Acknowledgements - epubs.surrey.ac.ukepubs.surrey.ac.uk/842084/1/L Adam E thesis.docx · Web viewThis thesis and the work to which it refers are ... with convenience sampling of

Exploring the relationship between gender roles and psychological wellbeing: Does

coping have a role?

Louise Ann Adam

Submitted for the Degree of

Doctor of Psychology(Clinical Psychology)

School of PsychologyFaculty of Health and Medical Sciences

University of Surrey

Guildford, Surrey

United Kingdom

September 2017

Statement of Originality

This thesis and the work to which it refers are the results of my own efforts. Any ideas, data, images, or text resulting from the work of others (whether published or unpublished) are fully identified as such within the work and attributed to their originator in the text. This thesis has not been submitted in whole or in part for any other academic degree or professional qualification.

Name: Louise Ann Adam

Overview

Psychological distress is commonly experienced, and can have detrimental

impacts both on the person experiencing it as well as on the wider context of society.

The use of coping strategies is one way that the negative impacts of psychological

distress can be lessened. The process of coping is complex, and there are many

factors that influence how an individual copes with stressful situations, including the

gender role they adhere to. This thesis aimed to investigate the impact that

androgyny, that is the endorsement of masculine as well as feminine traits, has on

coping and psychological distress. Part one includes a literature review assimilating

research that has explored the relationship between androgyny and coping abilities.

The findings were mixed, but overall suggest that the gender role an individual

adheres to is related to how they cope with stressful situations. In particular,

androgyny was related to problem-focused coping and coping flexibility. Part two

presents an empirical paper that investigated the relationships between androgyny,

coping flexibility and psychological distress, in adults currently living in the British

Isles. The findings indicated that increased androgyny was related to reduced

psychological distress, at least in part due to increased coping flexibility.

Implications and further research is discussed. Further information is then provided

to illustrate the work completed to gain the PsychD qualification. A summary of

clinical experience is presented in part three, describing placements undertaken and

experiences gained during training. Finally, part four includes a table with the titles

of academic assignments completed.

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................1

Research Part 1 - Literature Review........................................................................2

Abstract.......................................................................................................................3

Introduction.................................................................................................................4

Method.......................................................................................................................10

Search strategy........................................................................................................10

Screening of Potential Studies................................................................................11

Assessment of Methodological Quality Evaluation................................................13

Data Extraction.......................................................................................................13

Assessment of Risk of Bias.....................................................................................14

Results........................................................................................................................14

Methodological Quality Scores of Studies..............................................................15

Designs....................................................................................................................15

Study Locations, Settings and Samples..................................................................18

Participants..............................................................................................................18

Stressful Situations Individuals were Assessed as Coping With............................19

Measures.................................................................................................................24

Findings...................................................................................................................30

Discussion..................................................................................................................50

Limitations..............................................................................................................53

Limitations of this Review......................................................................................54

Conclusion..............................................................................................................55

References..................................................................................................................56

Research Part 2 - Empirical Paper.........................................................................66

Abstract.....................................................................................................................67

Introduction...............................................................................................................69

Psychological distress.............................................................................................69

Coping.....................................................................................................................70

Gender roles............................................................................................................74

Current study...........................................................................................................80

Method.......................................................................................................................81

Design.....................................................................................................................81

Participants..............................................................................................................81

Measures.................................................................................................................82

Procedure................................................................................................................85

Ethical considerations.............................................................................................85

Analysis strategy.....................................................................................................86

Results........................................................................................................................87

Response rate..........................................................................................................87

Participant characteristics.......................................................................................89

Study variables........................................................................................................92

Correlation analysis.................................................................................................94

Coping flexibility as a mediator of any relationship between androgyny and psychological distress.............................................................................................96

Discussion................................................................................................................100

Greater androgyny is beneficial for psychological wellbeing through coping flexibility...............................................................................................................100

Strengths and Limitations.....................................................................................104

Implications...........................................................................................................108

Conclusion............................................................................................................111

References................................................................................................................113

List of Appendices...................................................................................................127

Appendix..................................................................................................................128

Part 3 - PsychD clinical progamme summary of clinical experience.................152

Part 4 - PsychD clinical progamme table of assessments completed during training.....................................................................................................................155

Acknowledgements

I’d like to thank my supervisors who have supported me throughout this

project. Firstly, Jason Spendelow for supporting and encouraging me with its

creation. Secondly, I’d like to thank Kate Gleeson for offering her sincere interest

and enthusiasm in supporting me as the project reached its final stages. I’d also like

to thank Linda Morison for always being available, and never letting me think a

question was silly.

Thank you to the many participants that took the time to complete the survey.

I’d like to thank my parents, Carole and Chris, for everything they have done

and sacrificed that has enabled me to be in the position I am in now. Thanks to my

sister, Sarah, for helping me to keep things in perspective. Thanks also to my Nan

and Grandad, and Muskin – your pride in me has kept me going.

Thanks go to my wonderful fellow trainees, who have provided endless

support, advice and laughter along the way. And thank you to Ellena and Sophie for

their excellent proof-reading skills and the generosity of their time.

And finally, my thanks go to Paul. Thank you for keeping me going through

this project, for always being there, for your unyielding patience throughout the

entire course, for keeping me fed and watered and your endless tips on page

numbering. Your support has been invaluable.

1

Literature Review

Do androgynous individuals cope differently when compared to individuals of other gender roles? A literature review.

by

Louise Adam

Word Count (excluding tables, figures, the reference list, appendices and abstract)

7994

Key words: Androgyny, gender roles, coping, review

2

Abstract

This paper aimed to explore whether psychologically androgynous

individuals coped with stressful situations differently than individuals of other

gender roles. This was achieved through a review of the literature that investigated

the coping abilities of androgynous individuals.

A search of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, PsycINFO,

PsycARTICLES and Scopus returned 442 articles after duplicates were removed.

After applying inclusion and exclusion criteria 18 articles remained. Findings were

summarised according to the gender roles of androgyny, masculinity, femininity and

undifferentiated and their relationship to coping.

Coping strategies used did vary according to gender role, although findings

were mixed. Androgyny was generally related to more use of problem-focused

strategies and flexible coping, although masculinity also had positive relationships

with these coping styles. However, there was large variation across the studies

regarding the stressful situation explored and in the coping measure used. These

variations may go some way to explaining differences in findings, and makes the

comparison of findings across studies less reliable. To generate a clearer

understanding of the relationship between gender roles and coping strategies, future

research could explore the dynamic processes underlying the coping response.

3

Introduction

Stress is a commonly experienced, inevitable part of life, but long-term and

chronic stress have long been recognised as being detrimental to health, with harmful

biological and psychological impacts (Schneiderman, Ironson & Siegel, 2005).

Stressful events often precede mental health problems such as anxiety and depression

(Schneiderman et al., 2005), which in themselves are stressful to experience. The

prevalence of common mental health difficulties is increasing, with one in six people

experiencing a common mental health problem in England in 2014 (Mental Health

Foundation, 2016). However, the negative impact of stressful experiences can be

mitigated depending on how an individual copes with them (Folkman & Moskowitz,

2004), and as such many psychological interventions are based on increasing

someone’s coping abilities. As stress is such a far-reaching phenomenon it is

unsurprising that coping is an area that has generated much interest, including the

many factors that influence it.

Coping is often defined as the deliberate selection of appropriate cognitive or

behavioural strategies to manage a situation that has been appraised as demanding

more than the person’s available resources (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). Lazarus

and Folkman (1984) suggest that when evaluating the demands of the situation,

primary appraisals are made of the harm that has occurred, the potential harm and the

gains that can be made. A situation is deemed stressful if it is appraised as impacting

personally and requires more than the person’s resources for coping. Secondary

appraisals are made regarding how best to positively influence the situation and the

evaluations of the options available. Based on the appraisals, and depending on the

available strategies, cognitive and behavioural efforts are made to reduce the impact

of the situation (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Due to coping being reliant on

4

appraisals and the person-situation transaction, the coping process is dynamic;

constantly changing depending on situational and individual changes (Lazarus &

Folkman, 1987).

The measurement of coping is far from straightforward, with Skinner, Edge,

Altman and Sherwood’s (2003) review of coping measures finding 400 different

coping strategies across 89 coping assessments. Researchers have categorised these

coping strategies to aid investigation, often classifying them across two distinctions.

Coping strategies are often classified by function (such as problem-emotion focus),

topological features (such as approach-avoidance), or action types (such as primary-

secondary) (Skinner et al., 2003). Skinner et al. concluded that classifying strategies

based on the function or topological features may be over-simplistic and result in

information loss. Most coping strategies serve several functions, for example,

making a plan can change the situation but also calm emotions, so classifying this

way may not accurately represent the strategy. Evidence as to which coping

strategies are beneficial has understandably been mixed, given the different ways of

measuring it. Additionally, strategies are likely to vary in their effectiveness based on

the situation’s context (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). Another fundamental flaw in

viewing coping strategies as uniformly effective or ineffective is that the dynamic

process of coping is largely ignored (Bonanno & Burton, 2013). Despite the dynamic

process being well recognised theoretically, until recently it has been paid little

attention.

Given that stress can have such a significant impact and coping can mitigate

this impact, exploring what affects someone’s coping abilities is important. As the

coping process is dependent on the relationship between person and situation,

5

various factors related to the individual are likely to explain differences in coping

(Piko, 2001), for example biological sex. One meta-analysis found that women were

more likely than men to use emotion and avoidance coping strategies, and that men

were more likely to use instrumental coping (Matud, 2004). Ptacek, Smith and

Dodge (1994) had similar findings, but also found that these differences were

maintained when participants were presented with the exact same stressful situation

and appraised it similarly. This suggests that differences in men and women’s coping

may not be explained by differences in stressful situations experienced or the

appraisals. One theory is that gender differences occur due to stereotypes and

expectations placed on males and females, known as gender-socialisation (Ptacek,

Smith & Zanas, 1992), which can ultimately result in the development of potentially

restrictive gender roles. Before exploring research into gender roles’ influence on

coping strategies, the concept of the gender role aspect of gender identity will be

explored. Gender identity is defined by the American Psychological Association

(APA) as being an individual’s conscious sense of self as male or female, and is

based on biological and environmental factors (VandenBos, 2007). One

environmental factor potentially influencing gender identity is an individual’s

awareness of gender roles, resulting from their observation that some characteristics

and roles are exhibited more by males compared to females within a given society,

and vice versa.

The psychological study of gender shifted in the 1960s, and has attracted

much attention since (Zosuls, Miller, Ruble, Martin & Fabes, 2011). Up until that

point, the conceptualisation of gender roles had been restricted to masculinity and

femininity, and they had been viewed as being one-dimensional and mutually

exclusive (Dean & Tate, 2016). An important change came as a result of Bem’s

6

(1974) theory that individuals can possess traits typically associated with both

masculine and feminine gender roles, and be psychologically androgynous. At

around the same time, Constantinople (1973) suggested that masculinity and

femininity are two independent constructs. Although gender is recognised as being a

complex construct, gender roles represent the traits and behaviours that are endorsed

through the assimilation of societal norms for men and women (Johnson & Repta,

2012). Personality traits typically associated with masculinity are instrumental,

whilst traits typically associated with being feminine are expressive (Cook, 1985).

The introduction of psychological androgyny presented the possibility that an

individual’s gender role aspect of their gender identity could be flexible and

incorporate characteristics based on both sexes.

With the development of her androgyny theory, Bem (1974) created The Bem

Sex Role Inventory, a (still) widely used measure of gender role adherence. Bem

(1974) developed scales of masculinity and femininity based on personality traits that

were deemed more desirable for either men or women (Bem, 1974). Masculinity has

been defined as the presence of desirable ‘doing’ or instrumental characteristics, such

as independence and competitiveness, and femininity defined as the presence of

expressive characteristics, such as being nurturing or loyal (Bem, 1974). An

‘androgynous’ person has been defined as someone who demonstrates high levels of

both masculine and feminine desirable characteristics and is flexible in their gender-

role adherence (Prakash et al., 2010). This is as opposed to someone adhering more

exclusively to ‘masculine’ or ‘feminine’ personality traits. Bem (1977) categorised

those that equally, but minimally, endorse masculine and feminine gender traits as

‘undifferentiated’. Undifferentiated individuals may also be free of a restrictive

gender-schema (Bem, 1977). However, Pauletti, Menon, Cooper, Aults & Perry

7

(2016) suggest that undifferentiated individuals may be at risk of adjustment

difficulties.

Theoretically, androgyny has been associated with an ability to draw on many

abilities, due to not being restricted to the use of behaviours that a single socialised

gender role allows (Cook, 1985). This freedom from stereotyped gender traits may

result in individuals being flexible in their response to situations and choosing the

most effective strategies for a particular context (Bem & Lewis, 1975; Woodhill &

Samuels, 2004). Empirical research into gender role’s influence on wellbeing has,

however, been inconclusive. Androgyny has been associated with reduced

psychological distress and improved adjustment across several studies (Bem &

Lewis, 1975; Burchardt & Serbin, 1982; Hafner, 1989, Gale-Ross, Baird & Towson,

2009). On the other hand, masculinity has often been found to have a stronger

relationship with adjustment (Whitley, 1983; Whitley, 1985), compared to

femininity. Further adding to the disparate findings, research has found that

conforming to traditional masculine norms is linked to negative outcomes including

aggression, substance misuse, increased depression and paranoia (Mahalik, Good &

Englar-Carlson, 2003) and suicide behaviour risk (Houle, Mishara & Chagnon,

2008). Cheng (2005) points out that many studies’ outcome measures may be biased

towards masculine or instrumental personality traits, which may go some way to

explaining the mixed findings.

Exploring the various factors influencing adjustment may provide a clearer

picture regarding how gender roles are related to better wellbeing. How an individual

copes with stress is known to influence outcomes (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004),

and so research has begun to investigate gender role’s relationship to coping. In line

8

with the historical dominance of masculinity and femininity, much of the research

has focused on these two dimensions in relation to coping. Mayor (2015) describes

mixed findings, for example, with masculinity being associated with both active and

disengagement coping. Femininity has been associated with increased, as well as

reduced, active coping (Mayor, 2015) Although unclear how, it does appear that

whether an individual endorses masculine or feminine personality traits influences

the coping strategies they use. It is, therefore, possible that individuals that highly

endorse both masculine and feminine traits cope differently when compared to those

that endorse one or the other, or little of both.

As utilising appropriate coping strategies is known to be associated with the

regulation of emotion, yet findings regarding the benefit of specific types of coping

is mixed (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004), it was felt that gaining a better

understanding of what influences coping would be beneficial. Due to the growing

literature exploring the influence of gender role orientations on coping abilities, it

seemed appropriate to collate the available information. The influence of androgyny

on coping abilities seems particularly unclear, and so there will be a focus on

collating this information. It is hoped that by doing this, there will be an

enhancement of knowledge regarding contributors and barriers to coping abilities.

Therefore, the aim of this systematic literature review is designed to answer

the question: Do adults that adhere to an androgynous gender role cope differently

when compared to other gender-types, namely masculine, feminine and

undifferentiated individuals? Another aim was to discover whether androgynous

individuals utilised coping strategies typically classified as being more effective.

Following a critical evaluation of the literature, the direction of future research will

9

be considered. It is expected that many of the included articles will have additional

findings beyond the relationships between coping and gender roles, but it is beyond

the scope of this literature review to explore these.

Method

Search strategy

A search was completed of the following databases: Psychology and

Behavioral Sciences Collection, PsycINFO and PsycARTICLES. These databases

were chosen due to their extensive coverage of psychological articles. A keyword

search of the same terms was also completed on Scopus. Scopus was chosen due to

its coverage of a wide range of research fields. After preliminary searches, search

terms were decided based on frequently used terms for the concepts under question.

The search terms were as follows: gender flexibility OR androgyn* (to capture

androgynous or androgyny) OR gender-socialisation OR gender-schema OR sex-

typ* (to capture sex typing or sex type) OR gender role

AND

cop* (to capture coping or cope). Other terms were also considered, for example

‘adjustment’. However, a preliminary screening of the initial results revealed many

were irrelevant, and no relevant articles were found over and above those found with

the term ‘cop*’ alone. Therefore, no other search terms were used.

The only limiter applied was that the studies were published in peer-reviewed

journals. The results of the systematic search of the databases were combined using

RefWorks, resulting in 524 articles. Once duplicates were removed 442 articles were

remaining. Following full-text screening, a hand search was completed of the

10

reference lists of included articles. This resulted in a further 27 articles which needed

screening, taking the total number of articles screened to 469.

Screening of Potential Studies

An initial screening of the titles and abstracts of the 469 articles was

conducted, with any papers clearly not meeting the inclusion/exclusion criteria being

excluded. Thirty-five papers remained, which needed to be screened by reading the

full article. Based on the inclusion/exclusion criteria, 18 studies were deemed

inappropriate (see Figure 1 for details). This resulted in 17 studies to be included for

review. The inclusion and exclusion criteria are described below.

Inclusion Criteria. Papers were included if they met the following criteria:

Involved an adult sample, classified as 16 years old and over.

Written in the English language.

Quantitative studies examining the relationship between gender roles and

coping.

Conceptualised coping as the deliberate selection and use of behaviours and

strategies in order to deal with stressful situations (Folkman & Lazarus,

1984).

Published articles in peer reviewed journals.

Exclusion Criteria. Papers were excluded if they:

Did not directly explore the relationship between gender roles and coping

strategies.

Did not explore gender role in the context of self-reported personality traits,

for example, if gender role was defined by an individual’s job.

11

Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram

12

Total articles included for review

N = 17

N.B. One article consisted of two relevant studies, resulting in included studies N = 18

Records after duplicates removed N = 442

Articles excluded after full-text analysis due to no measure of coping N = 1.

Articles included for review N = 1

Records identified through database searching N = 524

Articles excluded after screening by abstract N = 25

Full text articles assessed for eligibility N = 2

Articles identified for screening from reference list of included articles N = 27

Articles included for review N = 16

Full-text articles excluded, with reasons (N = 19)

Did not include androgyny N = 5Did not measure androgyny based on personality traits N = 5 Did not measure coping behaviours N = 5 Relationship between androgyny and coping not explored N = 2Could not access full text n = 2

Full-text articles assessed for eligibility N = 35

Records excluded N = 407Records screened by title and abstract N = 442

Did not consider ‘androgyny’ or someone displaying both high femininity

and high masculinity as a gender role.

