JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA 21

Critical Theory, Communicative Actions and Liberating Praxis

Views of a Feminist Practical Theologian

Denise Ackermann

Introduction The definition of practical theology as a theological operational science which is con­cerned with the critical theological reflection on the theory-praxis dialectic, places it squarely within the framework of modern scientific thought. This accords it a unique place within the theological faculty while at the same time confirming both its inter- and intra-disciplinary thrust. Traditionally, however, practical theology has been the vir­tually exclusive domain of white, middle-class male academics and has accordingly reflected a substantial degree of androcentrism in its approach to its various fields of study. This article is an exercise in practical theology from a feminist perspective.

A Feminist Perspective on Practical Theology When practical theology attempts to determine whether Christian communicative acts are renewing, liberating and therapeutic, ethical dimensions surface, a fact which practical theologians cannot ignore.1 Don Browning is convinced that a framework of practical moral thinking is essential for practical theology.2 While finding my point of departure within the framework of a practical theology which is interested in com­municative acts, I argue that the values embodied in the theological concept "the reign of God" make ethical demands which lead to liberating praxis. The reign of God demands justice, love, freedom and Shalom, and in so doing, calls for the priority of praxis, praxis which is just, loving, freeing and which leads to peace and wholeness.

In both their theories and their praxis, practical theologians have been insensitive to gender. Examples of this are the silence of practical theologians on the fraught question of women's ordination when dealing with categories of ministry and the church offices, as well as their toleration of exclusive images and language found in the liturgies.

How can the understanding of a feminist perspective contribute to a greater aware­ness among male practical theologians? Feminist theology is, in the first place, critical theology. The feminist critique of culture, which points out that nature and biology are not the "destiny" of women but rather the result of culture and socialization, has led to a new understanding of what it means to be human.3 By promoting the full person-1. Wolfaardt, Johan Kommumkatiewe handehnge (Unpublished inaugural lecture, UNISA, Pretona) ρ 10 2. Browning, Don "Practical theology and political theology" in Theology Today XLII/1 1985 pp 15-33 3. Fiorenza, Elisabeth Schussler "Feminist theology as a critical theology of liberation" in W Κ Tabb (ed) Churches in struggle

Liberation theologies and social change in Norm America (New York Monthly Press Review, 1986) ρ 47

Denise Ackermann is senior lecturer in Practical Theology at the University of the Western Cape.

22 THEORY, ACTIONS, PRAXIS

hood of both men and women, it has contributed to an inclusive view of humanity which opens up new possibilities for the examination of communicative acts within the community of faith. The voices, experiences, gifts and calling of women, a hitherto neglected category, should now become the subject of study in practical theology. Women's vigorous criticisms of all institutions, including the churches, which have exploited and discriminated against them, should now be incorporated in a critical practical theological approach. Practical theology is challenged to rethink its ecclesiological notions as well as any theological assumptions which perpetuate women's inferior status by justifying their innate difference from men.4

Feminist theology is contextual. It recognizes that all theology is historically and cul­turally conditioned and that theologians both act from within a specific context as well as react to it. The feminist practical theologian needs to examine whether com­municative acts do, or do not, reflect the values of the reign of God in our present con­text. This means that present political, social and economic factors will play an impor­tant role in the analysis of the situation and in the working out of the critical theories developed in this process. Practical theology cannot be done in South Africa today without dealing with issues of racism, sexism and classism in terms of justice, love, freedom and shalom as demands of the gospel.

Feminist theology is liberation theology. It has as its goal

... an emancipatory ecclesial and theological praxis. Hence feminists today no longer demand only admission and marginal integration into the traditionally male-dominated hierarchical institutions of the churches and theology; they demand radical change of these institutions and structures.5

Furthermore, women know that institutions and structures merely reflect the society in which they are found, so that a feminist practical theological view will look at South African society in terms of its needs for the liberation of all its peoples. Feminist liber­ation theology is concerned with liberating acts. This concern is not merely academic but concrete and practical, calling for solidarity with the victims of oppression. Thus practical theologians are challenged on the grounds of their praxis. Do we hold an advocacy stance on behalf of those exiled to the margins because of their sex, race or class?

Feminist theology is dynamic and inclusive; it is not a closed system. Thus the for­mulation of theological theories is an ongoing process and feminist perspective in practical theology will endeavour to contribute new insights to this process. Practical theology as a communicative operational science is concerned with, for instance, the signs and symbols, images and language that provide meaning in communications of faith. God-talk in situations of celebration, pastoral care, ministry and preaching can be given new depth and richness by allowing female images to illuminate our theologi­cal communication. The use of language that is inclusive and non-discriminatory can be described in practical theological terms as healing and therapeutic, apart from the fact that such language reflects an holistic view of humanity implicit in the values of the reign of God.

Feminist theology is a communal enterprise. Rooted in the concept of community it finds expression in celebration and liturgy. According to Fiorenza

4. Ibid ρ 48 5. Ibid D 49

JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA 23

Feminist theologians maintain that theology has to again become communal and holistic. Feminist theology expresses itself not only in abstract analysis and intellectual discussion, but it employs the whole range of human expression, e.g., ritual, symbol, drama, music, movement, and pictures. Thus feminist celebrations do not separate the sacral and the profane, the religious and daily life. On the contrary, the stuff of feminist liturgies is women's experience and women's life. In such liturgies women express their anger, their frustrations, and their experience of oppression, but also their new vision, their hopes for the coming of a "new heaven and earth," and their possibilities for the creation of new persons and structures.6

In this respect, practical theology must be criticized for its dualistic thinking together with its tendencies to elitism and challenged to become innovative in its theories and praxis for celebration.

