1991 and 1995.

than €400 million, while Opportunitymissions cost an average €110 million(€150 million maximum). The goal isto fly a Core mission about every2 years, interspersed withOpportunity missions.

Explorer Core MissionsAn Earth Observation UserConsultation Meeting at ESTEC inOctober 1994, followed by otherconsultations, identified ninecandidate Core missions. These wereassessed by ESA working groups andfour were selected in November 1996for June 1998 to June 1999 Phase-Astudies: Earth Radiation Mission(ERM), Gravity Field and Steady-StateOcean Circulation Mission (GOCE),Land Surface Processes andInteractions Mission (LSPIM) andAtmospheric Dynamics Mission(ADM). GOCE and ADM were selectedin order of priority in November1999. GOCE immediately beganPhase-B for launch in 2005, while

19

ERS radar imagery isunhindered by cloudcover. Shown here is The Netherlands.

20

ADM will begin Phase-B in 2002 forlaunch in 2007.

GOCE will measure the Earth’sgravity field and geoid withunprecedented accuracy andresolution using a 3-axis gradiometer.This will improve our understandingof the Earth’s internal structure andprovide a much better reference forocean and climate studies.

ADM will make the first directobservations on a global scale of windprofiles over the depth of theatmosphere, a notable deficiency incurrent observing methods. This isimportant for understandingatmospheric processes – particularlyin the tropics – as well as improvingthe numerical modelling used inweather forecasting.

The second Call for Ideas for Coremissions was issued on 1 June 2000,receiving ten proposals by the1 September 2000 closing date. On20 November 2000, ESA selected fivefor assessment studies:

ACECHEM: Atmospheric CompositionExplorer for Chemistry and ClimateInteraction to study climate-chemistry interactions and man-made effects

EarthCARE: Earth Clouds Aerosoland Radiation Explorer(encompasses ERM) to measure thephysical properties of clouds andaerosols to improve climatemodelling and our understandingof Earth’s radiation balance; jointmission with NASDA

SPECTRA: Surface Processes andEcosystems Changes ThroughResponse Analysis to measurevegetation parameters for studyingthe carbon cycle and the effects ofclimate variability on ecosystems(builds on LSPIM)

WALES: Water Vapour LidarExperiment in Space to measurewater vapour and aerosoldistribution in the troposphere

WATS: Water Vapour and Wind inAtmospheric Troposphere andStratosphere to monitor waterdistribution for assessing climatechange (encompasses the ACE hotstandby from the Opportunitymissions).

Up to three will be selected inNovember 2001 for Phase-A, for afirst launch in about 2008.

Explorer Opportunity MissionsThe AO for Opportunity missions wasreleased on 30 June 1998 and 27proposals were received by closure on2 December 1998. On 27 May 1999,ESA approved Cryosat as the first forPhase-A/B (2003 launch), with anextended Phase-A for SMOS (2006launch). Cryosat will measure thevariations in the thickness of thepolar ice sheets and the thickness offloating sea ice. SMOS will measuresoil moisture and ocean salinity – twokey variables in the Earth system.

Work continues on ACE (AtmosphericClimate Experiment) as a hot backupshould the first two suffer problems.It would monitor GPS signalsrefracted through the upperatmosphere to measure temperature

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and humidity. SWARM and SWIFTare held in reserve and, like ACE,may fly in other forms (see below).Multiple SWARM satellites wouldmeasure Earth’s magnetic field athigh resolution, providing newinsights into Earth’s structure. SWIFT(Stratospheric Wind Interferometer forTransport studies) would map windsand ozone in the stratosphere.

In fact, SWIFT (largely funded byCanada) was approved in October2000 by Japan’s NASDA spaceagency to fly on the GCOM-A1mission in 2006. It remains part ofEarth Explorer but flyingcooperatively leaves the fundingintact for further full ESA missions.