Used a sample which consisted of people with substance misuse difficulties

and PTSD, due to the significant confounding effects these difficulties were

likely to have on coping.

Assessment of Methodological Quality Evaluation

The Standard Quality Assessment Criteria for Evaluating Primary Research

Papers from a Variety of Fields (Kmet, Lee & Cook, 2004) was chosen to examine

methodological quality of the included studies. This scale was chosen due to its

applicability to a range of research designs. It also enables the identification of

whether studies have fulfilled criteria completely or partially, and results in a score

assigned to the study, aiding with quality interpretation. No studies were excluded

due to their methodological score as all data was deemed valuable. However, the

information from the exploration of the studies methodological quality was important

in analysing the findings. Three quality score factors were removed as they were not

applicable for any included studies. These were ‘If interventional and random

allocation was possible, was it described?; If interventional and blinding of

investigators was possible, was it reported?; If interventional and blinding of subjects

was possible, was it reported?’.

Data Extraction

Data was extracted systematically for each paper. Initially the paper was read

to obtain a general understanding of the study, and to ensure it met all the inclusion

criteria and did not meet any exclusion criteria. The paper was read a second time to

explore the methodological quality and extract relevant data. The paper was then

13

read for a third time to check the quality score and data extracted. During this

process, key findings and initial observations regarding emerging themes across the

studies were recorded.

Data that was extracted was as follows: authors, date published,

aims/objectives and hypotheses, sample size and source, country, reported sample

demographics, method, questionnaires used, independent and dependent variables,

data analysis method, reported results, effect sizes if reported and methodological

score.

Assessment of Risk of Bias

Following the recommendations of Higgins and Green (2011), the potential

bias within studies was considered, to provide additional information regarding the

understanding of the review’s findings. Sedgwick (2015) discusses the possibility for

selection bias to occur through non-response and volunteer bias in observational,

cross-sectional studies. Potential biases relating to sources of funding, author’s

declarations of interest, participant recruitment and demographics, selective outcome

and data reporting, confounding variables and methodological thoroughness were

considered.

Results

All 18 included studies directly explored the relationship between androgyny

and coping abilities. These involved either looking at the strength of any association

or comparing those with androgynous gender roles to other gender role orientations.

14

Methodological Quality Scores of Studies

Table 1 displays the quality scores of the included studies. The quality score

of each of the studies ranged from 0.68 to 0.95. Weaknesses included not clearly

reporting the study objective, not reporting an estimate of variance for the main

results and inadequate attempts at controlling for confounding variables. Although

confounding variables were not thought to have seriously impacted the results, it

does mean that there may be valuable information missing regarding the influence of

other variables. A perhaps even more concerning weakness was in the selection of

the participants, with convenience sampling of a specific population often being

used, particularly university students. This is likely to impact the applicability of the

findings across the population, which several of the authors acknowledged. For

example, Spangenberg and Lategan (1993) wondered if the youthfulness of their

student sample impacted the findings. One area of strength included sample size

being adequate, indicated by all studies reporting some significant findings.

Additionally, studies largely drew conclusions that were supported by these findings.

Designs

All the included studies used cross-sectional, survey designs, collecting data

from participants at one time-point. All used paper and pencil, self-report

questionnaires, with one (Patterson & McCubbin, 1984) also including questions

administered by an interviewer, which were later scored. All studies used

convenience, volunteer sampling methods. Most used university students, although

other studies used self-selecting volunteers from their place of work, health care

services and military populations.

15

16

Table 1

Table demonstrating methodological quality scores for studies included in the literature review

Author Clear question

Appropriate design

Sampling strategy

Sample described

Outcome measures

robust

Appropriate sample size

Data analysis

Variance reported

Controlled for

confounding

Detailed results

Conclusion supported

Total /22/1

Babladelis (1978) 1 2 1 0 2 2 2 0 1 2 2 15

0.68Brems &

Johnson (1989) 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 0 2 2 2 17 0.77

Cheng (2005a) 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 21 0.95

Cheng (2005b) 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 18 0.82

Chomczynska-Rubacha &

Rubacha (2012)

1 2 1 1 2 2 2 0 1 2 2 16 0.73

Dimitrovsky, Levy-Shiff & Perl (2000)

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 20 0.91

Gianakos (2000) 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 21

0.95

Hirokawa, Yagi, Miyata

(2004) 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 18

0.82

Huang, Zhu, Zheng, Zhang

& Shiomi (2012)

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 1 2 2 19 0.86

17

Table 1

Table demonstrating methodological quality scores for studies included in the literature review

Author Clear question

Appropriate design

Sampling strategy

Sample described

Outcome measures

robust

Appropriate sample size

Data analysis

Variance reported

Controlled for

confounding

Detailed results

Conclusion supported

Total /22/1

Jones, Medenhall & Myers (2016)

2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 21 0.95

Lipinska-Grobelny

(2011) 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 19

0.86

Long (1989) 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 18 0.82

Long (1990) 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 20 0.91

May & Spangenberg

(1997) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 21

0.95

McCall & Struthers (1994)

1 2 2 1 2 2 2 0 1 2 2 17 0.77

Nezu & Nezu (1987) 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 18

0.82

Patterson & McCubbin

(1984) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 21

0.95

Spangenberg & Lategan (1993) 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 19

0.86

/36 26 35 27 32 35 35 34 19 28 34 36Note. 0 = Did not meet criteria, 1 = Partially met criteria, 2 = Fully met criteria.

18

Study Locations, Settings and Samples

Many studies were conducted in the United States (seven studies), but were

also conducted in Canada (two), South Africa (two), Poland (two), Hong Kong

(two), Israel, Japan and China (all with one each). Thirteen studies sampled

undergraduate university students, with two studies including postgraduate students.

Four of these university-based studies involved solely psychology students, five

involved students from a variety of courses, one sampled a Business course and three

studies did not specify the subject. One study sampled workers of a transport

company, one sampled new mothers and one sampled wives of Navy personnel. Two

studies sampled their participants from a range of businesses through advertisements.

Although seven of the studies were located within the United States, there is

some variability in the other locations used, representing some Eastern cultures in

addition to Western ones. The settings are limited in their variability, largely

incorporating students who are likely to experience unique stressors due to the

developmental stage they are experiencing (Towbes & Cohen, 1996; Ross, Niebling

& Heckert, 1999). Furthermore, generalisability across age groups is limited, as

stressors experienced vary across the life span, along with coping strategies used

(Aldwin, 2011). Four of the studies used a single-sex sample, and so do not offer

findings that can be automatically generalised to the other sex. See Table 2 for

sample details.

Participants

All studies reported the number of males and females, and all but two

reported average ages. Of these two, one study reported the age range and the other,

the year of study they were in. Two studies gave details regarding ethnicity and

19

another study provided details of first language spoken by participants. See Table 2

for demographic details.

The total number of participants across all studies was 4135, with 2556

females (61.8% of the sample) and 1579 males (38.2%). The reported average ages

within the studies ranged from 18.70 years to 46.52 years (for males) and 43.11 years

(for females). The range of standard deviations that were reported suggest a

difference in age variation between the studies (SD = .65 to 8.10), although the range

of ages examined in all studies was limited. The large number of studies utilising an

undergraduate student population means that those in their twenties are most

represented.

In the two studies that reported ethnicity, a high proportion of participants

were white American (91.5% and 90.4%). Although details of ethnicities were not

available for other studies, other nationalities referred to and included were ‘Polish’,

‘Israeli’, ‘Chinese’ and ‘Japanese’.

Stressful Situations Individuals were Assessed as Coping With

For most studies, the stressful situation was not specified and a general

measure of coping was completed (see Table 3 for details). Two studies explored

specific coping contexts; one asked participants to consider the demands of

mothering, and one explored wives’ response to separation from their Naval

husbands due to a posting. Two studies specifically asked participants to consider a

work-related stressor. Three studies presented participants with hypothetical

situations, and further details were not provided by the authors. One study required

participants to freely identify a very stressful event and one asked individuals to

20

21

Table 2

Demographic information from included studies

Study NGender

Gender role Age Country/ Ethnicity Education EmploymentFemale Male

Babladelis (1978)

163 Did not report

Did not

report

Did not report United States/ Did not report

Undergraduate Psychology students

Did not report Did not report

Brems & Johnson (1989)

138 63 75 Not reported M = 23.1, SD = 3.6

United States/ Did not report

Undergraduate (unspecified courses) 2% sophomore, 17% junior, 78% senior, 3% graduate

Did not report

Cheng (2001a)

75 43 32 25 and/ 25 masc./ 25 fem.

M = 19.08, SD = 0.65

Hong Kong Undergraduate students (course unspecified)

Did not report

Cheng (2001b)

75 38 37 25 andr./ 25 mas. / 25 fem.

M = 20.83, SD = 1.46

Hong Kong Undergraduate students (course unspecified)

Did not report

Chomczynska -Rubacha & Rubacha (2012)

123 77 46 Did not report M = 32 Polish/ Did not report

Undergraduates (course unreported)

Did not report


97 97 0 20 andr./ 21 masc./ 50 fem./ 6 und.

M = 26.4 Israel/ Did not report Did not report Did not report

22

Table 2 Continued

Study N Gender Gender role Age Country/ Ethnicity Education EmploymentFemale MaleGianakos (2000)

176 130 46 Not reported M = 24.2, SD = 7.19

United States/ 161 White, 9 African American, 2 Native American, 1 Biracial/ 3 no response

Psychology undergraduate students

All part-time employed, mean hours per week = 29.36

Hirokawa, Yagi, Miyata (2004)

916 563 353 134 andr. (55 males/ 79 females)/ 275 masc. (105 males/ 170 females)/ 256 fem. (95 males/161 females)/ 157 und. (65 males/ 92 females)/ 94 mid. (33 males/ 61 females)

M = 18.7, SD = 1.1

Japanese/ Did not report

Undergraduates (course unclear)

Did not report

Huang, Zhu, Zheng, Zhang & Shiomi (2012)

432 209 223 152 andr. (85 male/ 67 female)/ 66 masc. ( 38 male/28 female) / 63 fem. (17 male/ 46 female) / 151 und. (83 male/ 68 female)

Range = 17 - 24

Chinese/ Did not report

Undergraduates (Liberal arts, and science/engineering) 28.2% freshmen, 19.9% sophomore, 28.2% juniors, 23.6% seniors

Did not report

Jones, 197 153 44 68 andr./ 48 masc./ 37 M = 22.96, United States/ Did Psychology Did not report

23

Medenhall & Myers (2016)

fem./ 44 und. SD = 7.37 not report undergraduates

Table 2 Continued

Study N Gender Gender role Age Country/ Ethnicity Education EmploymentFemale MaleLipinska-Grobelny (2011)

308 123 185 115 andr. (69 male/46 female)/ 48 c-s (39 male/9 female)/ 66 s-t (12 male/54 female)/ 79 und. (65 male/14 female)

Females: M= 43.11. Males:

M = 46.52

Poland/ Did not report

Women: Secondary 64.23%Higher 29.27%Men: Occupational 60% Secondary 24.32%

City transport company. Mean years of employment for men = 19 years, women = 11 years

Long (1989) 281 281 0 57 andr./ 64 fem. / 90 masc. / 70 und.

M = 38.1 Canada/ Did not report

50% had college or university education

All employed (details limited)

Long (1990) 132 72 60 Did not report Females:M = 38.1, SD = 8.1Males:M = 41.9, SD = 7.9

Canada / Did not report

78% females and 67% of men had college or university education

All full-time managers

May & Spangenberg (1997)

169 0 169 68 andr./ 48 masc./ 37 fem./ 44 undif

M = 37 South African/ Did not report but first language = Afrikaans 111, English 54, German

MBA Business Masters students

Did not report

24 3, Venda 1

Table 2 Continued

Study N Gender Gender role Age Country/ Ethnicity Education EmploymentFemale MaleMcCall & Struthers (1994)

214 107 107 Did not report Did not report

United States/ Did not report

College students (Business, Psychology and Communication)

Did not report

Nezu & Nezu (1987)

211 119 92 57 andr./(19 male/38 female)/ 43 masc. (27 male/16 female)/ 65 fem. (21 male/44 female)/ 46 und. (25 male/21 female)

M = 25.3 United States/ Did not report

Undergraduate and graduate students (course unclear)

Did not report

Patterson & McCubbin (1984)

82 82 0 23 and/ 59 non-androg

M = 29 United States/ Did not report

M= 13.5 years formal education

Did not report

Spangenberg & Lategan (1993)

301 245 56 71 andr./(61 female/10 male)/ 72 masc. (41 female/ 31 male)/ 68 fem. (67 female/ 1 male)/ 88 und. (76 female/ 12 male)

M = 19.24 South Africa/ Did not report. But first language = Afrikaans 231, 60 English, 10 German

First year Psychology undergraduates

Did not report

25

Note. Androg. = Androgynous, Masc. = Masculine, Fem. = Feminine, Und. = Undifferentiated, c-s = cross-sex typed, s-t = sex-typed, mid = mid-most.

identify ten stressful events related to different aspects of university life.

Measures

Gender role identity. The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1974) was

the most favoured measure of gender role, being used in fourteen studies. Two of

these studies used the Chinese version of the BSRI, and two used the Short Form.

The other measures of gender role used were the Personality Attributes

Questionnaire (PAQ; Spence, Helmreich & Stapp, 1975), Psychological Gender

Inventory (a Polish adaptation of the BSRI) (Kuczynska, 1992) and Masculinity-

Humanity-Femininity scale (MHF; Ito, 1978). This supports the view that the BSRI

is a widely, and still currently, used measure of gender role (Golden & McHugh,

2016).

The Bem Sex Role Inventory is a 60-item self-report measure of sex-role.

Individuals identify, using a 7-point Likert scale, how strongly they endorse

personality characteristics. The score from 20 of these characteristics are used to

devise a Masculinity scale, 20 used to devise a Femininity scale and the remaining 20

used for a neutral Social Desirability scale. The scales are independent of each other.

The items for the scales were devised using American undergraduate students’

ratings of the desirability of personality characteristics for men and women. Bem

(1974) found the BSRI to have adequate internal consistency scores, ranging from α

= 0.70 to 0.86 across the scales. Test-retest reliability was also found to be adequate,

ranging from r = .89 to .93.

Across the studies, several different methods of scoring androgyny were

used. Eight studies used the BSRI to place participants into four groups; Masculine,

Feminine, Androgynous or Undifferentiated. Usually individuals were categorised

26

based on whether they scored above the group’s median value for the femininity and

masculinity scales, known as median-split. However, t-ratios were also used

(Babladelis, 1978). Hirokawa, Yagi & Miyata (2004) classified participants as

Masculine, Feminine, Androgynous or Undifferentiated, and additionally ‘Midmost’,

based on the tertile masculinity and femininity scores. Chomczynska-Rubacha &

Rubacha (2012), Lipinska-Grobelny (2011) and Dimitrovsky, Levy-Shiff & Perl

(2000) grouped people as Cross-sex typed (feminine males; masculine females), Sex-

typed, Androgynous or Undifferentiated, using the median-split method. As an

alternative, some authors used the interaction between an individual’s Masculinity

and Femininity score as a measure of androgyny within regression or MANOVA

analyses (Brems & Johnson, 1989; Long, 1989 & 1990). The wide range of scoring

methods means that, despite many authors utilising the BSRI, reliable comparability

of findings across studies is limited.

There has been much debate regarding the scoring of androgyny with the

BSRI, with authors disagreeing on the most effective and appropriate methods. One

major criticism of the median-split method of categorising individuals is that

important data can be lost (Kalin, 1979). Furthermore, Kalin (1979) suggests that the

use of a study’s own medians means comparability with other studies is less reliable

(Kalin, 1979). The same individual may be classified as adhering to a different

gender role group in a different study.

Coping strategies. Various questionnaires and methods were used to

measure the coping strategies utilised by participants in the included studies.

Coping Flexibility. Cheng (2005a) developed her own measure of coping

strategies, asking participants to describe how they handled stressful life events and

27

later categorising them into one of eight coping strategies. Participants were also

asked to rate the effectiveness of each strategy. Cheng (2005b) required participants

to imagine themselves in stressful situations, and then asked whether they would use

a given coping strategy. Both of these measures were based closely on the Coping

Flexibility Questionaire (CFQ; Cheng, 2001), but the actual questionnaires used are

not published and no validation or reliability data is available.

The Coping Inventory (Zeitlin, 1985) was utilised by two of the studies (May &

Spangenberg, 1997; Spangenberg & Lategan, 1993). The Coping Inventory explores

both coping with the self and the environment, and consists of measures of active,

productive and flexible coping. All items are relevant to adaptive coping, and a total

score provides a summary of a person’s coping abilities. May & Spangenberg (1997)

report that the Coping Inventory has satisfactory test-retest reliability (0.75) and

internal consistency (0.49 and 0.61).

Problem-focused vs. emotion-focused coping. McCall and Struthers (1994)

developed their own measure of coping which consisted of 25 statements referring to

coping strategies, and participants decided how much they applied to them. A

Principal Components Analysis resulted in 5 factors, three of which fell under the

emotion-focused category and two under the problem-focused category (total α = .42

and subscale Cronbach’s alphas from .38 to .76).

The Polish version of the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS) was

used by both Lipinska-Grobelny (2011) and Chomczynska-Rubacha and Rubacha

(2012). It is a self-report measure requiring participants to indicate how much they

engage in a coping strategy, and has been shown to demonstrate adequate internal

consistency with Cronbach’s alphas ranging from .73 to .88 across the four

28

subscales; task-orientated, emotion-orientated, distraction-seeking and social

diversion (Szczepaniak, Strelau & Wrzesniewki, 1996).

The Ways of Coping Checklist (WCCL; Folkman & Lazarus, 1985) was used by

Dimitrovsky et al. (2000). The 66-items measure cognitive and behavioural ways of

coping, and the items can be divided into problem-focused, emotion-focused or

support-seeking strategies. Participants were asked to rate the degree they apply

these coping strategies when contending with the challenges of being a mother. The

WCCL is reported to have adequate reliability and validity (Dimitrovsky, et al.,

2000). A 67-item version of the WCCL was used by Long (1989 and 1990) and was

further revised by adding 22 items which captured work-related coping strategies.

Participants rated the degree to which they applied these coping strategies to a

stressor within the last 2 weeks.