A feminist perspective has a contribution to make to the development of practical theology, in regard both to the formation of its theological theories and to theological praxis. It is this perspective which will inform this discussion of critical theory, com­munication and liberating praxis.

Critical Theory and Christian Praxis The debate about the unity and relationship of Christian theory and praxis has been informed by Jürgen Habermas' attempts to provide a foundation for the understand­ing of the scientific character of Marxist critical theory. Christian theology which is directed at practice and more particularly at liberating praxis, and which considers itself to be self-reflective and critical, has fruitfully employed Habermas' methodolog­ical reflections on the theory-praxis relationship in a critical theory with emancipatory intent.

The following introductory remarks will endeavour to place critical theory within the theological debate, and more particularly, to link it with theological deliberations on the theory of communicative actions as a critical theory of Christian praxis.

CRITICAL THEORY In 1843 Karl Marx defined critical theory as "the self-clarification of the struggles and wishes of the age," a definition undisguisedly political in nature.7 The events of the 20th century have exploded beyond doubt the fallacy of "pure" reason or "pure" theory. The innocent faith of the Enlightenment in "pure reason" has been destroyed by two world wars, the Holocaust, the nuclear arms race, pollution, dwindling confi­dence in capitalist or socialist solutions, and the devastating effects of racist and sexist oppressions. In this climate new tools are sought for understanding.

Is critical theory, as it has emerged from Marxist tradition and been developed as a specific school of thought by the Frankfurt School, such a tool?81 ally myself with Christian theologians who find critical theory useful, but maintain reservations in terms of a feminist critique.

The three essential features of critical theories as distinguished by Raymond Guess are the following:9 Firstly, they have special standing as guides for human action because they "produce enlightenment in the agents who hold them" and they

6. «wdp53 7. Marx, Karl "A letter to A Ruge, September 1843" in Kart Marx Early writings tr by R Livingstone & G Benton (New York

Vintage Books, 1975) ρ 209 8. According to Raymond Guess The idea of critical theory Habermas and the Frankfurt School (Cambridge Cambridge

University Press, 1891) pp 1-2, Freud is viewed by the Frankfurt School as "a conceptual revolutionary* Marxism and psychoanalysis thus become the two main instances of critical theory

9. Guess op c/ipp 1-2

24 THEORY, ACTIONS, PRAXIS

are "inherently emancipatory." Secondly, critical theories have cognitive content and thirdly, they differ epistemologically from theories in the natural sciences in that they are essentially reflective.

Matthew Lamb describes critical theory as

. . . a fundamental methodological enterprise not only concerned with sociology and philosophy but also with such diverse fields as epistemology, psychology, literary criticism, economics, aesthetics, education, anthropology, political science and theology.10

Whereas Lamb views the challenge of critical theory as the facing up to the radical critique of society emanating from a Marxist perspective, he sees the challenge to crit­ical theory as the illumination of an understanding of praxis which is capable of genuinely transforming contemporary social relationships.

Jürgen Habermas' development in recent times of a "critical theory" can be seen as a response within Marxist tradition to the limitations of dogmatic orthodoxy and the gulf between Marxist theory and praxis. His work has contributed to understanding emancipatory processes by exploring the nature of self-reflection in the context of the Frankfurt School's opposition to positivism as non-dialectical and one-dimensional. According to Habermas there is always a relationship between knowledge and interests which positivism denies by erecting models of objective scientific know­ledge.11 Habermas resolves this problem by proposing an understanding of interest which is both material and ideal, thus allowing him to differentiate between types of knowledge according to the interests which produce them.

Such interests include the technical interest in controlling one's environment to ensure human survival, the practical interest in mutual understanding through a framework of communicative action and an emancipatory interest which seeks to expose and overcome oppressions.

Habermas revises social theory in terms of communicative interaction. Social real­ity is seen through the pragmatics of communication. The symmetrical and reciprocal exchange of speech acts depicts the "ideal speech situation," the term used by Habermas to refer to "a situation of absolutely uncoerced and unlimited discussion between completely free and equal human agents."12

The ideal speech situation, as the Utopian core of speech, functions as a regulative principle for the institutionalization of discourse in the lifeworld. In this way the ideal speech situation comes to serve as a critical principle applicable to the analysis of existing forms of life, its practical thrust being one of eliminating systematically distorted communication.™

In the ideal speech situation, all participants must have a symmetrical distribution of chances to select and employ speech acts. Four categories of such chances are: firstly, all potential participants must have the same chance to initiate and to continue communicative speech acts; secondly, all participants must be allowed to question, refute and interpret so that all speech acts are subject to consideration and criticism and no one view can dominate; thirdly, participants must manifest sincerity and truth­fulness about themselves and towards others, and lastly, participants in a discourse must each have the same chance to employ regulative speech acts, to command and

10. Lamb, Matthew Solidarity with victims Toward a theology of social transformation (New York Crossroad, 1982) ρ 29 11. Habermas, Jürgen Knowledge and human interest tr by J Shapiro (Boston Beacon Press, 1971 ) Also Habermas, Jürgen

Theory and practice tr by J viertel (Boston Beacon Press, 1973) pp 19-24 12. Guess op cit ρ 65 13. Walsh, Thomas "Religion and communicative action" in Thought 62/244,1987 ρ 114

JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA 25

oppose, to permit and forbid, so that the formal equality of chances to initiate dis­course can in fact be practised.14

A definite moral content is found in the above description of the ideal speech situa­tion and it seems as though Habermas regards moral action as essentially com­municative.

