Acronyms and Abbreviations

AACVD aerosol-assisted CVD AADC advanced automotive duty cycle AAM anodic alumina membrane AAO anodic aluminum oxide AC alternating current acac acetylacetonate ACF activated carbon fiber ACL anode catalyst layer ADF Amsterdam Density Functional ADT accelerated degradation test or accelerated durability test AEMFC anion exchange membrane fuel cell AES auger electron spectroscopy AFC alkaline fuel cell AFM atomic force microscopy AIMD ab initio molecular dynamics method AO process anthraquinone process AST accelerated stress test BET Brunnauer, Emmett, and Teller BOL beginning-of-life CAS Chemical Abstracts Service CCDL catalyst coated diffusion layer CCL cathode catalyst layer CCM catalyst coated membrane CCS catalyst coated substrate CCVD combustion chemical vapor deposition CDM catalyzed diffusion media CE counter electrode CF3PPCo Co-trifluoromethylphenylporphyrin CFD computational fluid dynamics CGMD coarse-grained molecular dynamics CG-MS coarse-grained molecular simulation CL catalyst layer

1096 Acronyms and Abbreviations

CMPsf chloromethylated polysulfone CNF carbon nanofiber CNT carbon nanotube CNWS carbon-Nafion-water-solvent CoNPc Co-naphthalocyanine CoPPy Co-polypyrrole CoTAA Co-tetraazaannulene CoTMPyP [tetrakis(N-methylpyridyl)porphyrinato]cobalt CoTSP Co(II) tetrasulfonatephthalocyanine Co-WC cobalt-cemented tungsten carbide CPE constant phase element CRYO-FESEM field emission scanning electron microscope with cryogenic

stage and sample preparation unit CV cyclic voltammetry CVD chemical vapour deposition DAFC direct alcohol fuel cell DC direct current DEFC direct ethanol fuel cell DEMS differential electrochemical mass spectroscopy DFAFC direct formic acid fuel cell DFT density functional theory DHDBTAA dihydrodibenzotetraazaannulene DHE dynamic hydrogen electrode DHP dihexadecyl hydrogen phosphate DLFC direct liquid fuel cell DMAc dimethylacetic acid DMF N,N-dimethylformamide DMFC direct methanol fuel cell DOE United States Department of Energy DOS density of state DSA dimensionally stable anode DSC differential scanning calorimetry DSS daily start and stop DTA differential thermal analysis DTG derivative thermal gravimetry EA electron affinity EAA electrochemically active area EAM embedded atom method EAS electrochemically active surface EASA or ECSA electrochemical active surface area EC equivalent circuit ECA electrochemical area ECC electrochemical catalyzation EC-NMR electrochemical nuclear magnetic resonance ED electron diffraction EDS energy dispersive spectroscopy EDX energy dispersive X-ray analysis

Acronyms and Abbreviations 1097

EELS electron energy loss spectroscopy EG ethylene glycol solution EIS electrochemical impedance spectroscopy EMIS electrochemically modulated infrared spectroscopy EMS electrochemical mass spectroscopy EOL end-of-life EPD electrophoretic deposition EPMA electron probe micro-analysis EPSA electrode Pt surface area ESCA electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis EXAFS extended X-ray absorption fine structure FAM flooded-agglomerate model FC fuel cell FCCVD floating catalyst CVD f-CNF fishbone or herringbone CNF FCV fuel cell vehicle FeIIITPFPP 5,10,15,20-Tetrakis (pentafluorophenyl)-21H,23H-porphine

iron (III) FEP fluorinated ethylene propylene FePPIX Fe protoporphyrin IX FESEM field emission scanning electron microscopy or FE-SEM FeTPP Fe meso-tetraphenylporphine FeTPyP Fe meso-tetra(3-pyridyl)porphine FF flow field FRA frequency response analyzer FTIR Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy FWHM full width at half maximum GC glassy carbon GCNF graphitic carbon nanofibers GDE gas diffusion electrode GDL gas diffusion layer GGA generalized gradient approximation GMPL graded porosity micro-porous layer HER hydrogen evolution reaction HEV hydrogen evolution reaction HHV higher heating value HOPG highly ordered pyrolytic graphite HOR hydrogen oxidation reaction HR-EDS high-spatial-resolution energy dispersive spectroscopy HR-TEM high-resolution transmission electron microscope HT-PEMFC high-temperature PEM fuel cell HWP half-wave potential IBAD ion-beam assisted deposition ICE internal combustion engine ICMEA integrated composite membrane electrode assembly ICP-MS inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