Nezu and Nezu (1987) utilised the Coping Responses Inventory (Billings &

Moos, 1981). Participants were asked to select which of the possible 19 coping

strategies they used to cope, which are split into two subscales of problem-focused

and emotion-focused coping, but can also be categorised as active-cognitive, active-

behavioural and avoidance. Billings and Moos (1981) report internal consistencies

ranging from 0.44 to 0.80 for the scales.

Approach vs avoidance coping. Both Nezu & Nezu (1987) and Brems &

Johnson (1989) used the Problem-Solving Inventory (Heppner & Peterson, 1982),

which is a 32-item self-report measure of behaviours and attitudes to problem

solving. It can be factored into three subscales; problem-solving confidence,

approach-avoidance styles and personal control. Nezu & Nezu (1987) and Brems &

29

Johnson (1989) report adequate internal and test-retest reliability. Neither authors

provide example items.

Jones, Medenhall and Myers (2016) used eight subscales of the Coping

Orientations to Problems Experienced (COPE) inventory to assess approach and

avoidance coping, in line with Soderstrom, Dolbier, Leiferman and Steinhardt’s

(2000) scoring method. Internal consistency was reported to be adequate for both

approach and avoidance subscales (.89 and .88 respectively). No example items are

offered by Jones, et al. (2016).

The Latack Coping Scale (Latack, 1986) was used by Gianakos (2000) and is

made up of 26 items, measures control-focus and escape-focus coping, and has been

found to have five subscales; help-seeking, avoidance, positive thinking, direct action

and alcohol use. Cronbach’s alphas are reported to range from .61 to .83 across the

subscales (Havlovic & Keenan, 1995).

The Stress Coping Skills questionnaire (Ozeki, 1993) includes 14 coping

strategies covering the subscales of active and passive coping, and was used by

Hirokawa, Yagi and Miyata (2004). Participants are asked to rate the frequency with

which they used each coping strategy. Hirokawa, Yagi and Miyata (2004) report

internal consistency for each subscale (α = .63 and .68).

Positive – negative coping. The Trait Coping Style Questionnaire (Jiang, Huang

& Lu, 1995) was used by Huang, Zhu, Zheng, Zhang and Shiomi (2012) as a

measure of positive coping and negative coping, with ten items relating to each.

Participants rate the amount that they tend to adopt the particular coping strategy.

Adequate internal consistency scores were reported, with a Cronbach’s alpha of .63

for the measure over all, and .72 for both the positive and negative subscales. Lau,

30

Wang, Kwong & Wang (2016) reported the positive coping scale as relating to

positive, largely cognitive approaches, such as seeing an opportunity for personal

growth and using humour. Negative coping items include rumination of negative

thoughts and isolation.

Range of coping strategies. A modified version of the Coping with Separation

Inventory was used by Patterson & McCubbin (1984). It includes 30 relevant items,

from a possible 84, and the wives were asked to rate how helpful each behaviour has

been. Five coping patterns were measured; maintaining family integrity, developing

interpersonal relationships and social support, managing psychological tension and

strain, believing in lifestyle and optimism, developing self-resilience and self-esteem.

These factors are reported to have Cronbach’s alphas ranging from 0.71 to 0.85.

Psychological defences. Two of the included studies used coping measures that

explored psychological defence and coping mechanisms. Brems and Johnson (1989)

and Babladelis (1978) both used the Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation

– Coping Operations Preference Enquiry (FIRO-Cope; Schutz, 1967). The FIRO-

Cope requires the participant to rank five given responses that a hypothetical

character in a situation may use, from most likely to use to least likely to use. Each of

the five responses correspond with one of the following categories; denial, isolation,

projection, regression and turning against self. A lower score indicates a more

dominantly used coping mechanism. Neither study reports reliability or validity data.

Preventative coping. Long (1989) used a 6-item subscale measuring the use

of coping strategies to minimise the impact of potential future problems, taken from

Wong and Reker’s (1985) coping measure. Examples include ‘maintain positive self-

concept’ and ‘maintain health-promoting lifestyle’. The degree to which these

31

strategies were used was rated on a 4-point scale. Long (1989) reported good internal

consistency (α = .74).

Summary. Most of the studies did not specify a stressful situation in which to

assess an individual’s coping, which may have impacted the reliability of

participants’ self-identified coping strategies. Additionally, most studies’

measurement of coping were based on identifying their use of certain strategies, and

did not capture the other elements of coping.

Findings

A summary of the main findings, including statistics, can be found in Table 3.

Only relevant findings relating to gender role’s relationship to coping were reported.

Prevalence of androgyny. Twelve of the 18 studies reported the proportion

of the sample that adhered to each gender role orientation. Of the total sample of

these 12 studies, 25.9% adhered to an androgynous gender role.

Androgynous individuals cope differently to the other gender roles.

Broad range of coping strategies. Three studies found that people that

adhered to an androgynous gender role were significantly likely to use a range of

strategies. Androgynous university students reported using the broadest array of

coping strategies when compared to their masculine, feminine or undifferentiated

peers (McCall & Struthers, 1994). Specifically, androgynous individuals were

significantly more likely to use support, feeling-focused and cognitive-focused

strategies. Patterson and McCubbin (1984) found that an androgynous gender-type in

military wives was positively associated with the use of 4 out of 5 studied coping

strategies, and was positively correlated with balanced coping (r(80) = .26, p<0.025).

32

However, women were classified into androgynous and non-androgynous (including

masculine, feminine and undifferentiated women), and so, whether the high

masculine or high feminine component is related to effective coping was not

explored. Using an ANOVA Gianakos (2000) found that androgynous students were

significantly more likely to use help-seeking, positive thinking and direct-action,

when compared to undifferentiated individuals. However, there was no significant

difference between androgynous and masculine or feminine individuals, indicating

that androgynous students coped in similar ways to those who strongly endorse either

masculine or feminine personality traits.

Problem-focus. Two of the papers’ findings suggested that androgynous

individuals were more likely to use a problem-focused style of coping. Using linear

regression, Chomczynska-Rubacha and Rubacha (2012) found that androgynous

individuals had the strongest relationship to coping strategies deemed to be more

effective, such as task-orientated strategies, compared to other gender roles.

Lipinska-Grobelny (2011) compared coping styles used by androgynous, sex-typed,

cross-sex-typed and undifferentiated individuals and found that people who adhered

to an androgynous gender role used more problem-focused coping strategies.

Approach-focus. When classifying coping strategies into approach and

avoidance-coping, Jones, et al. (2016) found that those who adhered to an

androgynous gender role were significantly more likely to use approach-coping when

compared to undifferentiated individuals. No other significant relationships were

found between any of the gender role groups, including with avoidance-coping

strategies.

33

Flexible coping. May & Spangenberg (1997) found that androgynous males

coped more flexibly with the environment (defined as using a range of strategies and

changing plans), compared to masculine, feminine and undifferentiated individuals.

These results were also supported by Spangenberg and Lategan (1993), who also

found that androgynous males and females coped significantly more flexibly with the

environment.

Cheng (2001a) explored whether androgynous individuals cope in a more

flexible way, using ANOVA’s to explore whether someone’s gender role is related to

how they cope in different situations. Androgynous individuals used more direct

action coping strategies in controllable situations, and more acceptance coping

strategies in uncontrollable situations. In contrast, masculine and feminine

individuals did not vary coping strategies based on the controllability of the situation.

Cheng (2001a) also found that androgynous individuals varied how useful they

appraised the coping strategies to be based on the controllability of the situation, an

effect not found in individuals of other gender roles. Cheng (2001b) explored

whether androgynous individuals utilised a broader range of coping strategies, or

whether they selected coping strategies based on the situation. It was found that there

were no differences between the different gender-typed groups in the total number of

strategies endorsed by individuals. However, androgynous individuals varied the

coping skills chosen based on the controllability of the situation. Cheng (2001b)

instructed participants to imagine experiencing a stressful situation from the

perspective of a hypothetical person constructed, based on a male or female gender

role, i.e. a popular Chinese male name and being a ‘fire-fighter’. Androgynous

individuals’ chosen strategy varied based on the controllability appraisals, whereas

masculine and feminine individuals varied the strategy selected based on the gender

34

role of the hypothetical person. These results suggest that androgynous individuals

do not have more coping strategies to hand, but are able to select the most

appropriate ones more effectively, dependent on the situation.

Dependent on biological sex. Spangengberg and Lategen (1993) found that

an individual’s preferred coping style varied based on their gender role and

biological sex, in their study of South African students. They found that in females,

an androgynous gender role was related to more adaptive coping when directly

compared to all other gender role types using Mann Whitney U tests. Hirokawa et

al.’s (2004) results also supported this, with androgynous females in their study

scoring significantly higher on active coping compared to all other gender-types.

They found that androgynous males scored significantly higher on active coping

when compared to feminine and undifferentiated males. However, there were no

other significant differences between androgynous males and masculine and midmost

males.

Androgynous and masculine individuals cope similarly. Huang et al.

(2012) compared individuals in different gender role groups on coping styles, and

found that both androgynous and masculine-typed individuals coped using positive

strategies, i.e. finding the good in the situation. Undifferentiated people were found

to be more likely to use negative coping strategies. In a study of men with a

managerial occupation, masculine and androgynous individuals did not significantly

differ in their coping styles (May & Spangenberg,1997). Their total coping abilities

were significantly higher than undifferentiated and feminine individuals, and they

also displayed more active coping with the environment. Spangenberg and Lategan

(1993) found that for males, androgynous and masculine individuals both displayed

35

significantly more adaptive coping when compared with undifferentiated males.

When males and females were analysed together, both androgynous and masculine

individuals coped more flexibly with the self when compared to undifferentiated and

feminine individuals.

Masculine scores are related to different coping. Some of the included

studies had findings that suggest that masculine individuals coped significantly

differently to other gender-types. May and Spangenberg (1997) found evidence to

suggest that masculine individuals coped more actively with the self, when compared

to the androgynous, feminine and undifferentiated individuals. Brems & Johnson,

(1989) found that being masculine was positively associated with using approach-

based coping strategies. In contrast, femininity was associated with turning against

oneself, and no significant effects were found for androgyny. Nezu and Nezu (1987)

also found results that suggested that masculine individuals used proactive coping

strategies. In their study, individuals who scored high on masculinity reported more

problem-solving, active-focused and problem-focused coping, and less avoidance

and emotion-focused coping, when compared to individuals low in masculinity. An

individual’s femininity score did not significantly impact the coping and problem-

solving strategies used. The interaction of femininity and masculinity (that

represented androgyny) did not have a significant impact either. Using a MANOVA

analysis, Long (1989) found results that supported these findings, with women who

scored highly for instrumental, or masculine, traits using more problem-solving

strategies compared to low scorers. Long (1990) also found that higher scores on

instrumentality, predicted less avoidance-coping, using regression analyses.

36

Androgynous individuals do not cope differently compared to other

gender-types. Two studies found results that indicate there are no significant

differences between individuals with an androgynous gender role and other

individuals. The sample used by Dimitrovsky, et al. (2000) consisted only of

females. They found that both androgynous and feminine individuals sought support

more than masculine individuals. Feminine individuals used more emotion-focused

coping strategies, in comparison to masculine individuals who used more problem-

focused coping skills. Androgynous individuals’ use of these coping strategies fell

between the masculinity and femininity scores. On the measure of passive-coping,

Hirokawa et al. (2004) found that androgynous individuals were as likely to engage

in passive coping as individuals adhering to other gender roles. Long used the

interaction term of instrumentality and expressiveness as an indication of androgyny,

in regression analyses (1990) and MANOVAs (1989). The interaction term was not a

significant predictor of or significantly associated with any coping variables in either

study.

The only author to report no significant differences between any gender role

type and coping strategy was Babladelis (1978).

Summary.

The gender role that an individual adheres to influences the coping strategies

utilised. Only one study found no significant findings regarding gender role’s

relationship to measures of coping (Babladelis, 1978).

Androgyny has been repeatedly found to be associated with the increased use of

coping flexibility, active, problem-focused and approach-focused coping.

Androgyny has also been associated with the reduced use of typically less

37

helpful coping strategies, defined as passive, avoidance-focused and emotion-

focused coping.

Some findings have suggested that individuals who adhere to an androgynous

gender role cope differently to all other gender roles, whereas others have only

found significance when compared to feminine or undifferentiated individuals.

Individuals with an undifferentiated gender-type consistently displayed less

effective coping compared to the other gender-types.

38

39

Table 3

Summary of relevant findings from studies included in this review

Author PopulationStressful Situation

investigated

Gender role Measure / Scoring

procedure(Independent

Variable)

Coping Measure

(Dependent Variable)

Statistical Analysis Key findings Statistics

Babladelis (1978)

Undergraduate students

Hypothetical situations of interpersonal

anxiety

BSRI / t-ratio method

FIRO - Cope ANOVA No significant differences between gender role groups

*

Brems & Johnson (1989)

College students

None specified

BSRI / Masculinity × femininity interaction

PSI, FIRO-Cope

Regressions Masc. significantly predicted:problem-solving confidenceapproach coping strategiestotal coping abilities

Fem. significantly predicted turning against self

* Partial r = -.29Partial r = -.29Partial r = -.34

Partial r = .114

Cheng (2005a)

First year university students

10 events experienced in

relation to university life.

Participants rated the

controllability of the event.

BSRI / 1 SD above or

below mean femininity

and masculinity

scores

Purpose designed measure similar to

CFQ. Participants described how they coped in situation,

then ascribed a coping

category (out

MANOVAGroup × Coping flexibility

MANOVAGroup × Event controllability × Coping

Andr. individuals coped more flexibly, compared to other gender roles

Three gender role groups used coping strategies differently across events or varying controllability.

Andr.: main effect of coping found

interaction effect found

p < .001

F(14, 504) = 10.69, p < .001

F(7, 168) = 11.60, p < .001

F(7, 168) = 22.41, p < .001

Note. * indicates full statistics not reported in the study. Andr. = Androgynous, Masc. = Masculine, Fem. = Feminine, Und. = Undifferentiated

40

Table 3 continued


investigated



Variable)

Coping Measure



Cheng (2005a)continued

. of a choice of 8) to the strategy.

They then rated the

effectiveness of the

strategy

MANOVA Event controllability × Coping (independently for each group)

Post-hoc t-tests

MANOVA Group × Event controllability × Coping (for effectiveness ratings)

MANOVA Event controllability × Coping (independently for each group)

Post hoc t-tests

Masc.: main effect of coping, more likely to use direct action regardless of controllabilityFem.: main effect of coping, more acceptance, social support and religious support regardless of controllability

Andr.: - More direct action coping during controllable events- More acceptance coping during uncontrollable events

Andr., Masc. and Und. gave different effectiveness ratings to different coping strategies across situations of differing controllability

Andr.: Main effect for coping coping × interaction effect

Direct action perceived as more effective in controllable compared to uncontrollable situations

F(7, 168) = 69.55, p < .001

F(7, 168) = 100.71, p < .001

t(24) = 2.68, p < .05

t(24) = -5.02, p < .001

F(14, 504) = 23.96, p < .00

F(7, 168) = 15.81, p < .001F(7, 168) = 43.03, p < .001

t(24) = 8.43, p < .001

41


Table 3 continued


investigated



Variable)

Coping Measure



Cheng (2005a)continued

Post hoc t-tests

MANOVA Event controllability × Coping (for effectiveness ratings independently for each group)

Perceived as less effective in controllable situations: diverting attentionacceptance

Masc.:Main effect of coping

Fem.: Main effect of coping

t(24) = -4.66, p < .001t(24) = -12.73, p < .001

F(7, 168) = 18.96, p < .001

F(7, 168) = 12.49, p < .001

Cheng (2005b)

Undergraduates

Hypothetical controllable

and uncontrollable

situations

BSRI / 1 SD above or

below mean femininity

and masculinity

scores.Also

required to imagine

Purpose designed.

Participants chose

whether they would

deploy one of eight coping

strategies

MANOVAGroup × Sex × Coping strategies

ANOVAAggregated coping strategy use score × Four situations (for

The Andr., Masc. and Und. groups differed on use of: diverting attentiondirection actioncatharsis

Variety of coping strategies used did not differ between gender role groups.

*Fs > 7.39, ps < .001

F(2, 72) = 1.77, ns

42 they are a male or

each group)


Table 3 continued


investigated



Variable)

Coping Measure



Cheng (2005b) continued

female role. Four-way interaction MANOVAGroup × Gender role condition × Event controllability × Coping

Post-hoc paired t-tests

Significant interactionAndr.:Event controllability × Coping interaction

Masc.: Gender role condition × coping interaction

Fem.: Gender role condition × coping interaction

Andr.:Used more perspective taking and direct action in controllable compared to uncontrollable situations.Used more diverting attention, catharsis, acceptance, social support, relaxation and religious support in uncontrollable compared to controllable situations

Masc.: Used more diverting attention, perspective

F(14, 504) = 5.77, p < .001

F(7, 168) = 20.56, p < .001

F(7,168) = 346.79, p< .001

F(7,168) = 541.71, p< .001

*ts > 4.16, ps < .001

*ts < -2.99, ps < .01

*

43

taking and direction action when playing male role.Used more catharsis, acceptance and social support when playing female role

ts >20.10, ps<.001

*ts > -15.03, ps<.001


Table 3 continued

Author PopulationStressful Situation investigated



Variable)

Coping Measure



Cheng (2005b) continued

Post-hoc paired t-tests continued

Fem.: Used more diverting attention, perspective taking a direct action when playing male role.Used more catharsis, acceptance, social support and spiritual support when playing female role.

*ts > 17.75, ps<.001

ts > -15.82, ps<.001

Chomczynska-Rubacha, Rubacha (2012)

University students

None specified

Psychological Gender Inventory / Unclear -

groups

CISS (Polish version)

Regression Andr. significantly predicted: task-orientatedemotion-orientatedavoidance-orientatedCross-sex typed significantly predicted:avoidance-orientated

Sex-typed significantly predicted: task-orientatedemotion-orientated

β = .22.β= -.49β= -.63

β = .18

β = .16β = .38

44 avoidance-orientated

Und. significantly predicted:task-orientatedemotion-orientatedavoidance-orientated

β = .40

β = .19β = .55β = .24

Note. * indicates full statistics not reported in the study. Andr. = Androgynous, Masc. = Masculine, Fem. = Feminine, Und. = Undifferentiated,

Table 3 continued



procedure(Independent Variable)

Coping Measure




New mothers (first child 3 –

5 months earlier)

Demands of mothering

BSRI / Median-split

WCCL Univariate ANOVAsGroup × Coping strategies

Fem. (M= 4.25) women and andr. (M = 3.98) used support seeking more than masc. (M= 2.60).Masc. women (M = 4.39) used problem-focused coping more than fem. (M = 3.85).Fem. women (M = 3.20) used emotion-focused more than masc. (M = 2.20) .