The moral subject, the subject oí praxis, is inconceivable in abstraction from communicative rela­tions with others. Conversely social interaction is eo ipso moral interaction; it is at least poten­tially a dialogic relationship that emerges among actors on the always precarious basis of mutual recognition. The words potentiallyand precarious are important here, for while the idea of uncon­strained ¡ntersubjectivity is posited in the very structure of human communication, it is obvious that the conditions of actual communication usually fall short of it.15

Finally, critical social theory has two aspects. The first is the explanatory-diagnostic aspect which draws on the findings and methods of the social sciences to analyze empirically the crisis potential of the present. The second dimension is its anticipatory-Utopian one which concerns the more normative aspects of critique, desiring a better future and a more humane society. Critical social theory is not crisis management but a crisis diagnosis which encourages future transformation.16

In summary, it may be said that critical theory seeks to raise the consciousness of social groups to the point where it attains the level of critique and frees itself from ideological delusions. Those acts of communication which are distorted and which prevent people from participating as equal partners, are unmasked. "In this way criti­cal theory pursues self-reflection out of an interest in self-emancipation."17 MacCarthy comments:

Habermas' argument is, simply, that the goal of critical theory - a form of life free from unneces­sary domination in all its forms - is inherent in the notion of truth; it is anticipated in every act of communication.18

Critical theory as a theoretical orientation is relevant to a wide range of disciplines, including practical theology. Here, in particular, the communicative is important. Habermas' concern with language stems from its centrality in the formation of con­sciousness and from its ability to provide a foundation for critique. Language is a medium of ideology understood as systematically distorted communication, yet, in order to recognize distorted communication, one must have some idea of what non-distorted communication encoded in language might be. Practical theology examines not only language, but also acts, signs and symbols as communicative agents and, in so doing, it finds critical theory a useful tool.

Habermas recounts the profound and lasting effect on him of his discovery of the Nazi regime's horrors. He tells how he sat in front of the radio as a teenager ". . . and experienced what was being discussed before the Nuremburg tribunal; when, others, instead of being struck silent by the ghastliness, began to dispute the justice of the trial, procedural questions, and questions of jurisdiction, there was that first rupture, which still gapes."19 It was this gaping rupture which led Habermas to seek to under-

14. McCarthy, Thomas "A theory of communicative competence" in Philosophy of the Social Sciences 3, 1973, ρ 145, Benhabib, Seyla Critique, norm and utopia A study of the foundations ofcntical theory (New York Columbia University Press, 1986) ρ 285; Guess op erf pp 55-95

15. McCarthy, Thomas The critical theory of Jürgen Habermas (Cambridge MIT Press, 1978) ρ 35 16. Benhabib op at ρ 226 17. Habermas 1971 op at ρ 55 18. McCarthy 1978 op at ρ 273 19. Habermas in Bernstein, R J Habermas and modernity (Cambndge MIT Press, 1985) ρ 41

26 THgORY, ACTIONS, PRAXIS

stand how a culture that had given rise to Kant and Marx could have provided such fer­tile soil for the unchallenged rise of Hitler and Nazism. It is not surprising therefore that he emphasizes the experience of emancipatory self-reflection, achieved through dialogue based on communicative rationality, an ideal of considerable relevance to the present South African context.

Against this background, I would argue that critical theory, as postulated by Haber­mas, does not only have a great deal to contribute to practical theology's concern with the theory-praxis dynamic; it in fact provides practical theology done in the South Afri­can context with a finely-honed scalpel to analyze and excise oppressive ideologies and structures while holding out the vision of an ideal situation of free communication in a liberated society consonant with the values of the reign of God.

COMMUNICATIVE ACTIONS Theological reflections on the communication of the Christian faith are by nature inter­disciplinary. Theologians know that communication embraces every facet of human existence and that it is central to the study of faith actions. The starting point for exa­mining communicative acts is the present reality; this means taking into account the social, cultural, economic and more particularly the political realities. Women know that the political reality is a personal reality and that the personal is political ; in our con­text political realities impinge on communicative actions. The realization of justice, freedom, love and Shalom in which people's human dignity is recognized and respected, depends on the structures that mediate such values and on the ways in which we communicate. The community of faith is thus challenged to become a community which communicates the values of the reign of God in its actions.

Theology, Critical Theory and Communicative Actions Christian theologians have drawn upon the work of Habermas in characterizing the task of Christian theology as both hermeneutical and critical. "Because Christianity is a living tradition, a historical praxis, which communicates meaning, it requires and gives rise to hermeneutical reflection."20 And, as Christian tradition needs to be asses­sed in terms of its meaning and "emancipative interest," it gives rise to critical reflec­tion as foundational to the theological task.

In practical theology, both the critical and hermeneutical functions demand atten­tion. In our theory formation we use hermeneutical keys to understand and incorpo­rate historical praxis, while at the same time we need a critical theory of society which we arrive at by using social-scientific analysis. The application of a critical theory of society in our theologizing leads us to seek what Habermas calls "therapeutic dis­course." Through the process of enlightened self-reflection we engage in dialogue and seek communicative actions which are liberating and healing. This critical pro­cess usually originates in the praxis of the community of faith which has become aware of distortion and oppression and wants change. It can also be initiated by liberatory actions "outside the camp" (Heb 13:13). Inevitably this leads to political praxis aimed at transformation rather than simply providing a rational critique of what has already happened.21

When the above remarks are applied to practical theology as viewed from a feminist

20. Kroger, Joseph "Prophetic-critical and practical-strategic tasks of theology Habermas and liberation theology" in Theo­logical Studies 46,1985 ρ 11

21. Kroger op at ρ 16

JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA 27

liberatory perspective in the South African context, the following points emerge. The threefold task of critical theology as sketched above calls for a critical analysis of oppressions in South African society which include those interlinked mechanisms of power which oppress women. The dialectical relationship of theory and praxis, based on an emancipatory interest, seeks to promote the praxis of liberating self-reflection leading to what Paulo Freiré calls "conscientizacäo (conscientization).22 Through announcing the "good news" of the reign of God in terms of our humanity, dignity and freedom, all praxis contrary to justice, love and freedom is denounced. This raises the consciousness of oppressed women and becomes a political act. Theory and praxis are linked in acts of faith which are reflected on critically.