The next Opportunity AO was madeon 1 June 2001, with a submissionsdeadline of January 2002. Three willbe selected in May 2002 for 12-monthPhase-A studies, and then two forPhase-B. Flights are expected in 2007and 2009.

GOCE, ADM, Cryosat and SMOS arecovered in separate entries. Furtherinformation on Earth Explorer can befound at http://www.estec.esa.nl/explorer

Earth WatchEarth Watch missions are theprototypes for future operational

systems, focusing on specificapplications and service provision tosatisfy market needs in partnershipwith industry and operationalentities. The Agency plans to make aprogramme proposal to its MinisterialConference in 2001. Operationalmeteorological missions post-MSG/Metop are being discussed withEumetsat. Institutional needs includethe emerging requirements of theinititiative for global monitoring forenvironment and security (GMES)being defined as part of theEuropean strategy for space jointlyestablished with the EuropeanCommission. The GMES initiativecentres on three major environmentalthemes: global changes, includingmanagement of treaty commitments;natural and manmade hazards;environmental stress. In addition,peacekeeping and security requireall-weather high-resolution imagery.GMES itself is not a satelliteprogramme, but is the link betweenEurope’s political requirements andthe capabilities provided byobservation satellites, ensuring thatthe integrated information requiredat the political level is available.

The first batch (2001-06) of EarthWatch programmes could include:

— GMES Earth Watch,— Ocean Earth Watch, altimeter and

visible-IR,— C-band synthetic aperture radar,— IR element,— L-band element,— X-band element,— multispectral very high

resolution,— superspectral and hyperspectral

elements.

The MSG and Metop successorswould be part of batch 2 (2006) andbatch 3 (2011), respectively.

The Earth’s environment is a highlycomplex, coupled system. Understandingit requires observations from space.

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ESA and TelecommunicationsESA has played the lead role indeveloping space communications forEurope, with the Orbital Test Satellite(OTS), European CommunicationsSatellite (ECS), Maritime ECS (Marecs)and the direct-broadcasting Olympus.Public telecommunications serviceshave made full use of ESA satellites,through Eutelsat and Inmarsat; somesatellites, more than 10 years old,remain in service. Artemis waslaunched in 2001 to demonstratefurther innovative techniques.

After a relatively late start, Europeanspace industry has achieved a highlevel of technical competence. In2000, its provision of commercialtelecommunications satellitesexceeded that of US industry for thefirst time. ESA’s long-termtelecommunications plan is to helpEuropean industry maintain andimprove its competitiveness. Itsproposals include mobile andmultimedia communications, in-orbitdemonstrations and development of alarge platform to satisfy futuredemands.

ESA’s telecommunications programmeaccounts for a cumulative expenditurein excess of €1 billion, but it isestimated that more than €2.7 billionhas been generated in servicerevenues and about €3 billion inindustry turnover.

OTS was the first-ever Ku-bandsatellite with 3-axis stabilisation, aconcept that has since become thestandard for telecommunicationssatellites worldwide. Some 30satellites built in Europe were derivedfrom the original OTS design.

ESA’s second technologydemonstration mission, Olympus,began in 1989. Its four advancedpayloads helped to push back thefrontiers of new telecommunicationsservices such as direct-to-home TV,business networks, narrowcastingand videoconferencing.

ESA continues to help Europeanindustry gain a foothold in themarket for second-generation satellitesystems for personal and mobilecommunications. The new generationof European services will be tested byESA’s Artemis satellite, designed toperform three specific functions:

– provide voice and datacommunications between mobileterminals, mainly on cars, trucks,trains and boats;

– broadcast accurate navigationinformation as an element of theEuropean Geostationary NavigationOverlay Service (EGNOS), designedto augment the US GlobalPositioning System (GPS) and thesimilar Glonass Russian system.The combined use of GPSpositioning data and the pan-European mobile communicationscapabilities of Artemis will offermore efficient transportmanagement;

– provide high-rate data links directlybetween satellites, putting Europein a stronger position to reap thebenefits of its investment in Earthobservation from space by bringingdata directly to the user where it isneeded most.