F(2, 88) = 17.99, p < .0001

F(2, 88) = 5.23, p < .01

F(2, 88) = 9.62, p < .001

Gianakos (2000)

Undergraduate students also

employed

None specified

BSRI / Median-split

Latack Coping Scales

ANOVAGender role group x Coping

Post hoc Scheffe tests

Significant main effect for: help-seeking

positive thinking

direct action

Und. significantly less likely to seek help (p =.01), think positively (p = .01) or act directly (p = .031), compared to andr.

F(3, 172) = 4.57, p = .004

F(3, 172) = 5.28, p = .002

F(3, 172) = 5.61, p = .001

*

45

Individuals.

Und. individuals less likely to think positively (p = .30) or act directly (p = .01) compared to fem. individualsUnd. individuals less likely to think positively (p = .20) compared to masc. individuals.

Note. * indicates full statistics not reported in the study. Andr. = Androgynous, Masc. = Masculine, Fem. = Feminine, Und. = Undifferentiated.

Table 3 continued




Coping Measure



Hirokawa, Yagi, Miyata (2004)


Participants asked to freely identify stressful event

MHF scale / Tertile

masculinity and

femininity scores

Stress-coping skills

ANOVA Gender role groups differed in their active coping. Andr. females scored higher on active coping compared to the other gender role groups.Andr. males scored higher on active coping compared to fem. and und. gender role groups.

F(*) = 5.82, (p < .05)

F(*), 5.18, (p < .05)

Huang, Zhu, Zheng, Zhang & Shiomi (2012)

College and

university students

None specified

BSRI / Median-split

Trait Coping Style Questionnaire

Chi-square test Andr. and masc. gender roles were related to more positive coping style use.

X²(3) = 25.23 < .001

Jones, Mendenhall


None specified

BSRI Short form /

COPE ANOVAStudent type × Sex ×

There was a significant difference between gender roles with coping

F(3, 182) = 7.93, p < .001

46 & Myers (2016)

Median-split (Bem’s norms)

Gender role

Tukey’s HSD post hoc test

And. individuals used more approach coping strategies compared to und.

* p < .001

Lipinska-Grobelny (2011)

City transport

employees

None specified

BSRI, Polish adaptation / Median-split

CISS ANOVA Groups differed significantly on the display of:Problem-orientated emotion-orientatedsocial diversion

F(3, 304) = 10.9, p < .001F(3, 304) = 4.5, p < .01F(3, 304) = 2.93, p < .05


Table 3 continued


investigated



Variable)

Coping Measure



Lipinska-Grobelny (2011) continued

RIR Tukey Post hoc tests continued

ANOVA

Both males and females:andr. individuals displayed more problem-orientated coping compared to:sex-typed (M = 57.2) cross-sex-typed (M = 57.0) and und. (M = 53.5).

Females:Gender role groups differed significantly on:problem-orientated copingemotion-orientated cooping

Masc. women more often displayed

*

F(3, 119) = 5.4, p < .001F(3,119) = 4.8, p < .01

*

47

RIR Tukey Post hoc tests

ANOVA

RIR Tukey Post hoc tests

problem-orientated coping (M = 64.7)Fem. women more often displayed emotion-orientated coping (M = 47.3)

Males:Gender role groups differed significantly on problem-orientated coping

Andr. men more often displayed problem-orientated coping (M = 58.1) compared tosex-typed (M = 57.2) cross-sex-typed (M = 57.0) and und. (M = 53.5).

F(3,181) = 6.2, p < .001

*


Table 3 continued


investigated



Variable)

Coping Measure



Lipinska-Grobelny (2011) continued

Regression Femininity positively predicted problem-focused coping

Masculinity positively predicted problem-focused coping

Femininity positively predicted emotion-focused copingNeither significantly predicted avoidance-coping:MasculinityFemininity

β = .18

β = .16

β = .18

β = .10β = -.09

48 Long (1989) Employed females

Work-related stressor

BSRI / Median-split

and masculinity × femininity interaction

WCCL, Preventative coping scale

MANOVAOccupation × Masculinity × Femininity

Follow-up ANOVAs(for different coping scores)

No significant findings for and (masc. × fem. interaction)Significant differences associated with masc.Significant differences associated with fem.High mas, compared to low masc. individuals used more:problem relative to emotion-focus coping

more preventative coping

High fem., compared to low fem. used more preventative strategies

F(3, 274) = 1.08, ns

F(3, 274) = 25.18, p < .01

F(3, 274) = 3.10, p < .05

F(1, 276) = 14.13, p < .01 d = .44F(1, 276) = 22.24, p < .01d = .55F(1, 276) = 5.95, p < .05d = .27

Note. * indicates full statistics not reported in the study. Andr. = Androgynous, Masc. = Masculine, Fem. = Feminine, Und. = Undifferentiated.

Table 3 continued

Author Population Stressful Situation

investigated



Variable)

Coping Measure



Long (1990) Male and female

managers

Work-related stressor

BSRI / Masculinity × femininity interaction

WCCL Multiple regression No significant findings for androgyny

Increases in masc. predicted: less use of avoidance 1) more use of problem-reappraisal 2)

Increases in fem. predicted:more problem-reappraisal 3)active problem-solving 4)

N/A

1) β = -.12. R² =.03, F(4, 125) = 3.58, p < .052) β = .17. . R² =.03, F(3, 126) = 3.85, p < .053) β = .29. R² = .06, F(3, 126) = 8.74, p < .014) β = .15. R² = .03, F(4,

49

total coping 5) 126) = 3.75, p < .055) β = .16. R² = .03, F(3, 125) = 4.10, p < .05

May & Spangenberg (1997)

Males on a Business Masters course

None specified

BSRI / Median-split

CI ANOVAsTukey’s post hoc tests

Total coping: Andr. (p < .01) and masc. (p < .01) individuals scored significantly higher on total coping compared to und. and fem. individuals

Coping with the environment: Andr. individuals coped more flexibly with the environment compared to Masc., Fem. and Und.. Andr. and Masc. coped more actively compared to Fem. and Und.. Coping with self: Andr. coped more flexible then Fem. and Und. individuals. Masc. coped more actively compared to Fem. and Und..

*

All scores p < .01


Table 3 continued




Coping Measure



McCall & Struthers (1994)To explore the predictive

College students

Participants asked to imagine they are upset or sad

BSRI short form / Median-split

Purpose designed measure. Measures support-focus,

MANOVASex × Gender role × Self-esteem, independently for each coping category

Gender role differences found for: support-focusfeelings-focuscognitive-focus

F(3, 210) = 3.97, p<.009F(3, 210) = 4.76, p<.003F(3, 210) = 3.40, p<.02

50 effects of sex-role orientation on emotion and problem-focused coping

feeling-focus, cognitive-focus, avoidance-focus and physical-focus categories

Post hoc analysis Fem. (M = 4.56) and andr. (M = 4.79) used support more than masc. (M = 3.78) individuals

Andr. (M = 4.71) used feeling-focused coping more than fem. (M = 4.17) and und. (M = 4.21), and Andr. (M = 4.23) used more cognitive-focused coping than fem. (M = 3.98) individuals

F(3, 210) = 7.86, p<.0001

F(3, 210) = 3.75, p < .01


Table 3 continued




Coping Measure



Nezu & Nezu (1987)

University students

Five most stressful events in the last year.

BSRI / Median-split (Bem’s norms)

PSI, CRI MANOVA Sex × High-low masculinity × High-low femininity with

Only masculinity was associated with significant differences

No significant differences as a

F(1, 196), = 15.85, p < .001

51

the measures of problem solving and coping

Dunn-Bonferroni post hoc tests

consequence of interaction of masculinity and femininity (androgyny)

High masc. individuals scored lower on problem-solving (indicating effective problem-solving), avoidance-coping and emotion-focused, compared to low masc.. High masc. individuals scored higher on active-behavioural and problem-focused coping,

F(1, 196), = 0.73, ns

*

*

Patterson & McCubbin (1984)

Wives of Naval

personnel

Separation from husband

PAQ / Median-split

CSI Pearson correlations Andr. gender role was positively correlated with: Maintaining family integrityDeveloping interpersonal relationships and social supportManaging psychological tension and strainAcceptance of lifestyle and optimismDeveloping self-reliance and self-esteemBalanced coping strategy

r = .26, p = .025

r = .23, p = .05r = .18. p =.05r = .28, p = .01r =.16, nsr = .26, p = .025


Table 3 continued


investigated



Variable)

Coping Measure



Spangenberg & Lategan (1993)

First-year students

None specified

BSRI / Median-split

CI Mann-Whitney U tests

Females

Andr. females had higher adaptive coping *

52 scores compared to: masc.fem. und.

Males

Und. reported less adaptive coping compared: andr. masc.

Both males and females

Andr. and masc. individuals coped more flexibly with the self compared to:fem.und.Andr. individuals coped more flexible with the environment compared to: masc.fem.und.

n = 41, p < .05n = 67, p < .001n = 76, p < .001

n = 10, p < .001n = 31, p < .001

n = 68, p < .001n = 88, p < .001

p < .05p < .001p < .001


Discussion

This literature review was conducted with a view to answer the question ‘do

adults that adhere to an androgynous gender role cope differently when compared to

other gender-types, namely masculine, feminine and undifferentiated individuals?’.

When considered as a whole, the findings suggest that an individual’s gender role

orientation is related to their coping style. In particular, those who endorse both

masculine and feminine traits (are androgynous) are more likely to be flexible in

their coping approach and select certain coping strategies, such as problem-focused.

Some findings regarding the benefit of androgyny were mixed, but androgyny

seemed to be related to benefits for coping particularly in relation to undifferentiated

and feminine individuals, and often masculine individuals. This goes some way to

supporting the androgyny model (Cook, 1985). It is possible that individuals who

endorse personality traits typically associated with both men and women may be free

of behavioural restrictions, compared to individuals who endorse masculinity or

femininity and so may be more inclined to act in line with their specific gender role

(Bem, 1974).

However, the findings were not conclusive and there were discrepancies in

what studies found. In some cases masculinity was found to be as beneficial as, or

even superior to androgyny. These findings would suggest the support of the

‘masculinity model’, which states it is the masculinity component of androgyny that

is related to more positive outcomes, and that femininity has little impact (Whitley,

1985).

Perhaps most crucial to the discrepancy between studies, was the large range

of coping measures used. It is difficult to compare the findings of the studies when

53

they are based on a range of conceptualisations of coping strategies, as discussed by

Skinner et al. (2003). Through defining coping abilities based on these distinctions,

important information may also be lost, and the conceptualisation of coping may be

oversimplified. The different operationalised subscales of coping strategies may

overlap on many of the concepts or strategies measured. For example, some (but not

all) of the coping strategies that fall into the ‘active coping’ dimension may also be

classified within the ‘approach’ dimension. The difference between the strategies

within these classifications may be sensitive to gender roles, and so masculinity may

be strongly related to active coping, but not approach coping.

The studies also demonstrated variability in the types of stressful situations

that were explored and the coping context was largely ignored. Most studies did not

specify a particular stressful situation, although others were more focused with the

stressful situation explored. The situation plays a fundamental role in the selection of

coping strategies (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), and so different coping strategies are

likely to be chosen, and effective, across different situations. These variations may

go some way to explaining the inconsistencies found regarding the link between

gender roles and coping skills. However, it does appear that androgyny is positively

associated with various conceptualisations of successful coping.

Although the included literature provides some information regarding how

individuals tend to cope in a range of situations, the frequent use of categorisation of

strategies means that conclusions cannot be drawn about which gender role uses

more adaptive coping. As it is the appropriate fit of a strategy to the stressful

situation which is important for effective coping and it is a constantly evolving,

dynamic process (Folkman & Lazarus, 1984), assumptions cannot be drawn

54

regarding superiority of coping abilities. Not only may the androgynous person be

free of the restriction of only using gender-determined coping strategies, they may

also be better able to assess the demands of a situation (Cheng, 2005a & 2005b).

These two skills in combination may better enable the appropriate choice of coping

strategies in someone who is androgynous. Research is growing in the field of coping

flexibility, which includes the transactional aspect of fitting the strategy to the

situation and adjusting coping strategies as necessary (Cheng, Lau & Chan, 2014). It

is possible that research exploring this conceptualisation of coping may provide more

useful information regarding adaptive coping.

There was some limited heterogeneity in the studies’ settings and samples,

which are important to consider. The majority of studies that found a link between

androgyny and better coping, sampled undergraduate students, with psychology

students the most represented. Additionally, Business Masters students, wives of

Naval personnel and city transport workers were each sampled by a study. These

studies were completed in China, United States, Poland and South Africa. The

studies which did not find links between androgyny and a greater use of coping

strategies also sampled undergraduate students, except for one which sampled new

mothers. These were completed in the United States, South Africa, China, Japan and

Israel. The variation in samples and contexts in which the studies were completed

suggests that the differences in the findings regarding androgyny were not due to the

variation in study setting. However, the generalisability of the findings is limited, due

to the small numbers of studies undertaken in the various contexts.

All but three of the studies used the BSRI to explore gender role identity,

which could be assumed to enable the comparison across studies. However, there

55

was large variation between the studies in how the authors categorised an

individual’s gender role orientation. There are further concerns with classification

even if the same categories and samples are used, with Hoffman & Borders (2001)

finding that individuals’ classifications varied based on whether the original or short

form is used, and dependent on the scoring method. Naturally, this raises concerns

when collating information from papers that have used different scoring techniques.

Limitations

The fact that some consistent findings were found across different

populations and countries was reassuring as to the reliability of the link between

androgyny and more effective coping. However, a large proportion of the included

sample were undergraduate students, and so the generalisability of the findings

across different groups is limited. Undergraduate students are experiencing a specific

developmental phase, are well-educated, possibly have access to more support, and

experience specific stressful situations. These are likely to influence what strategies

they utilise to cope, and consequently findings relating to them are not generalisable

to the general population. Furthermore, all the included studies used cross-sectional,

survey designs. Sampling a specific group of people may have resulted in non-

response bias, with those who didn’t respond having different characteristics to those

who did (Sedgwick, 2015) which has negative implications for generalisability even

within the sample population.

Many of the studies did little to control confounding variables, despite several

of them also exploring the impact of other factors, such as self-esteem. As discussed

by Pannucci and Wilkins (2010) this may result in some bias in the findings, as some

may be influenced by unexplained factors. However, those that did control

56

confounding variables still found significant relationships between androgyny and

coping abilities. Correlation and ANOVA analyses were used most frequently, and

neither can be used to draw causal conclusions. Correlational analyses are limited to

identifying associations and not the direction. ANOVA’s identify if two groups

significantly differ from each other, which is likely to be particularly sensitive to the

variability in stressful situations explored. For example, if a situation is arguably

more receptive to feminine traits, there may be a stronger effect for the feminine

dimension. Some studies explored the explained variance within regression analyses,

which went some way to examining the direct impact of gender role adherence. It

may be beneficial for future studies to use mediation models to examine how much

the various factors, including gender role, influence coping.

Detailed screening of the full text was completed to limit the bias related to

the selective reporting of positive findings in the literature. This resulted in two

relevant papers being identified despite their findings relating to androgyny not being

reported due to insignificant effects (Long, 1989 and Long, 1990). However, it is

possible that other relevant findings were not reported in this review due to articles

being unpublished or articles excluding relevant findings due to insignificance. This

may have resulted in some bias towards the reporting of positively significant

findings. No evidence was found that sources of funding or author’s interests were

likely to have impacted the results of the articles included in this review.

Limitations of this Review

The limitations of the current literature review should also be considered

when interpreting the findings. Due to the limited scope of the paper, the relationship

between gender roles and the effects of coping could not be explored, which would

57

provide valuable information. The exclusion and inclusion criteria may have resulted

in other conceptualisations of coping being unexplored. The literature review was

completed by one author so the interpretations of the findings could be deemed

subjective.

Conclusion

The variation in the measurement and conceptualisation of coping abilities

and gender role adherence impeded on this review’s ability to compare findings

reliably. Furthermore, the generalisability of the findings is limited, due to the

specific populations used when sampling. Nonetheless, gender roles were found to

consistently be related to the coping abilities of individuals, and in particular

androgyny was found to be advantageous over other gender roles across a range of

coping styles and stressful situations. Further exploration may benefit from exploring

the dynamic aspect of coping to generate a clearer picture of gender roles’ impact on

coping abilities. Using research designs which provide more information regarding

the influencing factors or causes of differences should also be explored.

58

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Empirical Paper

Exploring the relationship between gender roles and psychological wellbeing: Does coping have a role?

by

Louise Adam

Word Count (excluding tables, figures, the reference list, appendices and abstract)

9981

Key words: Androgyny, gender roles, coping flexibility, psychological distress, mental health

69

Abstract

Objectives. Psychological androgyny, as defined by endorsing instrumental and

expressive characteristics, has been associated with psychological wellbeing. There

is also a growing evidence based for the benefits of coping flexibility for wellbeing.

Given that the ability to respond to situations flexibly theoretically applies to both

androgyny and coping flexibility, research linking these concepts is warranted.

Research in China has found that androgyny is related to increased coping flexibility.

The aim of this study was to explore these concepts within the British Isles,

specifically investigating whether coping flexibility mediates the relationship

between androgyny and distress.

Design. A cross-sectional, quantitative design was used.

Methods. Measures of androgyny, coping flexibility and psychological distress were

completed by 318 adults currently living in the British Isles, via an online survey.

Relationships between the variables were examined using Pearson correlation

coefficients. Mediation analyses were completed using Bootstrapping analysis to

assess whether coping flexibility mediated the relationship between androgyny and

psychological distress.

Results. Increased levels of androgyny and coping flexibility were both associated

with reduced psychological distress. Higher androgyny scores were associated with

more coping flexibility (β = 0.340, p = 0.000). Stronger endorsement of androgyny

was related to reduced psychological distress, through coping flexibility (ab = -

0.4228 CI [-.7132, -.2159]).

Conclusion. The findings go some way to explaining the relationship between

androgyny and wellbeing, and indicate coping flexibility is an important aspect of

70

coping. However, due to the disproportionate number of female students in the

sample, generalisability of the findings is limited. Further analysis exploring

different age groups and other conceptualisations of androgyny are warranted.