Attention will now be given to the thoughts springing from a common interest in the communicative aspect of theology, of certain theologians, who have grappled with the impact of critical theory on their theologizing.

When practical theology is defined as a critical theological operational science con­cerned with communicative actions, it is proper to ask what theory of communication underlies this definition. In addressing this question, Hennie Pieterse says "If our object of study is gospel-oriented communicative acts, a clearly formulated theory of communication is absolutely essential."23 He then proceeds to opt for a dialogical theory of communication on the grounds that it suits the nature of Christian communi­cation. Certain criteria govern the selection of this theory. The first is that it should be suitable for the study of communication within, to and from the community of faith. It will be a theological theory founded on and communicating the values of the Kingdom [sic] of God which according to Pieterse is conceived of as the ideal communication situation. He then proceeds to apply the criteria of critical theory and names four pre­requisites for proper communication. It is non-authoritarian and takes place between free subjects on an equal basis; the unconditional freedom of the participants is pre­supposed; the unconditional acceptance of others as individuals entitled to authentic existence is posited; Christian communication is conducted in a context of love.24

The second criterion relates to the selection of a communications theory based on a particular "anthropological" approach. An anthropology is called for which is inclu­sive and takes cognizance of people's contexts in every respect. A third criterion is that communication should take place freely without views being rigidly imposed or a particular view taking precedence. Pieterse says that when this criterion is not satis­fied, communication degenerates into propaganda which is incompatible with the spirit of the gospel and unsuitable for communication within the framework of the Kingdom of God [sic]. "The theory we are looking for would therefore allow both com­municator and recipient sufficient freedom for authentic existence."25 His last criterion is that the communications theory should be oriented towards the gospel to such a degree that the good news is actualized salvifically in people's lives. On the basis of the above, he opts for a dialogical theory of communication.

Johannes Heinrichs, a philosopher and systematician, maintains that theologically-speaking "Christianity especially can be wholly and completely interpreted as a reli­gion of communication, divine-human and at the same time inter-human communica­tion."26 He argues that the entire content of the Christian doctrine can be understood 22. Freiré, Paolo Pedagogy of the oppressed (New York Herder & Herder, 1972) ρ 19 23. Pieterse, Hennie "A dialogical theory of communication from a practical theological perspective" in The Evangelical Quar­

terly LXII/3,1990 ρ 227 24. Ibid ρ 5 25. Ibid ρ 8 26. Heinrichs, Johannes "Theory of practical communication A Chnstian approach" in Media Development 28/4,1981 ρ 6

28 THEORY, ACTIONS, PRAXIS

as a unitary development of the dialogical idea. In discussing the doctrine of the Trinity he finds in it "endless food for meditation, particularly in the framework of communica­tion theory."27 The Incarnation affirms Christian doctrine as essentially a message and a summons to love.

The communicative relationship of faith and love to Jesus Christ, an individual human being seemingly remote in history, is only possible because this historical individual is also at the same time the Logos, the Light which lightens every human being coming into the world (cf. John 1:9).28

Heinrichs recognizes that the idea of "unconstrained communication," a term he borrows from Habermas, is necessary in a pluralistic society, particularly one which is ideologically pluralistic.

Edmund Arens, also a systematic theologian comprehends "theology as a theory of action in practical intent and not as a theory of religious knowledge."29 Drawing on a variety of philosphical insights, including Habermas' theory of communicative action, he presents theory of communication which includes the following insights. Communication is in the first place a form of action; "... it is interwoven with extra-lin­guistic actions. Both are organized in language-games, which constitute specific forms of life."30 Secondly, communication has three dimensions which take place simultaneously, ".. . it has a subject or state of affair which it deals with . . . it takes place between human beings on an intersubjective level... it is performed in a con­ventionally realised language."31 Lastly, communicative action has a normative basis and is oriented to understanding "in the referential as well as in the intersubjective and linguistic dimensions."32

Arens then proceeds to ground his theological approach in Jesus' communicative action and uses some of the results of the work of Johann Baptist Metz and Helmut Peukert in the process. In examining Jesus' social context he finds that out of the four socially and religiously active groups of his time (the Sadducees, the Zealots, the Essenians [sic] and the Pharisees), Jesus remained chiefly in communication with the Pharisees. The manner in which Jesus entered into communication with the Pharisees, "discloses the structure of his communication, therein revealing his per­son and understanding of the reality of God. Both are tied together in his practice of the kingdom of God."33 Arens finds Jesus' life and public action "eminently political." The Pharisees sought communication with him and their conflict centred around the fact that Jesus' solidarity with sinners was unacceptable to them. Jesus' practice shows that God cannot be used to legitimate exclusion. Thus the dispute about Jesus' manner of communication becomes a dispute about the nature and reality of God. "In Habermas' terminology, Jesus' action situation is characterized by a lack of background consensus between him and his Pharasaic opponents."34 This leads to the communication being discontinued. Arens further illuminates his concept of inclu­sive and liberating communication by referring to Jesus' use of parables. He con­cludes by defining the challenge to Christian theology as that of understanding itself as