The European Communications Satellite (ECS)series developed by ESA has so far provided morethan 48 years of aggregate service.

http://telecom.esa.int

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ESA and NavigationFor the first time, the Agency has takena lead role in the navigation segment.ESA and the European Commissionhave joined forces to design anddevelop Europe’s own satellitenavigation system, Galileo. WhereasGPS and Glonass were developed formilitary purposes, the civil Galileo willoffer a guaranteed service. It will beinteroperable with GPS and Glonass, sothat a receiver can use any satellite inany system. However, Galileo willdeliver positioning accuracy down to5 m, which is unprecedented for apublic system.

The EC, ESA and private industry areexpected to meet the €3250 millionestimated cost of Galileo through apublic/private partnership. Earlystudies suggest that Galileo will repayits initial investment handsomely,estimating that equipment sales andvalue-added services will earn€90 billion over 20 years.

The fully-fledged service will beoperating by 2008 when 30 Galileosatellites are in position in circularorbits 24 000 km above the Earth. Thefirst will be launched in 2004 and by2006 sufficient should be in place tobegin an initial service. Development isplanned to begin at the end of 2001,with a formal decision by the end of2003 on deployment of the fullconstellation.

Europe’s first venture into satellitenavigation is EGNOS, a system toimprove the reliability of GPS andGlonass to the point where they canbe used for safety-criticalapplications, such as landingaircraft. Working in closecooperation with the EC and theEuropean Organisation for theSafety of Air Navigation(Eurocontrol), ESA will have EGNOSoperational in early 2004 usingpayloads on Artemis and twoInmarsat-3 satellites working with anetwork of ground stations toincrease navigation receiveraccuracy (5 m instead of 20 m) andreliability.

Artemis is designed todemonstrate newtechnologies such asmobile communicationsand inter-satellite laserlinks.

The first Galileonavigation satellite is

expected to belaunched in 2004

http://www.esa.int/navigation

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ESA and LaunchersThrough the Ariane launcherprogramme, ESA has providedEurope with autonomous access tospace – the strategic key to thedevelopment of all space applications.Moreover, having been developedinitially for the sake of Europeanindependence, the Ariane launcherhas become Europe’s mostspectacular commercial spacesuccess by virtue of the volume ofbusiness and the share of the worldmarket it has achieved. It is one ofthe most important factors inEurope’s credibility as a space power.

The space ministers of 10 countriesdecided in Brussels in July 1973 todevelop a competitive satellite launchvehicle that would capture asignificant share of the expectedmarket for launching applicationssatellites. ESA is responsible asdesign authority for Arianedevelopment work, owning all theassets produced. It entrusts technicaldirection and financial managementto the French space agency, CNES.Arianespace was established by CNESin 1980 to contract, manageproduction, finance, market andconduct the launches.

Everyone agrees that Ariane is aresounding technical and commercialsuccess. In 1998 alone, the profitreported by Arianespace was €12.6million on revenues of €1.07 billionfrom 11 launches involving 14satellites. Taxpayers’ investment of €6billion between 1974-2000 has beenhandsomely rewarded by the morethan €18 billion generated by launchcontracts.

Beginning with the first launch inDecember 1979, there were 129launches by the end of 2000,

successfully delivering 178 mainsatellites and 25 auxiliary payloads.The 1.85 t capacity into geostationarytransfer orbit (GTO) by the initialAriane-1 model has grown into morethan 4.95 t for the current Ariane-4.

A total of 144 vehicles is plannedbefore the radically new Ariane-5completely assumes the mantle ofEurope’s main launcher in 2003. TheESA Ministerial Council meeting inNovember 1987 endorsed thedevelopment of this first Europeanheavy-lift launch vehicle. AlthoughAriane-1 to -4 have beenoutstandingly successful, it was clearthat a larger vehicle would berequired to handle the ever-growingtelecommunications satellitesdominating the payload market.Ariane-5’s goal is to reduce thepayload cost/kg by more than 40%.