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Introduction

The prevalence of psychological distress has steadily increased within the

UK, with sex differences in mental health disorders being frequently observed

(McManus, Bebbington, Jenkins & Brugha, 2016). The coping process has been

found to regulate distress (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004), and sex differences in

coping may go some way to explain these differences in the experience of distress

(Kelly, Tyrka, Price & Carpenter, 2008). However, research has gone beyond

biological sex and begun to explore gender role’s relationship to coping and

psychological wellbeing. Bem’s (1974) model of androgyny suggests that individuals

who endorse masculine and feminine traits will be more flexible in their behaviour.

Relationships have been found between being androgynous, coping flexibility and

reduced psychological distress (Cheng, 2005). This research aimed to explore

whether androgynous individuals coped more flexibly, and consequently experienced

reduced psychological distress.

Psychological distress

Psychological distress and mental health problems are an increasing public

concern, with prevalence rates of common mental health difficulties increasing

steadily in men and women since 1993 (McManus, Bebbington, Jenkins & Brugha,

2016). The impact of these mental health difficulties is far reaching, on both the

person experiencing it and their carers, as well as on society as a whole (Mental

Health Foundation, 2016). For example, mental health difficulties, including stress,

accounted for 17.6 million missed days of work in 2015 (Mental Health Foundation,

2016). Ways of reducing this impact have understandably attracted a great deal of

attention. Coping is one way of conceptualising the attempts made by individuals,

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whether cognitively or behaviourally, to adapt to life’s demands and reduce distress

(Lazarus & Folkman 1984). Importantly, coping processes have been found to be

related to mental health and adjustment outcomes, both positively and negatively

depending on the coping strategy used (Taylor & Stanton, 2007).

Coping

A great deal of research has explored the coping strategies people use, so

much so that 89 coping measures were identified in a review (Skinner, Edge, Altman

& Sherwood, 2003). Perhaps the most widely known conceptualisation of coping

was developed by Lazarus and Folkman (1984). They defined coping as a dynamic

process involving an individual appraising a situation as placing demands on or

exceeding their resources. These situations could be external, such as loss of

employment, or internal, such as low mood. The definition continues that as a

consequence of this appraisal the individual actively employs cognitive and/or

behavioural efforts to manage these demands. Therefore, as the demanding situation

develops so may the coping efforts.

With the vast amount of research exploring coping has come a vast number of

ways to categorise and classify coping strategies (Skinner et al., 2003). One of the

most frequent distinctions of coping behaviour is based on the function it serves, and

the most common classification is that of problem-focused versus emotion-focused

behaviours (Skinner et al., 2003). Skinner et al. concluded that categorising coping

behaviours based on functions or topological distinctions may be over simplistic, and

consequently valuable information may be lost. Beyond the choice of coping

strategies, a fundamental aspect of Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) definition was the

dynamic process being dependent on the appraisal of the situation, which suggested

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that different strategies may be more effective across different time periods of the

same situation, as well as for different situations (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004).

Classifying coping strategies as uniformly effective or ineffective may therefore be

unhelpful and inaccurate, and as such other ways of assessing how coping is adaptive

may be beneficial to explore.

Coping flexibility. Theoretically the dynamic process of coping is well

recognised, and states that the process of an individual coping with a stressful

situation is constantly evolving (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987). However, much

research on coping so far has focused on the benefits of categories of coping

strategies, somewhat ignoring the dynamic process principle (Bonanno & Burton,

2013). Ignoring this process results in gaps in knowledge regarding coping, indicated

by the mixed findings regarding the efficacy of strategies and variations in efficacy

of the same strategy across different situations (Bonanno & Burton, 2013). This

suggests that it may be the flexibility of coping responses which results in positive

adjustment, and as such research efforts may be better spent investigating this

concept. Research has recently begun to explore the field of ‘coping flexibility’.

There has been some debate about the conceptualization of coping flexibility, but

through their review Cheng, Lau and Chan (2014) defined it as including the

appropriate selection of a strategy for the situation, the implementation of the

strategy at the appropriate time, and the meta-cognitive abilities of monitoring,

evaluating and adapting as necessary. Kato (2012) used a similar definition to

develop the Coping Flexibility Scale (CFS). The CFS incorporates items relating to

adaptive coping (the selection of strategies that are going to support adjustment) and

evaluative coping (assessing the situation, monitoring and evaluating progress). This

process is then cyclical, with evaluative skills leading to adaptive coping through the

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selection of different coping strategies as necessary. This alternative focus on coping

abilities has the potential to provide important information regarding coping, through

its focus on the ever-evolving, dynamic process and potential changing of strategies

as indicative of effective coping.

Interest in the potential positive effects of coping flexibility has increased in

recent years. Results so far have been promising, with a recent literature review

finding coping flexibility was positively related to psychological adjustment, with a

moderate mean effect size (r = .23, Cheng et al., 2014). Specifically, the strongest

effect sizes for the positive relationship were found in studies that conceptualised

coping flexibility based on the strategy-situation fit and perceived-ability (Cheng et

al., 2014), which point towards the benefits of meta-coping abilities. Unfortunately,

the design of many of the studies reviewed by Cheng et al., as well as of the review

itself, mean that conclusions are limited to association. Causal conclusions cannot be

drawn as to whether individuals are better adjusted due to flexible coping, or whether

those who are better adjusted can cope more flexibly at the time. Many studies have

explored coping flexibility within a laboratory setting and so ecological validity may

also be lacking. However, Cheng (2001) found the coping flexibility demonstrated

by individuals within laboratory settings predicted their coping flexibility in real-life.

To draw causal conclusions between coping flexibility and psychological wellbeing,

Cheng, Kogan and Chio (2012) randomly allocated Chinese working adults to a

coping-flexibility intervention, cognitive-behavioural intervention or a waiting list.

Those who attended the coping-flexibility intervention reported increased coping

flexibility and experienced the largest reduction in depression scores at the end of the

intervention. The intervention design meant that a decrease in depression could be

more confidently attributed to an increase in coping flexibility. These findings show

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potential promise in the benefits of coping flexibility on psychological wellbeing,

however research exploring this concept is limited within the grand scheme of

coping literature.

Biological sex differences in coping. An area that has attracted much

attention is that of factors that influence the coping response, one such factor being

biological sex. At this point, it seems helpful to define the terms used. Throughout

this paper ‘sex’ refers to whether an individual is biologically determined as male or

female. ‘Gender role’ refers to the socially constructed roles that a given society

associates as being related to a given sex, and the resulting personality, psychological

and behavioural consequences that are associated with it (Deaux, 1985; Springer,

Stellman & Jordan-Young, 2012). Many studies have found that men and women

often engage in different coping skills, with women more likely to use coping

strategies overall, and particularly seek more social support (Tamres, Janicki &

Helgeson, 2002). Contrary to this, other studies have found that males are more

likely to engage in problem-focused or instrumental coping strategies compared to

females, but support the finding that females are more likely to engage in emotion-

focused, social-support or avoidance coping (Matud, 2004; Kelly et al., 2008).

However, most of these studies have categorised the coping strategies. Thus,

valuable information may have been lost, with the same coping strategy contributing

to different subscales or dimensions of coping in different studies. As such, findings

should be compared with caution. Furthermore, the specific type and appraisal of the

stressor encountered varies across situations, which may have moderated the

relationship between sex and coping and explain some of the observed differences

between men and women (Tamres et al., 2002).

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Despite the limitations in research exploring sex differences in coping,

differences are apparent between men and women in how they cope with difficult

situations. Many biological, environmental and cognitive explanations have been

suggested (Ptacek, Smith & Dodge, 1994; Tamres, et al., 2002). Individuals

experience gender socialisation from a young age, where they are socialised to take

on certain characteristics and respond in certain ways based on their sex, resulting in

an internalised gender role (Tamres et al., 1999). For example, gender socialisation

may result in the development of the expressiveness trait in women, and therefore it

be deemed socially acceptable for them to seek support through expressing their

feelings. Males may not be socialised to respond to stress in the same way, which

may result in gender differences in coping (Lengua & Stormshak, 2000; Tamres et

al., 2002). It could then be hypothesised that individuals may respond differently to

situations based on their socialisation of gender, and the qualities, or gender role,

they have internalised as a result (Bem, 1981a). There are many complex factors that

make up an individual’s gender identity (Kachel, Steffens & Niedlich, 2016),

including both environmental and biological factors (VandenBos, 2007). As gender

identity is closely related to environmentally-influenced gender roles (Storms, 1979),

it is unsurprising that research exploring sex differences has moved on to exploring

the relationship between gender roles and coping, which will be explored later in this

section.

Gender roles

Parsons and Bales (1956) originally identified that, within family settings,

men were often goal-focused or ‘instrumental’, and women tended to be more

harmony-focused or ‘expressive’. It is thought that these personality traits are

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socially influenced from a young age, partly due to the roles women and men are

observed to occupy, and so individuals grow up associating some characteristics as

desirable based on sex (Spence & Buckner, 1995). Instrumental and expressive traits

have been largely adopted within the psychological definition and measurement of

masculinity and femininity (respectively), and at times have been solely relied upon

to assign individuals to a gender role (Spence & Helmreich, 1980). Researchers

should be cautious using these measures to define an individual as being masculine

or feminine. ‘Masculinity’ and ‘femininity’ are complex concepts covering a range

of qualities or expectations generally seen as more relevant to one sex over the other,

and are often uniquely defined by an individual (Spence & Buckner, 1995).

Similarly, an individual’s personal sense of being male or female determines their

gender identity (VandenBos, 2007). Measures of masculinity and femininity focusing

on instrumentality and expressivity therefore only measure the personality-trait

aspect of these complex concepts (Kachel et al., 2016). Furthermore, as gender

identity is personally defined, individuals’ gender identity may differ dependent on

their conscious awareness of their sex-typed traits (Deaux & Major, 1987). Despite

this, instrumental and expressive personality traits have been theoretically (Helgeson,

1994) and, to a limited degree, empirically (Bozionelos & Bozionelos, 2003) related

to biological sex.

Until the 1970’s ‘gender roles’ had usually been defined as masculinity or

femininity, and were largely seen as two, mutually exclusive ends of the same

dimension (Constantinople, 1973). Constantinople (1973) queried whether this

understanding was too simplistic, presenting the possibility that masculinity and

femininity are two independent dimensions, and as such someone can be both.

Around the same period, Sandra Bem (1974) demonstrated similar thinking

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introducing the concept of psychological ‘androgyny’; possessing personality

qualities that are typically associated with being female as well as qualities seen as

typically male, or a balance of masculinity and femininity. ‘Masculine’ traits were

instrumental whilst ‘feminine’ traits were expressive. The concept of androgyny

introduced awareness of potential flexibility in the gender roles aspect of an

individual’s gender identity. To measure gender roles from this new perspective,

Bem (1974) developed the Bem Sex Role Inventory, a 60-item measure consisting of

masculine, feminine and gender-neutral personality traits. In response to a criticism

from Spence, Helmreich and Stapp (1975), Bem (1977) agreed that individuals who

highly endorsed masculine and feminine traits (as opposed to simply a balance) were

androgynous, leaving those who were balanced but limited in their endorsement of

these personality traits categorised as ‘undifferentiated’. As personality traits are

known to be related to a range of outcomes and adjustment (Ozer & Benet-Martinez,

2006), it is possible that gender-related personality traits will also be related to

wellbeing.

Prior to the introduction of ‘androgyny’ it was generally thought that an

individual who endorsed qualities congruent with their biological sex had optimum

health and adjustment (Cook, 1985). Alternatively, Bem (1974) hypothesised that

someone who highly endorsed typically feminine and typically masculine personality

traits would be more flexible in how they behaved and interacted with their

environment. For example, someone who is androgynous could be both yielding and

assertive, as opposed to someone restricted and constrained by a gender-type i.e.

masculinity, who might be assertive even if being yielding could be more beneficial

(Bem, 1975; Martin, Cook & Andrews, 2016). According to Bem (1974), due to

being free of rigid gender-socialised restrictions on behaviour, androgynous

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individuals would have better outcomes in terms of mental health, wellbeing and

adjustment. Evidence for this has been mixed, with some studies finding the most

beneficial outcomes for androgynous individuals (Cheng, 2005; Huang, Zhu, Zheng,

Zhang & Shiomi, 2012; Woodhill & Samuels, 2003), but with others finding that it is

the endorsement of masculine or instrumental traits that is positively related to

adjustment (Whitley, 1983; Taylor & Hall, 1982). Limitations in research exploring

androgyny and adjustment may explain differences in the findings. For example,

Cheng (2005) points out that many studies of gender-role personality traits and

adjustment utilise outcome measures biased towards achievement or instrumental

tasks. These studies may demonstrate instrumental traits are positive for

achievement-based adjustment, but may not represent these traits’ relationship to

adjustment in general, including interpersonal adjustment. When dyadic adjustment

is considered, endorsing expressive personality traits is beneficial (Aube, Norcliffe,

Craig & Koestner, 1995). This may mean that the benefits of expressive personality

traits, as seen in an androgynous individual, have been overlooked. As personality

traits are known to be related to coping styles (Carver & Connor-Smith, 2010;

Connor-Smith & Flachsbart, 2007), gender-related personality traits may influence

coping. Exploring this relationship may clarify the relationship between gender roles

and adjustment.

Gender roles and coping. Measures using the instrumental and expressive

conceptualisation of masculinity and femininity have been used to assess gender-role

differences in coping (Mayor, 2015). Research has often found masculinity to be

associated with more effective coping, particularly active coping (drawing on

personal resources, Carroll (2013)). The link between femininity and active coping

has been less clear, but it has been linked to seeking social support (Mayor, 2015).

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To echo the criticisms of coping research raised earlier, the classification of coping

categories as uniformly effective or ineffective is over simplistic. Additionally,

despite masculinity’s regular associations with effective coping abilities, it has also

been linked to antisocial behaviour and substance abuse (Mayor, 2015), perhaps a

more reliable indication of less effective coping abilities being utilised by those who

endorse masculine traits (in certain situations). It does appear that the gender role an

individual adheres to, based on their self-reported personality traits, is related to

coping.

Some studies have explored how being androgynous may be related to

someone’s coping abilities. Again, research has been mixed with many studies

finding that androgynous individuals were more likely to use coping strategies

judged as being effective, compared to other gender roles (Jones, Mendenhall &

Myers, 2016; Lipinska-Grobelny, 2011; Cheng, 2001). Some studies have found no

difference in how androgynous individuals cope in relation to masculine individuals,

both having been deemed to cope more effectively compared to feminine and

undifferentiated gender roles (Huang, et al., 2012; May & Spangenberg, 1997;

Spangenberg and Lategan, 1993). In line with these findings masculine women were

most likely to utilise problem-focused strategies in coping with new motherhood

(Dimitrovsky, Levy-Shiff & Perl, 2000). However, Dimitrovsky et al. also found that

masculine women experienced more depression when compared to androgynous and

feminine women, which may emphasise the importance of the situation. Strongly

endorsing the feminine trait of being nurturing may enable effective coping when

soothing a new-born, whereas masculine traits of assertiveness may enable effective

coping with work stress. Here, the androgynous individuals may be best placed to

cope with a range of stressful events. Interestingly the undifferentiated individual has

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consistently been found to have weak or non-significant links with coping abilities

deemed effective and stronger associations with coping abilities thought to be less

advantageous (Gianakos, 2000; Huang et al., 2012; Spangenberg and Lategan, 1993).

This also seems to support the possibility that endorsing masculine and feminine

traits promotes wellbeing through the ability to choose from a range of behaviours

(Bem, 1974). Despite the conceptualisations of coping flexibility and androgyny both

including elements of behavioural flexibility, little research has focused on exploring

the relationship between them. As a result Cheng et al. (2014) were unable to explore

gender-roles’ influence on coping flexibility in their review, but identified that it

could be an appropriate indicator which may be worth exploring.

Perhaps surprisingly given the vast amount of research on androgyny, coping

(including coping flexibility) and psychological distress separately, there have been

few attempts within the literature to explore the relationships between all three

variables. One study found that androgynous Chinese adolescents had greater

resilience, and that coping flexibility was related to reduced depression, although the

direct relationship between all three variables was not explored (Lam & McBride-

Change, 2007). Cheng (2005) explored whether androgyny, coping flexibility and

depression were related, using a sample of Chinese university undergraduates.

Androgynous individuals were more flexible in how they coped with stressful

situations, experienced less depression, and deployed strategies based on the

appropriateness to the situation (Cheng, 2005). This suggests that androgynous

individuals employed cognitive flexibility in evaluating their environment, and

behavioural flexibility in selecting effective strategies. Cheng’s (2005) study design

meant that causal conclusions about the relationship between the variables could not

be established, and so it is possible that due to being less depressed individuals coped

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more flexibly and currently recognised themselves as highly endorsing expressive

and instrumental traits.

To the author’s knowledge, there has been no research completed

incorporating coping flexibility, gender roles and wellbeing in a Western setting.

Evidence has pointed towards cultural differences in coping (Kuo, 2011), specifically

with individuals from collectivist cultures generally using more emotion-focused or

passive coping, compared to individuals from individualistic cultures using more

active or problem-focused coping (Chun, Moos & Cronkite, 2006). This, plus

society’s influence on gender-role formation, means that Cheng’s (2005) findings

cannot be automatically generalised to a Western, individualistic context.

Current study

To explore the potential relationships between gender-related personality

traits, coping flexibility and psychological wellbeing this study partially replicated

Cheng (2005). This study aimed to explore whether androgyny (high endorsement of

socially desirable, typically masculine and feminine personality traits) was related to

coping flexibility and psychological wellbeing, in adults currently living in the

British Isles. Through using a mediation model, a potential process underlying

positive psychological wellbeing were explored. Specifically, due to the potential

behavioural and cognitive flexibility benefits for androgynous individuals, the study

aimed to explore whether coping flexibility mediated the relationship between

androgyny and psychological wellbeing.

The study had the following hypotheses:

1) Androgyny will significantly, negatively predict psychological distress.

2) Androgyny will significantly, positively predict coping flexibility.

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3) Coping flexibility will significantly, negatively predict psychological distress.

4) Coping flexibility will mediate the relationship between androgyny and

psychological distress.

Method

Design

A non-experimental, cross-sectional design was used to collect quantitative

data. This allowed the relationship between several variables to be explored,

including the possibility of variables mediating a relationship.