27. Ibid 28. Ibid ρ 7 29. Arens, Edmund "Towards a theological theory of communicative action" in Media Development 28/4,1981 ρ 12 30. Ibid ρ 14 31. Ibid 32. Ibid 33. Vbid 34. /£wdp15

JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA 29

. . . a theory of communicative action with the purpose of contributing to the survival of mankind and humane life for all in the presence of both the bomb as the universal power of death and the kingdom of God, having germinally arrived through Jesus' action and person.35

Helmut Peukert, who studied under Karl Rahner and worked with Metz, is one of the leading exponents of the practical theological school of thought that argues that the work of Habermas can be appropriated and transformed to construct the foundation for a theology of communicative action. He contends that the theory of communicative actions, which includes an ¡deal of solidarity and universal equality, is in need of a theodicy which faces the problems of past, present and future suffering; thus he develops a theology of communicative action. Peukert believes that any theology wishing to address modern experience must be universally communicable and related to practice. This requires a radical reformation of theology and, in this process, Habermas' theory of communicative action emerges as the most helpful tool. Accord­ing to Walsh, Peukert agrees with Metz that Habermas' ideal of communicative action as the emancipated, universal communication community, glosses over the problem of the past and present history of suffering and death, and that as such, Habermas' theory is significantly flawed as it lacks a truly universal perspective.36

Rudolf Siebert would agree with Peukert.37 He finds Habermas' suggestion that mod­ern human beings must live without consolation to be merely a statement of the prob­lem and not a solution. As with historical idealism and the earlier forms of dialectical materialism, Habermas' universal pragmatic stands or falls by its inability to address the theodicy problem. Nonetheless, Peukert agrees with Habermas that a com­municative understanding of the fundamental condition of human relationships is the starting point for ethics, politics and the social and natural sciences.38

In formulating a basic theory for communicative actions, Peukert discusses the convergence between the demands of theology and a theory of science in regard to theory formation.39 From this discussion the following points emerge: firstly, the object realm of such a theory must relate to both its empirical nature and its transcendental self-reflection - it has a double nature. Secondly, the epistemologica! scope of such a theory emerges as it meets the demand to grasp communicative action as funda­mental to the logic of both persons and events insofar as their constitution results from communicative practice. Thirdly, a theory of communicative action needs to supply categories for a theory of language. Peukert sees language as deeply rooted in the communicative and reflective practice of individuals in interaction. Fourthly, com­municative practice, to avoid merely reflecting ideological bias, must make self-reflec­tion and critique of ideology possible. Fifthly, the whole structure of such theory of communicative actions should be characterized by a certain relationship of theory and practice. "A theory that would apprehend the actually reflective self-transforma­tion of subjects in communication is itself rooted in such practice and ultimately repre­sents just such a practice."40

The following extract is quoted in full in order to do justice to the depth and breadth of Peukert's views in his search for the probable dimensions of a theory of com­municative actions. 35. to/dp 16 36. Walsh op at ρ 119 37. Siebert, Rudolf "Habermas' reconstruction of histoncal materialism Religious dimension" in Coeli 38,1986 ρ 7 38. Walsh op at ρ 120 39. Peukert, Helmut Science, acton and fundamental theology Toward a theology ot communicative action tr by J Bohman

(Cambndge MIT Press, 1984) ρ 163 40. Ibid pp 164-165

30 THEORY, ACTIONS, PRAXIS

Communicative action here signifies the following: the intentional acting of subjects related to and oriented toward the acting of others, that such action is linguistically mediated (that is, the historically and socially given system of symbolic signs and the rules of their use are applied in illuminating the common situation and aimed at changing it), that action in relation to others constitutes a common world whose reality is related to this action, that communicative action is temporal action related to a temporal world and produces the iden­tity of subjects through the constitution of biographical contexts, that the action of partners reciprocally and reflectively related to each other is still further deter­mined by given historical and social orientations internalized in the process of socialization, that communicative actions, as temporally and linguistically mediated, contain the possibility of reflection and the active revision of internalized orientations and of reifications in the dimensions of the individual and of society determined by historical processes, that reflexivity and reciprocity of communicative action achieves its utmost possibility in the reciprocal innovative opening of new life possibilities, and that through reciprocally assumed and granted freedom the actors mutually recognize each other as free subjects in solidarity.41

Peukert recognizes that all human communication contains a normative core because at the most fundamental level it is clear that "human beings have certain inescapable claims on one another which cannot be renounced except at the cost of their humanity."42 If the basic aim of communicative action is an unrestricted commun­ity of communication, the mutual acceptance of those involved in communication is an essential precondition. The moment we communicate, we thus enter a universal dialogue in which we aim at universal solidarity as providing the ethical core to our human communication.

According to Peukert, this understanding of communicative action raises at least two problems.43 As we know that universal solidarity is not practised, does this mean that our duty is to fight for the rights of the most oppressed where they are not respected? Following on this, the second question is whether, on being confronted with our fate in terms of the fragility of our existence and our inability to come up to scratch, we are not led to universal despair rather than universal solidarity?

Such are the challenges to our religious tradition. We need to find a model which will enable us to take sides with the weak and oppressed while at the same time pursuing the goal of universal solidarity. Peukert sees in Jesus' words and deeds the affirma­tion of God's saving reality for all humanity, and particularly for the poor and the weak. The legitimate question then is whether Jesus' own death affirms this reality of God in his life. As he is not destroyed by death he is confirmed as the living affirmation of God's love for all humanity. This makes hope possible and the striving for universal solidarity in the praxis of love a compelling imperative.44

Certain non-negotiable premises emerge from Peukert's suggestions for a theolo­gical theory of communicative action which are summarized below.