The maiden launch, in June 1996,was unsuccessful, but two further

Ariane-5 entered commercial service in 1999as Europe’s new heavy-lift launcher.

(ESA/CNES/CSG)

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launches by the end of 1998 provedthe vehicle’s capabilities. Ariane-5 isnow in the hands of Arianespace forcommercial exploitation. But themarket does not stand still and thecurrent target capacity of 5.97 t intoGTO will soon be unable to handlepaired satellites – essential forprofitability. The October 1995 ESAMinisterial Council meeting thereforeapproved the Ariane-5 Evolutionprogramme to expand capacity to7.4 t, now expected by mid-2002. Buteven that is insufficient to satisfy themarket. ESA’s Council in June 1998approved the Ariane-5 Plusprogramme that will offer 12 t intoGTO from 2006 using a new, largecryogenic upper stage.

At the end of 2000, ESA approved thedevelopment of the Vega solid-propellant launcher for smallerpayloads – up to 1.5 t into a 700 kmpolar orbit from the Ariane launchbase at Kourou, French Guiana. Thecost to users will be held to$20 million (15% lower thanequivalent US vehicles) by synergywith Ariane-5 production andoperations. First launch is plannedfor the end of 2005.

To prepare for the next generation oflauncher after Ariane-5, to drasticallyreduce the cost of access to space,ESA is carrying out a technologyprogramme to prepare the bestoptions for decisions on majordevelopments around 2006. TheFESTIP Future European SpaceTransportation InvestigationProgramme studied several conceptsfrom 1994 to 2000, with more than30 companies pooling their effortstowards the goal of a ReusableLaunch Vehucle (RLV) capable ofplacing 7 t into a low equatorial orbitand 2 t into polar. This was

The current ESA launch vehicle family of Ariane-4(left) and Ariane-5 (centre) will be joined in 2005 by

Vega (right). Studies are underway on the next-generation launcher (front). (ESA/R. Roussel)

equivalent to 4 t in geostationaryorbit – now clearly well short oftoday’s market needs as satellitesgrow larger, showing how difficult agame market prediction can be. Sothe current FLTP Future LaunchersTechnologies Programme, approved atthe May 1999 Ministerial Council,upped the target to 10 t to LEO. Afollow-on programme worth about€600 million will be requested at theNovember 2001 Ministerial Council,to run from 2002 to 2006, with thefirst experimental vehicle flying inabout 2005. By then, it should beclear if there are genuine marketprospects for an RLV. The goal is tohave an operational vehicle by about2015.

http://industry.esa.int/launchers/

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ESA and Manned SpaceflightEuropean involvement in mannedspaceflight stretches back to 1969,when NASA issued an invitation toparticipate in the post-Apolloprogramme. Europe opted inDecember 1972 to develop themodular Spacelab as an integralelement of the Space Shuttle.Spacelab’s 22 missions betweenNovember 1983 and April 1998 madeoutstanding contributions toastronomy, life sciences, atmosphericphysics, Earth observation andmaterials science.

Spacelab’s debut also saw the firstESA astronaut, Ulf Merbold,venturing into space. By the end of2000, ESA astronauts had made atotal of 17 flights, comprising 14aboard the Space Shuttle and threelong-duration stays aboard Russia’sMir space station. The Agency’s firstthree astronauts were selected in1977, six were added in 1992 and in1998 a Single European AstronautCorps was formed, creating a cadre of16 astronauts by 2000.

Some 44 ESA astronaut missionshave been identified for 1998-2013and most, of course, will involve theInternational Space Station. Thislargest-ever international cooperationis an unprecedented opportunity forthe whole of mankind. For the firsttime, more than 40 years after thedawn of the Space Age, scientists andengineers will maintain a permanentinternational presence in space.While orbiting at an average altitudeof 400 km, they will continuouslyperform scientific and technologicaltests using laboratories comparablewith the best on Earth. The Stationwill be a research base like thosebuilt in the Antarctic or on the oceanfloor, but it uniquely involves fiveinternational Partners (USA, Europe,

Japan, Russia and Canada) andembraces almost all fields of scienceand technology.