Participants

Participants were men and women, aged 18 years or over, currently residing

in the British Isles (England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and Republic of

Ireland) and who spoke English. As this study was a partial replication of previous

research, to explore gender flexibility, coping flexibility and wellbeing in a

previously unexplored, Western cultural context, only participants currently residing

in the British Isles were included.

Sample size. There are no published effect sizes for associations between the

three constructs used in this study (Cheng (2005) did not publish effect sizes).

However, Cheng’s (2014) small to moderate overall effect size between coping

flexibility and adjustment (r = .23) was used to estimate the sample size required in

this study. When using a bias-corrected bootstrapping mediation method (0.8 power),

Fritz & Mackinnon (2007) recommend a sample size of 162 to detect small to

moderate effect size. If a sample of 462 were reached, they suggest a small effect

size would be detected.

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Measures

English versions of all the measures were used. Participants were initially

required to provide demographic information, including their age, ethnicity,

education, relationship status, employment status, length of time residing in the

British Isles and gender.

Gender roles. The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1974) was

developed to identify the gender roles that someone adheres to, by asking

participants about the extent to which they believe they endorse personality traits

typically associated with being female or male, using a 60 item self-report Likert

scale (see Appendix B for letter of copyright and Appendix C for example items).

The scores range from 1 representing ‘never’ to 7 for ‘always’. The BSRI includes

20 masculinity items, 20 femininity items and 20 items designed to be gender neutral

(which is equally applicable to men and women) (Bem, 1974). As discussed, the

BSRI’s measurement of gender role adherence is limited to the dimension of

personality traits, but when referring to the BSRI scales the terms masculinity and

femininity will be used as shorthand (Bem, 1979). This is in line with Bem’s (1974)

description of the measure and other researcher terms used when referring to the

BSRI. The BSRI has been found to have good internal consistency for both the

masculinity and femininity dimensions (Conbrach’s alphas were .86, and .80 in one

sample, and .86 and .82 in a second sample, for masculinity and femininity

respectively (Bem, 1974)).

Masculinity and femininity scores are derived by totalling the items for that

dimension and then dividing by 20 to reach an average (Bem, 1974). The masculinity

and femininity scales are independent of each other, in that the way one scores on

85

one does not necessarily impact the score on the other. The androgyny score is

calculated by using both the masculinity and femininity scores, although several

methods of scoring androgyny using the BSRI have been suggested and debated.

These range from different methods for categorising individuals (Hoffman &

Borders, 2001) to different methods of calculating a continuous score (Taylor, 1983).

Many of the possible continuous scoring methods have flaws in their validity in

representing androgyny (Strahan, 1981; Taylor, 1983), namely that they do not

represent the interactive or ‘balance’ aspect (Taylor, 1983) and are one-dimensional

(Blackman, 1982). The multiplicative interaction, or product, of the masculinity and

femininity scores was used within the regression analyses, as recommended by Hall

& Taylor (1985). The product term was chosen due to it being continuous and

sensitive to both high scores and a balance on both dimensions. This corresponded to

the conceptualisation of androgyny used in this study; that androgynous individuals

highly and equally endorse both instrumental and expressive traits, commonly

associated with males and females respectively.

Coping Flexibility. The Coping Flexibility Scale (CFS) is a 10 item self-

report questionnaire developed to measure coping flexibility (see Appendix D).

There are two dimensions of five items each; ‘Evaluative’ and ‘Adaptive’ coping.

Evaluative coping includes assessing and monitoring the situation, evaluating the

effectiveness of the coping strategy and ceasing it if necessary. An example item is ‘I

am aware of how successful or unsuccessful my attempts to cope with stress have

been’. Adaptive coping is classified as an individual choosing and implementing new

coping strategies as necessary, and an example item is ‘when a stressful situation has

not improved, I try to think of other ways to cope with it’. Each item is scored on a

4-point scale, ranging from 0 for ‘not applicable’ to 3 for ‘very applicable’, and the

86

totals of each dimension are summed to calculate a total coping flexibility score. A

higher score is indicative of greater coping flexibility. The CFS has been found to

have good internal consistency with Cronbach’s alphas ranging from .71 to .91 for

evaluation coping and .78 to .90 for adaptive coping, across eleven samples (Kato,

2012). Test-retest validity has been reported to be .73 and .71 for evaluation and

adaptive coping respectively (Kato, 2012). There is some evidence for the validity of

the use of the CFS with people of different cultural backgrounds (Kato, 2015).

Psychological wellbeing. The Depression Anxiety Stress Scale – 21 (DASS-

21) is a 21 item self-report questionnaire, developed to measure depression, anxiety

and stress (see Appendix E). Each item is scored on a 4-point scale, ranging from 0

for ‘not applying at all’ to 3 for ‘applying very much’. The questionnaire includes 3

dimensions to measure each psychological problem, and higher scores indicate

increased difficulties (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995b). Items on the DASS include ‘I

was aware of a dryness in my mouth’ (anxiety), ‘I tended to overreact to situations’

(stress) and ‘I felt down-hearted and blue’ (depression).

The DASS-21 is in the public domain and so is freely available. The DASS-

21 has been found to be valid for use with non-clinical samples (Henry & Crawford,

2005; Antony, Bieling, Cox, Enns & Swinson, 1998). The DASS-21 has been found

to have good internal consistency for all 3 scales (Cronbach’s alpha .94, .87 and .91;

Antony, et al., 1998).

Although Cheng (2005) utilised the BDI, this measure was not freely

available and due to the limited financial resources available a freely accessible

measure was more practical. Research has found that the depression scale of the

DASS had convergent and discriminant validity with the BDI (Lovibond &

87

Lovibond, 1995a). Additionally, the use of the DASS-21 allowed the investigation of

anxiety and stress.

Procedure

The online questionnaire software Qualtrics was used to administer the

survey, which contained all three measures plus the demographics questionnaire. A

link to the survey was advertised between August 2016 and January 2017, through

the researchers own social media (Facebook), personal and professional networks,

including the university research participation system ‘Sona’. On following the link

participants were taken to an information page (Appendix F) and consent form

(Appendix G). Upon the positive completion of the consent form the participants

were able to access the demographics questionnaire, including a question regarding

current place of residence to determine eligibility. If not eligible to take part the

survey was automatically closed. Those eligible could continue with the rest of the

survey. Upon completion of the survey the participants were presented with a post-

research summary sheet (Appendix H).

Ethical considerations

Full ethical approval was granted by the ethics committee of the Faculty of

Health and Medical Sciences (see Appendix I). The data collected was anonymous

due to no identifying information being requested, and was stored on University of

Surrey servers according to the university policy. Participants were informed that

they could stop completing the survey at any point, but that their data up to that point

may be used in the research. Participants were also informed that their data could not

be withdrawn at a later point after completion of the survey, due to the data being

anonymous. The survey was thought to be unlikely to cause distress. However, due

88

to some questions touching on mental health experiences the participants were

provided with details or organisations they could contact for support at the end of the

study.

Analysis strategy

Data was exported from Qualtrics into Microsoft Excel in order to generate

variables through scoring the questionnaires. Variables were also generated to

determine whether someone had completed or not completed the survey. This data

was then exported into IBM SPSS version 22 for statistical analysis to be completed.

The demographics of completers and non-completers of the survey were compared

using Chi-squared tests and independent T-tests.

Cronbach’s alphas were used to assess the reliability of each measure. The

relationship between each variable was calculated using Pearson’s correlation

coefficients. Effect sizes for the Pearson’s coefficients were determined based on

recommendations by Cohen (1988). According to Baron and Kenny’s (1986) causal

steps approach to mediation, three regression analyses need to be completed prior to

the mediation analysis. Firstly, the Independent Variable (IV) must significantly

predict the Dependent Variable (DV) (path c or total effect). Secondly the IV must

significantly predict the Mediating Variable (M) (path a). Thirdly, M should

significantly predict the DV (path b), when controlling for the IV. Mediation is then

said to have occurred if the IV no longer predicts or the prediction is lessened on the

DV (path c) when the effect of M is controlled for (path c’ or direct effect). A

diagram of the causal steps approach can be seen in Figure 1. The causal steps

approach has been criticised in recent years (Hayes, 2013) and the bootstrapping

method has been recommended (MacKinnon, Fairchild & Fritz, 2007) due to its

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cTotal effect

ba

c’Direct effect

increased statistical power (Fritz & MacKinnon, 2007). Therefore, indirect effects

were tested using 5000 bias-corrected bootstrap resamples (Preacher & Hayes,

2008). The PROCESS custom dialog file was installed in SPSS in order to complete

this analysis (Hayes, 2012). To explore all hypotheses a simple mediation analysis

was completed (Hayes, 2013).

Total Effect

Indirect Effects

Figure 1. Diagram of Baron and Kenny’s (1986) causal steps mediation model.

Results

Response rate

Out of a total of 368 individuals who consented to take part in the study, 362

completed the initial demographic section of the form. 319 participants went on to

complete the entire survey. Of the 43 people who did not go on to complete the

survey, 15 participants were not invited to continue due to ineligibility as they lived

outside of the British Isles. It was not possible to calculate a response rate as there

was a broad public appeal for participation, and there was no means of determining

90

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Mediator

how many people saw the advertisement. There was a low dropout rate with only two

participants not completing the entire survey, and whose data was excluded from the

analysis. One participant was assessed as unreliably completing the coping flexibility

measure, as all item responses were 0 (including reverse scoring items), therefore

their entire data was excluded. Six participants scored 0 on the DASS Total, but were

included in the analysis, as although uncommon, this score is viable. Of the 319

participants who completed the entire survey, a total of 318 participant’s data was

included. Using a bootstrap mediation analysis this sample size should enable the

detection of a small to moderate effect (Fritz & Mackinnon, 2007).

The difference in demographic data between completers and non-completers

(of the entire survey) were analysed. Results of the chi-square test of independence

analysis can be found in Table 1. For a reliable analysis to be run investigating self-

identified gender, ‘female to male transgender’ and ‘prefer not to say’ categories

were excluded, due to the expected counts being below 5. Males were more likely

not to complete the survey than females. A chi-square test indicated an expected

significant difference between completers and non-completer’s country of residence,

with more non-completers residing outside of the British Isles than expected. This is

unsurprising given the eligibility criteria of living in the British Isles. The remaining

demographic categories (ethnicity, employment, education and relationship status)

each had a high number of cells that had expected counts of less than five, so reliable

chi-square tests could not be performed (Bewick, Cheek & Ball, 2004). Instead,

categories within these demographic criteria were condensed into one of two groups

(for each demographic) to enable analysis. No relationship was found between

whether or not the survey was completed and any of these demographic categories

(see Table 1 for details). An independent samples t-test indicated no significant

91

difference in the age of completers (M = 25.33, SD = 8.93) compared to non-

completers (M = 24.58, SD = 7.04), t(360) = -.53, p = .60. Additionally, no

significant difference was found in the number of months lived in the UK between

completers (M = 20.80, SD = 12.56) and non-completers (M = 22.81, SD = 6.62),

t(338) = .80, p = .42.

Partici

pant

characteristics

All 318 participants were currently living in the British Isles. Females made

up 87.4% of the sample. Participant’s ages ranged from 18 to 66 years old (M =

25.27, SD = 8.88). Nearly half of the sample were students (47.2%) and a further

46.8% were full or part-time employed. In terms of relationship status, 58.8% of

participants were single (n = 187), 19.2% co-habiting (n = 61) and 18.2% were

married (n = 58). The majority of participants were White British (70.1%, n = 223)

with other ethnicities limited in their representation. All but one participant had

formal qualifications, and 47.8% of the sample were university graduates. Please see

Table 2 for details of demographics.

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Table 1.

Chi-square analysis results comparing completers and non-completers on demographic variables

Demographic Comparison χ2 df p

Ethnicity White British vs Other 1.78 1 0.28

EmploymentEmployed Vs Other 0.32 1 0.58

Student Vs Other 0.43 1 0.51

Relationship Single Vs In a relationship 0.01 1 0.92

Education Graduate Vs Non-graduate 0.96 1 0.33Gender Male Vs Female 8.05 1 0.005Country British Isles Vs Other 116.09 1 0.000Note. ‘Other’ refers to all other categories that do not apply to first group.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi_(letter)

Table 2

Participant demographics

Characteristic N Percentage (%) Mean (SD)

Range

Gender

Male Female Prefer not to say

382782

11.987.4.6

---

---

Age 18 – 22

23 – 2728 – 3233 – 3940 – 4950 – 59 60+

-16070481612102

-50.322.015.15.03.83.1.6

25.3 (8.9)-------

18 – 66-------

How long lived in the British Isles (years) - - 21.9 (11.6)

0 - 66

Ethnicity

White BritishWhite IrishWhite EuropeanWhite OtherBlack or Black British AfricanBlack or Black British CaribbeanBlack or Black British OtherAsian or Asian British IndianAsian or Asian British PakistaniAsian or Asian British BangladeshiAsian or Asian British ChineseMixed White and Black Caribbean Mixed White and Black AfricanMixed White and AsianMixed OtherAny other

224

32810441732

932

846

70.4.98.83.11.31.3.32.2.9.6

2.8.9.6

2.51.31.9

----------

---

---

----------

---

---

Education

No formal qualificationsGCSE’s/O-Levels/EquivalentA-Levels/EquivalentUndergraduate degreePostgraduate degree

1131528270

.34.147.825.822.0

-----

-----

Employment Full-time employedPart-time employedSelf-employedStudentHomemakerRetiredUnemployedOther

1133691502152

35.511.32.847.2.9.31.6.6

--------

--------

Relationship

SingleCo-habiting/Common-law spouse MarriedCivil partnershipPrefer not to say

187615848

58.819.218.21.32.5

-----

-----

93

For information purposes the median-split method was used to assign

participants to gender roles. Participants were almost equally split between the

gender role groups, with 82 (25.8%) participants being assigned to each of the

androgynous, masculine and feminine gender role categories, and the remaining 72

(22.6%) participants were classified as undifferentiated. The sample’s split into

gender-role categorisations was similar to that found by Jones et al. (2016), whose

US student sample was also predominantly female. A chi-square test of

independence was used to test for an association between the categories of gender

role and self-identified gender (excluding ‘prefer not to say’ due to low count).

Gender was associated with gender role (χ2(3) = 17.55, p < .01). Females were more

likely to be androgynous and feminine compared to males, males were more likely to

be masculine compared to females, and both genders were similarly likely to be

undifferentiated. Independent t-tests were used to investigate the difference in

masculine, feminine and androgynous continuous scores between males and females.

No significant differences were found in the androgyny scores. In terms of

masculinity, males scored significantly higher compared to females, and the reverse

was found for femininity. See Table 3 for details.

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Table 3

Results of t-test analysis comparing males and females on gender role scores

Gender role scoreMale Female

t df pM SD M SDAndrogyny 21.16 4.43 21.49 4.53 -0.42 314 0.68

Masculinity 4.77 0.76 4.34 0.73 3.42 314 0.001

Femininity 4.44 0.64 4.95 0.59 -4.90 314 0.000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi_(letter)

Study variables

The means, medians, standard deviations and Cronbach’s alphas for each of

the measures can be found in Table 4. All but two of the Cronbach’s alphas were

higher than 0.8 indicating good consistency between the items (Tavakol & Dennick,

2011). The neutral subscale of the BSRI demonstrated adequate internal consistency,

although was lower than the other scales (.731). The Evaluation subscale of the CFS

had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.50, suggesting that the items may not be closely related.

Item two’s removal had a positive effect on the internal consistency. This item (‘I

only use certain ways to cope with stress’) asked about using limited strategies to

cope with stress compared to the other items, which asked about abilities to reflect on

coping strategies at the time of using them. Despite this, the item was retained for

several reasons. Firstly, so that comparison with other studies that have used this

measure is possible. Additionally, because scale development was not a key aim of

the study (Helms, Henze, Sass & Mifsud, 2006), the item deletion did not increase

the coefficient to an acceptable level and because the item was considered to have

face-validity.

The spread of scores across the BSRI subscales indicate that all participants

felt they endorsed the personality traits to at least some degree, with the scores

ranging from 2.15 (masculinity) to 6.75 (also masculinity). The neutral subscale had

the highest mean (5.11) indicating that socially desirable traits not typically

associated with one gender role over another were the most endorsed. The CFS also

showed a good spread of scores across self-reported flexible coping abilities with a

range of 4 to 30 on the total abilities.

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The DASS-21 demonstrated a good spread of scores, for both the total and

individual subscale scores. Recommended cut-off points were used to assess the

categorisation of the sample in terms of severity of anxiety, depression and stress

(Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995b). Of the sample 58.5% had a ‘normal’ anxiety score,

7.9% had ‘mild’ anxiety difficulties, 15%, 5.3% and 13.1% had ‘moderate’, ‘severe’

and ‘extremely severe’ anxiety difficulties, respectively. In terms of depression

62.9% of the sample scored within the ‘normal’ range for depression, 10.1% had

‘mild’ difficulties with depression, 11.3%, 7.2% and 8.4% had ‘moderate’, ‘severe’

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Table 4

Descriptive statistics and Cronbach alpha’s for all variablesMeasure Subscale Minimum

(Possible)Maximum(Possible)

Mean Median Standard Deviation

Cronbach's alpha

BSRI

Masculinit

y 2.15 (0) 6.75 (7) 4.39 4.35 .74 .870

Feminity 2.55 (0) 6.45 (7) 4.88 4.95 .62 .814

Neutral 2.45 (0) 6.40 (7) 5.11 5.15 .49 .731

Androgyny 11.66 (0) 39.99 (49) 21.39 21.30 4.55 -

CFS

Evaluation 3.00 (0) 15.00 (15) 8.71 9.00 2.43 .497

Adaptive 0.00 (0) 15.00 (15) 8.51 9.00 3.13 .866

Total 4.00 (0) 30.00 (30) 17.22 18.00 4.91 .810

DASS

Depression 0.00 (0) 42.00 (42) 9.47 6.00 10.04 .922

Anxiety 0.00 (0) 38.00 (42) 7.89 4.00 8.34 .845

Stress 0.00 (0) 42.00 (42) 14.04 12.00 9.48 .868

Total 0.00 (0) 104 (126) 31.41 24.00 24.48 .939

‘extremely severe’ difficulties, respectively. There was also a spread of stress scores,

with 62.3% of individuals scoring within the ‘normal’ range, 11% scored within the

‘mild’ range, 10.1% scored within the ‘moderate’ range, 13.2% within the ‘severe’

and 3.5% within the ‘extremely severe’ range. There was a positive skew for the

depression, anxiety and stress scores, which was expected given the non-clinical

population sampled (see Appendix J for histograms).