• Such acts are purposefully those of subjects which are directed at other subjects - there are no "objects" or "cases" in such communication - thus the equality and dig­nity of participants is preserved and honoured. 41. Äwdp169 42. Peukert, Helmut "Universal solidanty as goal of communication" in Media Development 28/4,1981 ρ 11 43. Ibid 44. Ibid ρ 12 See also Peukert op c/M 984 pp 202, 211

JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA 31

• The vehicles for communicative action are the historically and socially determined symbols and signs (usually language) which led to understanding and change. Such change is praxis based on love directed towards the goal of universal solidarity. • Communicative action is relational, constituting a common life world in which these actions take place; it is bound to time and place, and reflects our histories and orienta­tions as participants. • True to the influence of critical theory in Peukert's work, a theological theory of communicative action must, in its continuous process of reflection, be open to revision and creativity, which will move to greater freedom and solidarity in the relationships of the participants.

In summary, Peukert sees "the thesis of the egalitarian and solidaristic basic struc­ture of communicative action (as) . . . the central thesis of the whole of theology."45

According to Ernest Henau, it is due to the influence of Habermas' work that the idea of a "kommunikatietheoretische ecclesiologie" has now come to the fore.46 The way in which the community of faith understands itself will determine whether or not communication within the community succeeds or fails. If those occupying church offices see themselves as guardians of the depositum fidei, communication between equal partners will not be possible and control will replace genuine communication, leading to a situation which is asymmetrical. Communication will be encoded into lan­guage which is both controlling and prescriptive. Such a process is stultifying and will work against change; it will, in fact, lead to an indirect prohibition on critical thought itself.

Henau finds Habermas' concept of "Herrschansfreie Kommunikation" in direct contrast to the view outlined above. A condition for ideal communication is "élémen­taire Symmetrie" between the participants, in a situation of freedom from coercion. Henau finds support for his views in the work of Peukert. By examining Jesus' pro-clamatory praxis, Henau claims that it opens up a space where God rules, which embodies acceptance and forgiveness, where burdens are borne reciprocally, where there is celebration and "Herrschansfreie Kommunikation. " In this he sees a new way of understanding church as the place which sets a dialogical communicative process in motion and in which there will be no place for asymmetrical communication. It will be a community of the faithful which will emphasize the priesthood of all believers, in which all are equal yet performing different functions.

The characteristics of communication in such a community (or church) should, according to Henau, include the following: Firstly, people must be open to criticism as the eschatological character of truth contains a definitive as well as a provisional character; secondly, a further condition for open communication would be the willing­ness to give account on grounds of rationality in a joint exchange of ideas.47

Finally, Henau remarks that communication as explained by Habermas and Peukert rests on a philosophical tradition which regards all knowledge as fundamen­tally hypothetical and provisional.48 Although an openness to revision of theories must be maintained, life also requires the making of decisions and drawing of conclusions. Henau cautions that conclusions reached without giving heed to critical conscious­ness lead to the irrational, while critical consciousness without conclusions and 45. ftwdp 171 46. Henau, Ernest "Schnftinterpretatie als element van kommunikatie" in Praktische Theologie 13/4,1988 ρ 88 47. Ibid ρ 97 48. Äw/p 100

32 THEORY, ACTIONS, PRAXIS

engagement induces scepticism and ultimately cynicism. From a communicative point of view both these attitudes lead to an impasse. The path to open communica­tion in the community of faith involves navigating between these two poles.

In conclusion, feminist liberation theologian, Elisabeth Schüsser Fiorenza, finds merit in the use of critical theory in feminist theology as a critical theology.49 In dealing with the impact of historical studies and hermeneutical discussions on theology, she underlines the fact that value-free, objective historiography is a scholarly fiction. Feminist scholars know that the Christian tradition has been studied, interpreted and perpetuated by theologians who consciously or unconsciously understood it from the "patriarchal perspective of male dominance."50 Any theory of hermeneutics which merely attempts to understand the Christian tradition is not sufficient because tradi­tion is not only a source of truth but also of untruth and oppression.

Critical theory as developed by the Frankfurt school provides a key for a hermeneutic under­standing which is not just directed toward an actualizing continuation and a perceptive under­standing of history but toward a criticism of history and tradition to the extent that it participates in the repression and domination which are experienced as alienation. Analogously (in order to liberate Christian theologies, symbols, and institutions), critical theology uncovers and criticizes Christian traditions and theologies which stimulated and perpetuated violence, alienation, and oppression. Critical theology thus has as its methodological presupposition the Christian community's constant need for renewal.51

Assessing the Above Views Certain presuppositions are at work in the above theological theories which raise questions when viewed from a feminist perspective. There is scope in Pieterse's dialogical theory of communication for the feminist perspective. Although his views are not specifically gender conscious, the underlying theories appear to be inclusive. It is an admittedly Utopian view and thus raises question of how dialogue between oppressors and oppressed (whether on grounds of race, sex or class) can come about. Is there an ethical imperative towards some sort of affirmative action contained in such a theory? What is the task of the practical theologian in this endeavour? Is it merely one of setting out theological theories or does it call for involvement?

Both Heinrichs and Arens base their views on systematic theological assumptions such as those surrounding Incarnation, the Trinity and Christology. Does their sys­tematic theological framework take into account understanding the implications of such assumptions for women? Arens deals with Jesus' communication with the Pharisees as one characterized by lack of background consensus. It would be interesting to speculate how he would deal with Jesus' communication with the Syro-Phoenician woman in terms of a theory of communicative actions.