Physicists, engineers, technicians,physicians and biologists will worktogether pursuing fundamentalresearch and seeking commercially-oriented applications. Research willextend far beyond basic goals such aspuzzling over the mysteries of life: theStation will be a test centre fordeveloping innovative technologiesand processes, speeding theirintroduction into all areas of ourlives.

Despite significant budget reductionsin space activities, Europe in March1995 committed itself to fullpartnership in the InternationalSpace Station and to providingelements on a very strict schedule.This major multi-year investmentimmediately boosted Europe’saerospace industry, hard hit sincethe late 1980s by budget cuts indefence and aviation. Opting for thisnew space policy ensured thatestablished teams of engineers and

The Columbus laboratory (front left) is a keyelement of the International Space Station

research facilities. ESA is also developing theAutomated Transfer Vehicle (docking at rear), theERA robot arm (on the vertical tower), two Nodesand, in partnership with NASA, the Crew Return

Vehicle. (ESA/D. Ducros)

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scientists could remain intact,assuring the future of European hightechnology.

Fully assembled, the InternationalSpace Station will total about 420 t inorbit and offer 1200 m3 of habitablevolume – equivalent to the passengercabin of two Airbus aircraft. With alength of 108 m, span of 80 m andvast solar panels, it will shelter apermanent crew of three astronautsduring the assembly phase and 6-7once it becomes fully operational inabout 2007. There will be sixlaboratories, including Europe’sColumbus. Italy may provide ahabitation module to succeed theearly Russian Zvezda module’s crewliving quarters. There will beEuropean, Japanese and Russianresearch modules, all maintainedwith Earth-like atmospheres.Additional research facilities will beavailable in the connecting Nodes.The central 90 m ‘truss’ girderconnecting the modules and the mainsolar power arrays will also carryCanada’s 17 m-long robotic arm on amobile base to perform assembly and

maintenance work. An emergencydescent vehicle – initially a RussianSoyuz and later a Crew ReturnVehicle (CRV) developed with ESAinvolvement – will always be attachednow that permanent habitation hasbeen underway since 2000.

ESA’s major contribution to theStation is the Columbus laboratory.Columbus provides Europe with thepossibility for continuous exploitationof an orbital facility. In this

ESA astronaut missions*

Astronaut Launch date Mission

Ulf Merbold November 1983 STS-9/Spacelab-1Wubbo Ockels October 1985 STS-22/Spacelab-D1Ulf Merbold January 1992 STS-42/Spacelab IML-1Claude Nicollier July 1992 STS-46/TSS-1 + Eureca-1Claude Nicollier December 1993 STS-61/Hubble servicingUlf Merbold October 1994 Euromir-94J.-F. Clervoy November 1994 STS-66/Atlas-3Thomas Reiter September 1995 Euromir-95Maurizio Cheli February 1996 STS-75/TSS-1RClaude Nicollier February 1996 STS-75/TSS-1RJ.-F. Clervoy May 1997 STS-84/MirPedro Duque October 1998 STS-95J.-P. Haigneré* February 1999 Perseus/MirClaude Nicollier December 1999 STS-103/Hubble servicingJ.-F. Clervoy December 1999 STS-103/Hubble servicingGerhard Thiele* February 2000 STS-99/SRTMUmberto Guidoni* April 2001 STS-100/ISS + MPLM

PlannedClaudie Haigneré* October 2001 Soyuz-TM33/ISSRoberto Vittori April 2002 Soyuz-TMA1/ISSFrank De Winne April 2003 Soyuz/ISS

*mission flown under national agency

The ESA Astronaut Corps, May 2000. Fromleft, front: Eyharts,Thiele, C. Haigneré,Guidoni, Ewald; secondrow: Duque, Nicollier,Tognini, Fuglesang,Clervoy, Vittori; back:Kuipers, Schlegel,De Winne, Reiter.