Correlation analysis

Correlational analyses were completed on all the variables, and can be found

in Table 5. The correlation analyses revealed a positive, significant correlation

between both the measures of masculinity and femininity with coping flexibility (r’s

= .23 and .21, p < .01, respectively). However, these observed effects should not be

overemphasised given they were small, as even trivially small effects can be found to

be statistically significant with large sample sizes (Fritz, Morris & Richler 2012). A

stronger correlation was found between the androgyny score and coping flexibility,

where there was a medium effect (r = .32, p < .01). The androgyny and masculinity

score also significantly, negatively correlated with depression, anxiety and the total

psychological distress score, although all with small effect sizes. The measure of

femininity did not significantly correlate with any measure of psychological distress.

None of the gender-role measures significantly correlated with the stress measure.

Finally, the total coping flexibility measure significantly, negatively correlated with

anxiety, depression, stress and total distress (rs = -.20, -.25, -.26, -.27, ps < .01,

respectively), although each with a small effect size. Scatter plots for each variable

pairing can be found in Appendix K.

97

98 Table 5

Pearson’s correlation coefficients of all variablesVariable 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

1.Masculinity r 1

2. Feminity r -.03 1

3. Neutral r .07 .33** 1

4. Androgyny r .78** .60** .24** 1

5. Evaluative Coping r .12* .13* .20** .17** 1

6.Adaptive coping r .27** .23** .23** .36** .56** 1

7.Coping flexibility r .23** .21** .24** .32** .85** .91** 1

8. Anxiety r -.13* -.04 -.42** -.12* -.17** -.18** -.20** 1

9. Depression r -.12* -.08 -.48** -.14* -.17** -.25** -.25** .61** 1

10. Stress r -.07 -.08 -.46** -.10 -.23** -.22** -.26** .69** .86** 1

11. Psychological Distress

r -.12* -.08 -.52**. -.14* -.22** -.25** -.27** .67** .88** -.90** 1

Note. Masculinity, Femininity and Neutral = Subscales of Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI questionnaire); Androgyny = Product of masculinity and femininity subscale of BSRI; Evaluative Coping and Adaptive Coping = Subscales of Coping Flexibility Scale (CFS); Coping Flexibility = CFS; Anxiety, Depression and Stress = Subscales of Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale (DASS-21);

99

Psychological distress = DASS-21. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.

Coping flexibility as a mediator of any relationship between androgyny and

psychological distress

Due to all the variables being related as predicted, simple mediation analyses

were completed using ordinary least squares path analysis. Histograms and scatterplots

of the standardised residuals of each pair of variables were produced. These were

visually inspected and the assumption of normality was met as they were approximately

normally distributed. The assumption that no cases had an undue influence on the

overall model was explored using Cook’s distances. No cases had a Cook’s distance

larger than one, and so this assumption was met and no cases were removed (Cook &

Weisberg, 1982). See Appendix L for histograms, scatterplots and Cook’s distances.

In partial support of hypothesis one, the total effect of androgyny on

psychological distress was significant for all distress measures, other than stress, as can

be seen in Figure 2. Individuals who scored higher in androgyny reported reduced total

distress, anxiety and depression. In support of hypothesis two, those reporting more

androgyny reported more coping flexibility (a = 0.340). In support of hypothesis three,

those higher in coping flexibility reported less psychological distress (b = -1.2433), less

anxiety (b = -0.3026), less depression (b = 0.4567) and less stress (b = -0.4841), as can

be seen in Figure 3. To test hypothesis three, 5000 bootstrap resamples were used to test

the indirect effects of the distress measures. The confidence intervals for the total

distress score ab = -0.4228 CI [-.7132, -.2159], anxiety ab = -0.1029 CI [-0.1893, -

0.0405], depression ab = -0.1553, CI [-0.2693, -0.0738] and stress ab = -0.1646, CI [-

0.2749, -0.0838] were all above zero and so statistically significant. Therefore, coping

100

flexibility was found to significantly mediate the relationship between androgyny and all

measures of psychological distress. Androgyny was not found to have an impact on total

psychological distress independent of its effect on coping flexibility (c’ = 0.3067, p

= .319). This finding was also repeated for anxiety, depression and stress. Please see

table 6 for details. The unstandardised results are reported here as recommended by

Hayes (2013). See Appendix M for standardised regression coefficients.

101

Figure 2. Total effects of androgyny on measures of psychological distress.

Figure 3. The indirect effects of androgyny on psychological distress, through the mediator of coping flexibility.

102

c = -0.73, p = .02 -0.22, p = .03 -0.31, p = .01 -0.20, p = .08

Androgyny (IV)

Total psychological distress (DV)

Anxiety (DV)

Depression (DV)

Stress (DV)

Total psychological distress (DV)

Anxiety (DV)

Depression (DV)

Stress (DV)

b = -1.24, p < .001 -0.30, p = .002 -0.46, p < .001 -0.48, p < .001

Coping flexibility (M)

Androgyny (IV)

c’ = -0.31, p = .32 -0.12, p = .28 -0.15, p = .23 -0.04, p = .75

a = 0.34, p < .001

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Table 6

Statistics from mediational analysis for all hypotheses with androgyny (IV) and coping flexibility (M), for all psychological distress variables (DV)

DV

Unstandardised Regression Coefficients Bootstrap results for Indirect Effects (95% CI)

Effect of IV on M (Path a)

Effect of M on DV (Path b)

Effect of IV on DV (Path c)

Direct effect (Path c’)

Total indirect effect

Lower Upper

Psychological Distress

(DASS Total)

B 0.340 -1.243 -0.730 -0.307 -0.423 -.713 -.216SE 0.058 0.285 0.300 0.307t 5.896 -4.371 -2.433 -0.998p .000 .000 .016 .319

Anxiety (DASS

Anxiety)

B 0.340 -0.303 -0.219 -0.116 -0.103 -0.189 -0.041SE 0.058 0.099 .102 0.106t 5.896 -3.071 -2.135 -1.087p .000 .002 .034 .278

Depression (DASS

Depression)

B 0.340 -0.457 -0.308 -0.153 -0.155 -0.269 -0.074SE 0.058 0.117 0.123 0.127t 5.896 -3.895 -2.507 -1.206p .000 .000 .013 .229

Stress (DASS Stress)

B 0.340 -0.484 -0.203 -0.038 -0.165 -0.275 -0.084SE 0.058 0.111 0.117 0.120t 5.896 -4.373 -1.739 -0.321p .000 .000 .083 .749

104

Discussion

This study aimed to explore whether coping flexibility is a mechanism through

which androgyny reduces psychological distress in adults living in the British Isles. As

hypothesised, results from the mediation analysis found that those who greatly endorse

typically masculine and feminine personality traits, i.e. are androgynous, experience

reduced psychological distress, through being more flexible with their coping strategies.

The direct effect for total distress, depression, anxiety and stress were all insignificant,

indicating that androgyny relies on coping flexibility to some degree in its influence on

these elements of distress. The study’s aim was only partly achieved, due to the final

sample predominantly consisting of females and students which is likely to have

implications for the interpretation of the findings.

Greater androgyny is beneficial for psychological wellbeing through coping

flexibility

The data from the correlational analyses demonstrates that those who had higher

androgyny scores experienced less distress. This finding supports previous literature,

which has found positive relationships between androgyny and wellbeing or adjustment

(Cheng, 2005; Huang, et al., 2012; Woodhill & Samuels, 2003). These studies were all

completed outside of the British Isles and so the results may imply some cross-cultural

benefits of androgyny on wellbeing. Interestingly, increased masculinity was found to be

associated with reduced distress whereas femininity did not have a significant

relationship with distress. However, there was a larger effect size for androgyny’s

association with increased coping flexibility, implying that femininity contributed

105

towards the positive relationship. It may be that coping flexibility is one characteristic

that androgyny is particularly advantageous for, over and above endorsing one gender

role as predicted by Bem (1974). In turn, being more flexible with coping was also

associated with reduced depression, anxiety, stress and total distress.

Interestingly the neutral scale was significantly positively correlated with coping

flexibility and negatively correlated with the measures of psychological distress.

Research into the neutral scale is limited, however the available evidence points towards

the scale being a valid measure of socially desirable traits but which may be endorsed

differently by males and females (Eller & Dodder, 1989; Lara-Cantu & Suzan-Reed,

1988). Therefore, the negative relationships found between the neutral scale and

measures of distress may indicate that the endorsement of socially desirable personality

traits may be related to better psychological wellbeing, independent of gender

socialisation. However, a larger positive effect was found between androgyny and

coping flexibility compared to the neutral scale and coping flexibility. This may suggest

that endorsing both typically masculine and feminine characteristics is related to coping

flexibility compared to endorsing desirable characteristics in general.

The data from the mediation model support the hypothesis that androgyny

influences psychological wellbeing through coping flexibility, as significant indirect

effects were found for all distress variables. This may suggest that individuals who

strongly adhere to both gender roles, i.e. endorse both instrumental and expressive traits,

are free of the behaviour and cognitive restrictions present when they adhere mainly to

one gender role (Bem, 1974). Androgynous individuals may therefore be able to

106

appropriately evaluate and select their coping strategies based on the situation as

opposed to the responses they are socialised to use. This may result in more flexible and

effective coping and reduced psychological distress. These findings are also in line with

Cheng’s (2005) conclusion that androgynous individuals could effectively select

appropriate coping strategies based on the situation.

It is important to examine these findings in the context of the sample, given that

many factors, including individual differences, influence coping abilities and wellbeing

(Lazarus, 2000). The sample were predominantly well-educated and largely female

students. Firstly, it is possible that androgyny is more frequently observed within

educated females when compared to other population groups. It is also possible (and

perhaps likely) that androgyny may be particularly beneficial within the context of

university, given that the varied demands on students include both interpersonal and

task-focused stressors (Macaskill, 2013). The wide variety of demands may require a

range of strategies used appropriately which theoretically androgyny would be

advantageous for. However, this may not be the case for some other groups, for example

males undertaking business courses, where instrumental traits and associated coping

abilities seem more advantageous (May & Spangenberg (1997).

Due to the societal changes in the roles of women within affluent countries over

the last 40 years (Connolly, Aldrich, O’Brien, Speight & Poole, 2016), examining the

findings within the social context is important. A recent meta-analytic review explored

changes in the BSRI masculinity and femininity scores of US college students between

1974 and 2012 (Donnelly & Twenge, 2016). Between 1974 and 1993 female’s

107

masculinity traits significantly increased in line with large cultural shifts in women’s

social roles, namely with their increasing presence in the workplace (Twenge, 1997) and

an increase in the social acceptability of working mothers in the US (Donnelly et al.,

2016). Between 1993 and 2012, American female student’s masculinity scores remained

relatively stable, but their femininity scores reduced (Donnelly & Twenge, 2016).

Donnelly & Twenge (2016) suggested that as women have continued to adjust to living

in an androcentric world, they may have shifted away from gender specific roles,

particularly reducing their adherence to feminine traits. The conclusions made by

Donnelly & Twenge (2016) only related to university students and so could not rule out

age or life-stage differences in gendered-traits. Studies have investigated the impact of

life-stage on traits, through investigating different age groups. They have found evidence

that points towards the wider cultural context having a more significant influence on

masculinity and femininity, particularly the social context experienced during childhood

and adolescence (Strough, Leszczynski, Neely, Flinn & Margrett, 2007). Finally, of

interest given the sample, higher levels of education have been associated with lower

femininity scores in women (Calvo-Salguero, García-Martínez & Monteoliva, 2008).

Calvo-Salguero et al. suggested that employment roles may have a more significant

influence on women’s masculinity scores, as no effect was found of education on

masculinity. These findings taken together suggest that due to changing social norms,

which may be particularly experienced by educated females within this Western context,

androgyny is more likely to occur. It also may be more likely to support successful

adjustment. The increased adjustment may in part be due to more flexibility in the

deployment of strategies. However, without further longitudinal studies involving the

108

current cohort, the extent of the impact of life stages such as employment and marriage

is unclear.

Interestingly androgyny did not have a significant total effect on stress, but

coping flexibility did mediate the effect of androgyny on stress. Significant total effects

are no longer thought to be necessary to find a significant indirect (mediating) effect

(Hayes, 2013; Rucker, Preacher, Tormala & Petty, 2011). A mediating effect may occur

in the absence of a total effect between two variables due to differential power in

detecting the mediator and the dependent variable (Rucker et al., 2011). Androgyny may

have had a stronger influence on coping flexibility than it did on stress, as stress is a

more universally experienced difficulty less dependent on personality traits. A second

potential explanation relates to this model only exploring one potential mediating factor

and other factors may mediate or in fact suppress the relationship between androgyny

and stress (Rucker et al., 2011; Hayes, 2013). Many factors influence the stress

response, such as social support and perceived control (Ogden, 2012), and it may be that

one of these interacts with coping flexibility in a way that results in a non- significant

total effect of stress (Hayes, 2013).

Strengths and Limitations

Design. The present study used a cross-sectional design and so the causal

conclusions that are drawn are limited. However, the mediation model used in the

analysis contributes to the predictive conclusions that can be established, beyond the

conclusions drawn from correlation and ANOVA analysis of previous studies. This

109

study has also contributed to the literature regarding the process underlying androgyny’s

influence on wellbeing.

Measurement issues. The BSRI has attracted debate, with Hoffman and Borders

(2001) commenting on the inconsistencies between what the BSRI purports to measure

and what it actually measures. Hoffman and Borders (2001) argued that the BSRI does

not capture the gender role which influences the way the individual views the world.

However, as pointed out by Bem (1981b) herself, the BSRI was not developed as a

measure of inherent masculinity and femininity (Starr & Zurbriggen, 2016). Rather, it

measures the strength of an individual’s conformity to traits and characteristics which

are more often associated with one sex over the other. Another debate regarding the

masculinity and femininity scales is whether the personality traits remain indicative of

gender roles, given the BSRI was developed in 1970’s America. Opinions have been

mixed, with some reports that the measure is no longer valid (Choi, Fuqua & Newman,

2008), but with other reports stating that it is still a valid and reliable measure (Auster &

Ohm, 2000), particularly of personality-based gender differences (Wood & Eagly,

2015). Adherence to masculine and feminine gender-role traits have declined slightly

since the 1990’s which may indicate that individuals are less inclined to identify with

gendered personality traits, that instrumentality and expressiveness are declining or that

the conceptualisations of these gender-role traits are no longer relevant (Donnelly &

Twenge, 2016). However, within the present study masculine scores were significantly

higher for males then females, and vice versa for feminine scores, seemingly indicating

that the gender-role scales were a valid indication of typical feminine and masculine

traits in the current study’s sample.

110

The scoring of the BSRI is another contentious issue. Categorising individuals into

four gender role groups (feminine, masculine, androgynous and undifferentiated) using

the median split method results in the loss of data. The interaction, or product, of

masculinity and femininity (as used in the present study) is argued to be the most

effective way of scoring androgyny, and enables the expression of interactive effects as

opposed to just additive effects (Hall & Taylor, 1985). This scoring method is sensitive

to when individuals score highly on both the masculinity and femininity scales, as

opposed to simply being balanced, as per the conceptualization of androgyny (Bem,

1977).

Although the CFS had good internal reliability overall, the evaluative coping

subscale did not seem to measure one construct, as the item-total correlations for items

two and seven were below the recommended value of 0.3 (Field, 2005). It is possible

that the CFS therefore captured participant’s abilities to adapt coping strategies

effectively, but may have less effectively captured their abilities to evaluate their coping

choices. However, one benefit of using the CFS is that the dynamic process of coping

may be better captured when compared to using typical coping measures that simply

capture strategies.

The measure of psychological distress used in this study measured thoughts and

behaviours commonly reported by people experiencing anxiety, depression and stress.

Men are often less likely to self-report experiences of mental health problems (Doherty

and Kartalova-O'Doherty, 2010) and may place less importance on somatic symptoms

111

(Bitsika, Sharpley, & Melhem, 2010), which are captured on the DASS-21. The DASS-

21 may not provide the most comprehensive measurement of distress in males.

Sample. The sampling strategy largely relied on advertisement within the author’s

social and academic networks and snowball sampling. Additionally, females have been

found to be more likely to respond to web surveys compared to males (Porter &

Whitcomb, 2005). Both are likely to have contributed to the high proportion of educated

participants in young adulthood. The limitations in the study’s sampling strategy means

that the findings can only be confidently applied to female students (as opposed to all

adults) in the British Isles, failing to meet the aim of the study in its entirety. Although

there was a good range of ages, there was an over-representation of individuals in their

twenties meaning generalizing the findings should be done with caution. This is

particularly given that society is constantly changing and as such individuals of different

generations may vary in their application of gender (Twenge, 1997; Bussey & Bandura,

1999). The sample however demonstrated a good spread of psychological distress with

the majority indicating no or mild difficulties and a minority experiencing more

significant distress. This is an accurate representation of the experiences of mental health

difficulties within the general population.

The sample was mainly White, with other ethnicity’s being represented to a limited

degree. The study was designed to explore the relationship between the variables

specifically within the setting of the British Isles, to potentially extend Cheng’s (2005)

findings to a Western context. Due to cultural influences on gender-norms being such a

complex concept and to maximise participation no limit was set on the amount of time

112

someone had to have lived in the British Isles for. Consequently, participants ranged

from having just moved to the British Isles to having lived there their entire lives (66

years). Gender schema theory (Bem, 1981b) posits that individuals develop their gender

identity at a young age, based on what their environment defines as being appropriate for

one sex or the other. What is defined as being typically masculine or feminine may

therefore vary by culture. Research has found cross-cultural similarities in gender-

related personality traits, for example with females reporting more warmth and males

reporting more assertiveness across cultures (Costa, Terracciano & McCrae, 2001).

However, Costa et al. also found that the extent of differences between the genders

varied between cultures, indicating that there is variation in gender-role endorsement

across cultures. Despite an individual’s early experiences, it is possible that the current

context the individual is in has an impact on the way they view gender. Research has

demonstrated that the language used with Chinese-Canadian individuals influenced

whether they drew on collectivist or individualistic principles (Ross, Xun & Wilson,

2002). Therefore, individuals who have recently begun living in the British Isles may be

impacted by the cultural norms they currently experience and so the responses to the

survey may be based on widely held views regarding gender-norms in the British Isles.