Peukert's concern with the theodicy problem resonates deeply with the perceptions of feminist theologians. His strong ethical content, his insistence on universal solid­arity as the goal of communication and his sensitivity to the problems raised by such a goal, are the stuff that feminist liberation theology is made of. However, the practical implications of Peukert's theories need more elaboration. From a feminist perspective one could ask how communicative actions between men and women can attain the level of subject-subject communication? What are the historical and contextual impli-

49. Fiorenza op at ρ 48 50. Ibid ρ 49 51. Ibid

JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA 33

cations of a praxis of solidarity in love? Is free communication possible in a non-democratic political context? If it is not, does this mean that Peukert's theories are again only applicable to those parts of the world where democracy is assumed to function?

A practical theological ecclesiology which incorporates a theory of communicative action derived from a critical theoretical stance will be challenged by a feminist perspective in terms of the implications of "Herrschansfreie Kommunikation." Henau's concepts of freedom from coercion and elementary symmetry, will call for the dismantling of all clericalism, hierachicalism and male dominance in the institutional churches. If the Utopian views of either critical theory or its theological application are to become reality, the institution we know as "church" will have to be radically restruc­tured and would be unrecognizable in terms of its present penchant for male clericalism.

A Feminist Critique Feminists have criticized Marx for his lack of awareness of the role of gender in the for­mulation of his concepts. For example, it is held that Marx's concept of class relies on the narrow translation of the terms "production" and "economic" as referring to those activities which are concerned with the producing of food and objects.52 This definition of class led to a situation in which neither the historical conflicts with regard to childbearing and rearing were considered, nor the organization of these activities seen as requiring change. Marx's concern with control over the means of production, prompt women to point out that they, as a group, have even less control than men over the means and results of their labours. A feminist view cannot assume that gender and class are two separate categories.

Although Habermas might acknowledge the role of religion in the totality of univer­salist ideals, he has been criticized, among others by Thomas Walsh for refusing "to grant an ongoing, modern role for religion in the generation, maintenance, or renewal of the lifeworld as a bearer of generalizable and nonparticularistic practical concerns."53

A feminist critical perspective would, however, raise other questions. In examining the paucity of resistance present in specific histories of oppression, Sharon Welch alludes to the search by Marxists for a revolutionary proletariat. She comments:

The Frankfurt philosophers Adorno and Horkheimer despaired of ever finding such a class in the industrial west, and Habermas is still looking for a glimmer of resistance shining through the cracks in advanced capitalism.54

Welch goes on to point out that although Habermas provides an extensive analysis of the legitimation crisis in advanced capitalism he has been unable to locate a revolutionary subject to take advantage of this crisis. A feminist liberation perspective would view women as potentially revolutionary subjects. The interaction of personal and political liberation in the experience of sisterhood resonates with the experience of base communities. Conscientized women who share their common experiences of oppression and resistance develop a critical solidarity which has potential for radical change. "The assumption that an elite can effectively ascertain the contours of oppression and liberation and offer this theoretical work to the oppressed as a fait 52. Nicholson, Linda "Feminism and Marx Integrating kinship with the economic" in Benhabib, S & Cornell, D (eds) Feminism

as critique On the politics of gender (Minneapolis University of Minnesota Press, 1987) ρ 24 53. Walsh op at ρ 117 54. Welch, Sharon Communities of resistance and solidarity A feminist theology of liberation (Maryknoll Orbts Books, 1985) ρ 40

34 THEORY, ACTIONS, PRAXIS

accompli" would, in Welch's view, be a perpetuation of Habermas' error.55 The oppressed need to name their own oppression and liberation and not to heed their voices is to maintain oppression. White women in the South African context who wish to renounce their roles as oppressors and who also want to be free from oppression, need to understand the nature of freedom in such a way that they will neither prescribe to others nor allow others to prescribe to them.

A critical social theory, informed by identification and interest, would, if it were inquiring into the question of the oppression of women, try to understand the nature of such subordination. In order to assess its adequacy, such a critical theory would have to be subjected to empirical tests to determine how well its theory describes the situation of women.

Taking the subordination of women as a societal fact, Nancy Fraser asks of critical theory and more specifically of Habermas' social theory, just how critical it is in respect of gender dominance and subordination in modern society.56 She finds that Habermas says virtually nothing about gender in The theory of communicative actions, in her view a serious deficiency. She examines Habermas' work methodolog­ically from the standpoint of absence, by extrapolating from what he does say to things he does not and then proceeds to construct how matters which concern feminists would appear from his perspective. After a fairly exhaustive analysis, Fraser concludes that the "principal blind spots in Habermas' theory with respect to gender are trace­able to his categorical opposition between system and lifeworld institutions."57

This insight is helpful for the structuring of a feminist critical theory. Such a framework cannot incorporate a view which puts the male-headed nuclear family and the state-regulated economy on two opposite sides of a major divide. The personal is political and women know that both family and official economy appropriate our labour, and that both enforce our subordination, albeit in different ways. A framework which is sensitive to the similarities between the oppressive situations in which women find themselves and to the mechanisms of power which sustain such situa­tions is needed.