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pressurised laboratory, Europeanastronauts and their internationalcounterparts can work in acomfortable shirtsleeve environment.This state-of-the-art workplace,launched in late 2004, will supportthe most sophisticated research inweightlessness for at least 10 years.Columbus is a general-purposelaboratory, accommodatingastronauts and experiments studyinglife sciences, materials science,technology development, fluidsciences, fundamental physics,biology and other disciplines.

In combination with the Ariane-5launcher, the Automated TransferVehicle (ATV) will enable Europe totransport supplies to theInternational Space Station. Its 7.4 tpayload will include scientificequipment, general supplies, water,oxygen and propellant. Up to 4 t canbe propellant for ATV’s own enginesto reboost the Station at regularintervals to combat atmospheric drag.Up to 860 kg of refuelling propellantcan be transferred for Station attitudeand orbit control. Up to 5.5 t of dry

cargo can be carried in thepressurised compartment.

ATV offers about four times thepayload capability of Russia’sProgress ferry. Without ATV, onlyProgress could reboost the Station.Both technically and politically, it isessential that the Station can call onat least two independent systems.

An ATV will be launched on averageevery 15 months, paying Europe’s8.3% contribution in kind to theStation’s common operating costs. Itcan remain docked for up to6 months, during which time it willbe loaded with Station waste beforeundocking and flying into Earth’satmosphere to burn up.

Another major ESA contribution tothe Station is the European RoboticArm (ERA). Mounted on the RussianSegment’s Science and PowerPlatform (SPP), the 11.4 m-long ERAmanipulator arm will be launchedwith the SPP by the Space Shuttle,possibly in 2005. Once installed, itwill be used for SPP’s in-orbit

ESA’s principal contributions to the International Space Station.

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ESA’s Automated Transfer Vehicle will deliver7.4 t of supplies to the International SpaceStation on each mission. (ESA/D. Ducros)

assembly – particularly the solararray – and be available for in-orbitmaintenance tasks and support ofextravehicular activities.

As part of the barter agreement withNASA for launching Columbusaboard the Space Shuttle, ESA isproviding two of the Station’s threeNodes, the connecting elementsbetween various laboratory andhabitation modules. ESA hasentrusted responsibility for thedevelopment of Nodes-2 and -3,which use the same structuralconcept as Columbus, to the ItalianSpace Agency (ASI).

In a highly successful partnership,NASA, ESA and European industryare building the X-38 spacecraft, theprototype of the Crew Return Vehicle(CRV) for the International SpaceStation. Once attached to the Stationin about 2007, the CRV will provide aroute home for the crew at shortnotice. ESA is responsible for 15 X-38subsystems or major elements.Subscriptions by ESA Member Statesto the CRV programme will allowsignificant participation in thedevelopment and production of thisnext manned spacecraft. The X-38test programme will culminate in2003 with a return from orbit.

Major experiment facilities beingdeveloped by ESA include Biolab, theFluid Science Laboratory, theMaterial Science Laboratory and theEuropean Physiology Modules. ESA isalso supplying –180°C and –80°Cfreezers for storing biological samples,the Microgravity Science Glovebox,and the 6-degrees-of-freedomHexapod positioning and pointingunit for external payloads. ESA isalso providing the Cupola – a domedelement with windows for the crew to

control and directly view remotemanipulator operations – inexchange for Shuttle launch/returnservices for five European externalpayloads.

ESA’s philosophy in all of thesebarter arrangements is to pay inkind for services and responsibilitiesrather than through hard cash.Once Columbus is operational, ESAwill have the right, on average, for a3-month stay aboard the Station byan astronaut every 8 months.

Further information about ESA’scontributions to the InternationalSpace Station, and its other mannedspaceflight activities, can be found athttp://www.esa.int/export/esaHS