Implications

Clinical implications. This study furthers our understanding of how coping can

reduce psychological distress, which is likely to be of interest to anyone who is involved

in the promotion of physical and mental health. Programs intervening in mental health

difficulties by enhancing coping abilities are likely to be beneficial (Taylor & Stanton,

2007; Kalra et al., 2012), and these should include a focus on the meta-cognitive element

113

of coping i.e. situation appraisal, evaluation and the appropriate selection and changing

of strategies.

Within this sample, the findings of this study also highlight the potential health

benefits of individuals strongly endorsing both typically masculine and feminine traits.

Perhaps more reliably it demonstrates the importance of individuals engaging in socially

desirable instrumental and expressive traits. Individuals who endorse more instrumental

and expressive traits may be more able to evaluate their coping attempts and adjust them

as necessary which contributes towards the reduction in psychological distress. As such,

within populations such as female students, supporting individuals to understand their

gender values and potentially develop a balance in personality traits, such as nurturance

and assertiveness, may free them of otherwise restricted responses. It may be helpful for

therapists to explore the social context of the difficulties clients bring, including gender

issues (Hoffman, 2001). Service providers should also be aware, and if necessary,

challenge their own judgments regarding what it means to be a man or woman (Gilbert,

1981).

Society’s influence on the development of gender roles and possible rigidity in

behaviour should be considered. The findings contribute to the growing narrative

regarding the expectations of women and men within Western contexts and more

globally. It is well recognised that gender expectations change over time, and that in

recent years the roles women are expected to fill have expanded (Donnelly et al., 2016).

This may go some way to explain the increase in American women’s instrumentality

scores (Donnelly & Twenge, 2016). If children can be free of rigid, socially defined,

114

gender role expectations these scores may continue to increase and their ability to

successfully cope with life’s challenges along with it (Bem, 1983).

Recognising the potential benefits of androgyny may help change the culture of

services so that a treatable disorder based on distress, such as Gender Dysphoria, can be

separated from concerns about a child or individual based on what those around them

deem to be acceptable and appropriate. It may be especially beneficial for clinicians to

explore family member’s attitudes towards gender, due to gender identity disorders

being dependent on societal and cultural norms (Newman, 2002). As Ehrensaft (2012)

states, the journey to authentic gender development is complex. Building an awareness

and acceptance of individuals endorsing both masculine and feminine characteristics

may progress clinician’s and wider society’s attitudes toward what constitutes ‘normal’

regarding gender.

Future research. One limitation of the present study is in the use of the BSRI,

which has been largely criticised in terms of its representation of gender roles (see

Hoffman & Borders, 2001). Gender identity is a complex concept made up of

personality traits, behaviours, social roles and even physical characteristics (Deaux &

Lewis, 1984; Spence & Buckner, 1995) and as such, is multi-faceted. Instrumental and

expressive personality traits are just one facet. Future research will benefit from

exploring other aspects of gender and androgyny. Recent advancements in the

exploration of androgyny in children have focused on gender-identity by asking children

how much they believe they are similar to other boys and girls (Martin, Andrews,

England, Zosuls & Ruble, 2017). Other developments of measurements of androgyny

115

have focused on behaviour capabilities as well as gendered-behaviour adaptability

(Martin et al., 2016). Androgyny’s relationship with evaluative and adaptive coping

suggests that expanding the measurement of androgyny into behaviour may be

beneficial.

Given the complex nature of gender roles and the influence of gender on

individuals, a qualitative exploration of individual’s self-identity as feminine, masculine

or androgynous could be explored. Exploration of this would provide more in depth

information regarding individual’s own definition of gender-adherence, the relevance of

comparison to others and influence of societal expectations.

Given that coping flexibility was significantly related with reduced psychological

distress, further exploration of this concept may be beneficial. Investigating how coping

flexibility may vary over time, whether with life experience or as a result of an

intervention, would provide more information regarding the health promoting effect.

Exploring other conceptualisation’s and measures of coping flexibility, particularly

evaluative coping, may be particularly important given the low internal reliability found

in this study. Finally, given the dominance of women and students within this study the

potential benefits of coping flexibility should be explored within other genders and age

groups. Due to its situation-specific nature, theoretically coping flexibility is beneficial

across contexts. However, this remains to be explored.

Conclusion

This study explored the relationships between androgyny (as defined by strongly

endorsing instrumental and expressive characteristics), coping flexibility and

116

psychological distress in adults living in the British Isles. The findings suggest that

individuals who are more androgynous experience less psychological distress, due at

least in part to increased flexibility in coping. However, due to limitations with the

sample these findings can only be confidently applied to female students. The study

contributes to the current literature about the potential benefits of being androgynous,

and a process through which the benefits may occur. It also suggests that coping

flexibility is a fundamental aspect of effective coping. In particular, it suggests that

considering the influence of gender roles and coping flexibility is important in student

females. Longitudinal research may enable a life-span perspective, furthering our

understanding of the importance of these concepts across generations and age groups.

Additionally, investigating other aspects of gender roles may provide additional

information about the impact of ever-evolving notions of gender.

117

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List of Appendices

Appendix A Letter of Bem-Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) copyright

Appendix B Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) example items

Appendix C Coping Flexibility Scale (CFS)

Appendix D Depression Anxiety Stress Scale – 21 (DASS-21)

Appendix E Participant information sheet

Appendix F Participant consent form

Appendix G Post-research summary sheet

Appendix H Ethical approval letter

Appendix I Histograms of raw scores

Appendix J Scatter plot for correlations

Appendix K Standardised residual plots and histograms, and Cook’s distances

Appendix L Standardised mediation analysis results

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Appendix

Appendix A: Letter of Bem-Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) copyright

133

Appendix B: BSRI example items

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---Instructions here---

Example items:

Masculine: XXXX

Feminine: XXXX.

Neutral: XXXX

N.B. The instructions and example items have been removed from this E-thesis version so as not to infringe copyright of the BSRI, as the E-thesis is an open-access, public document.

Appendix C: Coping Flexibility Scale (CFS)

When we feel stress, we try to cope using various actions and thoughts. The following items describe stress-coping situations. Please indicate how these situations apply to you by choosing one of the following for each situation: “very applicable,” “applicable,” “somewhat applicable,” and “not applicable.”

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1. When a stressful situation has not improved, I try to think of other ways to cope with it.

2. I only use certain ways to cope with stress. (R)

3. When stressed, I use several ways to cope and make the situation better.

4. When I haven’t coped with a stressful situation well, I use other ways to cope with that situation.

5. If a stressful situation has not improved, I use other ways to cope with that situation.

6. I am aware of how successful or unsuccessful my attempts to cope with stress have been.

7. I fail to notice when I have been unable to cope with stress. (R)

8. If I feel that I have failed to cope with stress, I change the way in which I deal with stress.

9. After coping with stress, I think about how well my ways of coping with stress worked or did not work.

10. If I have failed to cope with stress, I think of other ways to cope.

Appendix D: Depression Anxiety Stress Scales – 21 (DASS-21)

Please read each statement and circle a number 0, 1, 2 or 3 which indicates how much the statement applied to you over the past week. There are no right or wrong answers. Do not spend too much time on any statement.

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The rating scale is as follows:

0 Did not apply to me at all1 Applied to me to some degree, or some of the time2 Applied to me to a considerable degree, or a good part of time3 Applied to me very much, or most of the time

1 I found it hard to wind down 0 1 2 3

2 I was aware of dryness of my mouth 0 1 2 3

3 I couldn't seem to experience any positive feeling at all 0 1 2 3

4 I experienced breathing difficulty (eg, excessively rapid breathing, breathlessness in the absence of physical exertion)

0 1 2 3

5 I found it difficult to work up the initiative to do things 0 1 2 3

6 I tended to over-react to situations 0 1 2 3

7 I experienced trembling (eg, in the hands) 0 1 2 3

8 I felt that I was using a lot of nervous energy 0 1 2 3

9 I was worried about situations in which I might panic and makea fool of myself 0 1 2 3

10 I felt that I had nothing to look forward to 0 1 2 3

11 I found myself getting agitated 0 1 2 3

12 I found it difficult to relax 0 1 2 3

13 I felt down-hearted and blue 0 1 2 3

14 I was intolerant of anything that kept me from getting on with what I was doing 0 1 2 3

15 I felt I was close to panic 0 1 2 3

16 I was unable to become enthusiastic about anything 0 1 2 3

17 I felt I wasn't worth much as a person 0 1 2 3

18 I felt that I was rather touchy 0 1 2 3

19 I was aware of the action of my heart in the absence of physical exertion (eg, sense of heart rate increase, heart missing a beat)

0 1 2 3

20 I felt scared without any good reason 0 1 2 3

21 I felt that life was meaningless 0 1 2 3

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Appendix E: Participant information sheet

138

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Appendix F: Participant consent form

140

Appendix G: Post-research summary sheet

141

Appendix H – Ethical Approval Letter

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Appendix I: Histograms of raw scores for each variable

Masculinity (BSRI masculinity subscale)

Femininity (BSRI femininity subscale)

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Androgyny (BSRI masculinity and femininity product)

Coping flexibility (CFS)

144

Psychological distress (DASS-21 total)

Anxiety (DASS anxiety subscale)

145

Depression (DASS depression subscale)

Stress (DASS stress subscale)

146

Appendix J: Scatterplots of the correlations between each variable pairing

Androgyny (BSRI androgyny score) and coping flexibility (CFS)

Androgyny (BSRI androgyny score) and psychological distress (DASS Total)

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Androgyny (BSRI androgyny score) and anxiety (DASS Anxiety)

Androgyny (BSRI androgyny score) and depression (DASS Depression)

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Androgyny (BSRI androgyny score) and stress (DASS Stress)

Coping flexibility (CFS) and psychological distress (DASS Total)

149

Coping flexibility (CFS) and anxiety (DASS Anxiety)

Coping flexibility (CFS) and depression (DASS Depression)

150

Coping flexibility (CFS) and stress (DASS stress)

151

Appendix K: Standardised residual plots and histograms, and Cook’s distances

Androgyny (BSRI Androgyny score) (IV):

Coping Flexibility (CFS) (DV)

Total psychological distress (DASS Total) (DV)

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Anxiety (DASS Anxiety) (DV)

Depression (DASS Depression) (DV)

153

Stress (DASS Stress) (DV)

Coping Flexibility (CFS) (IV):

Total psychological distress (DASS Total) (DV)

154

Anxiety (DASS Anxiety) (DV)

Depression (DASS Depression) (DV)

155

Stress (DASS Stress) (DV)

Table 8

Maximum Cook’s distances for each variable pairing

IV

DV

CFS

Total

psychological

distress

Anxiety Depression Stress

Androgyny .044 .376 .083 .034 0.30

CFS - .030 .057 .023 .029

Note. CFS = Coping Flexibility Scale; Anxiety, Depression and Stress = Subscales of

Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale (DAS

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Appendix L: Standardised regression coefficients

Table 6

Statistics from mediational analysis for all hypotheses with androgyny (IV) and coping flexibility (M), for all psychological distress variables (DV) using standardised data

DV

Standardised Regression Coefficients Bootstrap results for Indirect Effects (95% CI)

Effect of IV on M (Path a)

Effect of M on DV (Path b)

Effect of IV on DV (Path c)

Direct effect (Path c’)

Total indirect effect

Lower Upper

Psychological Distress

(DASS Total)

B 0.315 -0.250 -0.136 -0.057 -0.079 -.132 -.040SE 0.053 0.057 0.056 0.057t 5.896 -4.371 -2.433 -0.998p 0.000 0.000 0.016 0.319

Anxiety (DASS

Anxiety)

B 0.315 -0.178 -0.119 -0.063 -0.056 -0.100 -0.022SE 0.053 0.058 0.056 0.058t 5.896 -3.071 -2.135 -1.087p 0.000 0.002 0.034 0.278

Depression (DASS

Depression)

B 0.315 -0.224 -0.140 -0.069 -0.070 -0.123 -0.033SE 0.053 0.057 0.056 0.057t 5.896 -3.895 -2.507 -1.206p 0.000 0.0001 0.013 0.229

Stress (DASS Stress)

B 0.315 -0.251 -0.097 -0.018 -0.079 -0.135 -0.040SE 0.053 0.057 0.056 0.057t 5.896 -4.373 -1.739 -0.321p 0.000 0.000 0.083 0.749

PSYCHD CLINICAL PROGAMME

SUMMARY OF CLINICAL EXPERIENCE

Adult Mental Health Placement

Setting: Community Mental Health Recovery Service

Date: October 2014 – September 2015

Experience gained: Assessments completed with adults with various mental health

difficulties, including depression, phobias, emotional regulation difficulties, psychotic

experiences and co-morbid chronic pain. I co-facilitated groups using CBT techniques to

support adults with various diagnoses. Therapeutic interventions involved CBT

techniques such as thought challenging, behaviour experiments, graded exposure,

schema challenging, DBT techniques as well as mindfulness. Neuropsychological

assessments were completed using the ACE-III and WAIS-IV. A presentation about

supporting people with psychosis was delivered to the MDT, as well as a presentation on

using a compassion focused approach with psychosis to the psychology team.

Learning Disability Placement

Setting: Learning Disability Team

Date: October 2015 – March 2016

Experience gained: Using a bio-psycho-social model I completed assessments of

individuals with learning disabilities and mental health difficulties including anxiety,

low mood, obsessive compulsive disorder and emotional regulation difficulties. One to

one interventions were completed using a CBT approach, and consultations were

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completed with staff teams regarding behaviour that challenges. A presentation was

delivered to the whole team about a new policy on medication usage in people with

learning disabilities. Neuropsychological assessments were completed assessing for

learning disability and specific executive functioning issues around capacity.

Children and Adolescent Mental Health Placement

Setting: Children and Adolescent’s Mental Health Service

Date: April 2015 – September 2016

Experience gained: Assessments and interventions using CBT were completed with

children between the ages of 6 and 17 with mental health difficulties including panic

attacks, OCD, anger management difficulties, separation anxiety and disordered eating

as well as Autism and ADHD. I contributed to the reflective team in a family therapy

service, supporting children and their families using systemic ideas. Neuropsychological

assessments were completed using the WISC-IV, BADS and TEA-Ch. I delivered

teaching to Teaching Assistants in a primary school about children’s mental health.

Children’s Brain Injury Rehabilitation (Specialist Placement)

Setting: Residential Children’s Brain Injury Rehabilitation Service

Date: October 2016 – March 2017

Experience gained: Consultation with the staff team regarding supporting the emotional

wellbeing of young people and their families. Involved work with the families of, and

young people with a range of needs, for example disorder of consciousness and varying

cognitive, physical and language abilities. Interventions varied and were holistic,

159

including supporting the orientation of an adolescent and his younger brother to the

injury, and a mother to talk about her daughter’s accident with her. Emotional support

was provided to parents of children with injuries, involving using screening measures for

PTSD and Narrative techniques within an intervention. I supported the development of

and facilitated a new cognitive rehabilitation group. Neuropsychological testing was

completed to assess learning needs with a young person with no audible voice and

limited mobility. Multidisciplinary working was extensive, for example supporting a

music therapy assessment and completing a neuropsychological report with an SLT.

Older People’s Mental Health Placement

Setting: Older People’s Recovery and Support Team / Memory Assessment Service

Date: April 2017 – September 2017

Experience gained: Psychological assessments and interventions were completed with

adults over the age of 65 with a range of emotional difficulties including low mood,

grief, health anxiety and distress related to family relationships. Models used to inform

interventions included CBT, systemic ideas and Compassion Focused Therapy. I

contributed to the development of information packs for people recently diagnosed with

dementia and developed the process for recruiting carers of individuals with dementia to

a support group (both involved working with external organisations). Neuropsychology

assessments were completed to contribute towards dementia assessments using the

Boston Naming Test, TOPF, HVLT, COWAT, Trail making test, WAIS-IV, WMS-IV,

Hayling & Brixton, Animals Category Test. A case presentation was given to

psychologists regarding the use of an older adult specific formulation framework.

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PSYCHD CLINICAL PROGAMME

TABLE OF ASSESSMENTS COMPLETED DURING TRAINING

Year I Assessments

ASSESSMENT TITLE

WAIS WAIS Interpretation (online assessment)

Practice Report of Clinical Activity

A Cognitive-Behavioural Assessment and Formulation of a Female Service User, Julie (pseudonym), in her Fifties with Panic Disorder, a Phobia of Stairs and Symptoms related to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Audio Recording of Clinical Activity with Critical Appraisal

Critical Appraisal of an Audio Recording of a Cognitive Behaviour Therapy Session with a Female in her Early Twenties with Borderline Personality Disorder and Social Anxiety

Report of Clinical Activity N=1

A Cognitive-Behavioural Assessment, Formulation and Intervention for a Female in her Early Twenties with Social Anxiety and Borderline Personality Disorder

Major Research Project Literature Survey

A review of available literature investigating the impact of gender role on men’s experience of anxiety and coping strategies used

Major Research Project Proposal

Working Title of Proposed Study: Does Coping Flexibility Mediate the Relationship between Gender Flexibility and Psychological Wellbeing?

Service-Related Project A Recovery Service: Do service users think a Community Mental Health Recovery Service has a recovery focus?

Year II Assessments

ASSESSMENT TITLE

Report of Clinical Activity/Report of Clinical Activity –

An Assessment of the Executive Functioning of a Male in his Thirties with a Diagnosis of Learning Disabilities.

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Formal Assessment

PPLD Process Account Personal and Professional Learning Discussion Groups: Twenty-two Months In.

Year III Assessments

ASSESSMENT TITLE

Presentation of Clinical Activity

A Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Based Intervention with a Teenage Girl Experiencing Panic Attacks.

Major Research Project Literature Review

Do androgynous individuals cope differently when compared to individuals of other gender roles? A literature review.

Major Research Project Empirical Paper

Exploring the relationship between gender roles and psychological wellbeing: Does coping have a role?

Report of Clinical Activity/Report of Clinical Activity – Formal Assessment

An Overview of Involvement from a Bio-psycho-social Perspective with a Female in her Mid-teens with a Spinal Injury, and a Narrative-informed intervention with her Mother.

Final Reflective Account

On becoming a clinical psychologist: A retrospective, developmental, reflective account of the experience of training.

(My perceived competence: Reflecting on the fluctuating and ever-evolving journey to becoming a clinical psychologist.)

162

Documents

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