Critical theory which will be a usable implement for a critical feminist practical theological perspective cannot avoid the category of gender in its analysis. To illus­trate this point, restricting the term "power" to bureaucratic contexts fails to take cog­nizance of the patriarchal power structures in the church and in the domestic and societal spheres. Critical theory would do well to analyze women's relation to paid work in patriarchal capitalist societies, where the role of the worker or breadwinner is seen as masculine. "As Carole Pateman puts it, it is not that women are absent from the paid workplace; it's rather that they are present differently."58 Once gender blind­ness is overcome in the application of critical theory, women can use such theory to tackle discrimination and oppression on different levels.

Turning to theories of communicative action, a feminist perspective recognizes that the means of interpretation and communication in terms of social meanings has always been controlled by men. Women will have to struggle to redistribute and democratize the access to and control over such means.

55. Ibid ρ 83 56. Fraser, Nancy "What s cntical about cntical theory? The case of Habermas and gender" in Benhabib & Cornell op at ρ 32 57. Ibid pp 32-52,55 The "private sphere" denotes the modern nuclear family The "public sphere" is the space of political par­

ticipation, debate and opinion formation Together they constitute what Habermas calls "institutional orders of the modern lifeworld"

58. In Fraser op at ρ 42

JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA 35

We are, therefore, struggling for women's autonomy in the following special sense: a measure of collective control over the means of interpretation and communication sufficient to permit us to participate on a par with men in all types of social interaction, including political deliberation and decision-making.59

A great deal is written in practical theology about communicative actions and the vehicles of language, signs and symbols in the emancipatory process. Yet the very language used to express these liberating and healing thoughts is more often than not exclusive and sexist. This chasm between theory and praxis implies that the use of critical theory has not in fact been truly critical. It also points to the necessity for critical analysis in practical theology.

A feminist perspective on communicative action is in agreement with those social theories which acknowledge the critical role played by language in the transmission of our experiences of ourselves in relation to others and to the community in which we find ourselves. Feminist ethicist Beverly Harrison says that if language is

... the ineluctable bearer and transmitter of all cultural and social patterns and all social relations, then language transmits not only a sense of the polis or political society we are born into but also conveys our sense of personal-relational power, or lack of it. Language encodes our sense of how we are positioned in our basic relations to and with others who make up our social world. This means that language teaches us, below the level of consciousness and intentionality, our sense of power-in-relation ... The potential of language, then, is either to expand human possibility or to function as a transmitter of subtle, and not so subtle, patterns of human oppression and domination. Language is through and through political, for it transmits the past to our present.60

Thus anyone setting out a theory of communicative action needs to be aware of the social, political and psychological implications of language and be open to a feminist critique on this score. Harrison points out, for example, that it is astonishing to note the extent to which our God- language is power-preoccupied while at the same time fixated on human powerlessness.61 She acknowledges that these symbols were con­jured up in the 20th century to counter political totalitarianism. In her view it is time for feminist theologians to speak out against the madness of denying the power of human agency. Mention has already been made of the exclusive use of male images for the Creator, not to speak of those used for humanity, in our liturgies and in our acts of celebration.

An adequate theory of communicative actions will require an inclusive view on com­munication, based on an ethic which "undermines any morality of blind command and replaces it with the process of moral reflection that comes from those who respectfully reason together."62

Feminist liberation theology's agenda includes critique, correction and transforma­tion, goals shared by critical theory. The emphasis on self-reflection which leads to liberating praxis resonates with feminists. There are undoubtedly similarities between the goals of critical theory and women's search for self-understanding and the free­dom to claim their full humanity. Nevertheless, a feminist perspective finds that Habermas' critical theory does not adequately confront the problem of structural inequalities encountered by individual women or social groups. While self-reflection can free women from complicity in thwarting their personal legitimate desires, it does not erode structural oppression. 59. Ibid ρ 53 60. Harrison, Beverly Making the connections Essays in feminist social ethics (Boston Beacon Press, 1985) ρ 24 61. Ibid ρ 35 62. to/dp 41

36 THEORY, ACTIONS, PRAXIS

What is needed is a new and dynamic application of critical theory which does not flinch from its own far-reaching implications. Such an application in practical theology needs to be informed by a genuine dialogical communication between critical theory and a feminist liberatory perspective conducted in accordance with the conditions which critical theory itself propagates, in an intersubjective context. This will direct practical theology in terms of its stated intent to function as an operational science involved in communicative actions. It is a process in which both theory and praxis will be addressed by a feminist view of what constitutes liberating praxis.

A Preliminary Feminist Practical Theological Theory of Communicating Liberating Praxis

• Such a theory is critical, contextual and liberatory. It is also self-critical and on­going, recognizing that the theory-praxis relationship is both inseparable and dynamic. The external locus for its self-criticism is an holistic view of humanity which seeks liberation from all that is oppressive. • Liberating praxis is appraised in terms of justice, love, freedom and shalom as themes central to the reign of God. A feminist perspective evaluates these themes critically in regard both to women's complicity in their subordination as well as women's suffering of oppression. • Liberating praxis which communicates reign of God values is the main concern of such a theological theory, whether it occurs within the community of faith, or outside it. • A feminist liberatory perspective applies to all humanity, to both women and men and to the whole of creation. In order to remedy the imbalance hitherto perpetuated in practical theology which has not taken note of women's experience, special atten­tion will be given to those liberating acts for and by women. • The point of departure is the theological reflection on praxis, in preference to theory formations which are subsequently applied to praxis. • Context determines the framework within which this exercise takes place. This calls for the unambivalent stating of the practical theologian's context. This involves the recognition of political realities as well as an analysis of context as an important key to the formulation of theories for liberating praxis. • A feminist perspective on liberating praxis is committed to solidarity with all those who are oppressed. Such an advocacy stance is openly declared and challenges practical theological theories in terms of their commitment to praxis.

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