1098 Acronyms and Abbreviations

ICV isothermal constant voltage IMI intermittent microwave irradiation IP ionization potential IRRAS infrared reflection-absorption spectroscopy LANL Los Alamos National Laboratory LDA local density approximation LDOS local density of states LHV lower heating value LJ Lennard-Jones potential LSV lineal sweep voltammetry LT-PEMFC low-temperature PEM fuel cell MBE molecular beam epitaxial MCFC molten carbonate fuel cell MD molecular dynamic MEA membrane electrode assembly MeTAA metal dibenzo-tetra-aza-annulene MeTMPP metal tetramethoxy porphyrin MeTPP metal tetraphenyl porphyrin MOR methanol oxidation reaction MPL micro-porous layer MPS molecular precursor state M-RDE multi-rotating disk electrode MS-CG multi-scale coarse graining MSE mercury/mercurous sulfate reference electrode M-SWCNT metallic SWCNT MWCNT multiwalled carbon nanotube MWNT multi-wall nanotubes Na(AOT) sodium 2 bis (2-ethylhexyl)sulfosuccinate NAAQS US National Ambient Air Quality Standards Nafion a perfluorinated sulfonic acid ionomer manufactured by DuPont N-CNT nitrogen-containing CNT or nitrogen-doped CNT NEXAFS near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy NHE normal hydrogen electrode NMR nuclear magnetic resonance NRC-IFCI National Research Council of Canada Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation NS nanostructure NSTF nanostructured thin film NW nanowire OCV open circuit voltage OMC ordered mesoporous carbon OPD overpotential deposition ORR oxygen reduction reaction PAFC phosphoric acid fuel cell PAN or pan polyacrylonitrile PAni polyaniline PA-PBI phosphoric acid-doped polybenzimidazole

Acronyms and Abbreviations 1099

PBI polybenzoimidazole PCA process control agent PCFC protonic ceramic fuel cell PECVD plasma-enhanced CVD PEFC polymer electrolyte fuel cell PEG polyethylene glycol PEM proton exchange membrane or polymer electrolyte membrane PEMFC polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell or proton exchange

membrane fuel cell PFSA perfluorosulfonate (or perfluorosulfonic) acid PFSI perfluorosulfonated ionomer or perfluorosulfonimide PGM platinum group metal PIXE proton-induced X-ray emission PMoA phosphomolybdic acid PNP Poisson-Nernst-Planck POMC phenanthrene ordered mesoporous carbon ppm parts per million Ppy polypyrrole PR perylene red PROX catalytic preferential oxidation PRR proton reduction reaction PS polystyrene spheres PSD pore size distribution PTCDA perylene tetracarboxylic dianhydride PTFE polytetrafluoroethylene PVD physical vapour deposition PVDF polyvinylidene fluoride PZC point of zero charge RDE rotating disk electrode RDF radial distribution function rds rate determining step RE reference electrode REV representative elementary volume element REWO REWOTERIC B14 RH relative humidity RHE reversible hydrogen electrode RRDE rotating ring disk electrode RSDT reactive spray deposition technology/technique RVC reticulated vitreous carbon RWGS reverse water gas shift RWGSR reverse water gas shift reaction SAED selected area electron diffraction SB12 surfactant 3-(N,N-dimethyldodecylammonio) propanesulfonate SC Sutton-Chen potential SCE saturated calomel reference electrode SDEMS scanning differential electrochemical mass spectrometry SDF-F sulfonated poly (fluorinated arylene ether)s

1100 Acronyms and Abbreviations

SECM scanning electrochemical microscopy SEI secondary electron imaging SEM scanning electron microscope SERS surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy SHE standard hydrogen reference electrode SL substrate layer slpm standard liter per minute SMR stream methane reforming SOFC solid oxide fuel cell SOMC sucrose ordered mesoporous carbon SPC single point charge SPE solid polymer electrolyte SPEEK sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) SSCE saturated silver/silver chloride reference electrode S-SWCNT semiconducting SWCNT STM scanning tunnelling microscopy SWCNT singlewalled carbon nanotube SWNH singlewalled carbon nanohorn SWNT singlewall nanotubes TAA dibenzotetraazaannulene TBA tetrabutylammonium TcPc tetracarboxyphthalocyanine TC-SG tip collection-sample generation TEM transmission electron microscope TFE Tetrafluoroethylene TF-RDE thin-film rotating disk electrode TG thermogravimetry TGA thermogravimetric analysis TG-MS thermogravimetry-mass spectrometry TG-SC tip generation-sample collection THF tetrahydrofuran TMA trimethylamine TMA thermomechanical analysis TMAOH tetramethylammoniumhydroxide TMEDA tetramethylethylenediamine TMMDA tetramethylmethanediamine TMPP tetramethoxyphenylporphyrin TOF-SIMS time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy TPD temperature programmed desorption TpOCH3PPCo Co-tetramethoxyphenylporphyrin TPP tetraphenylporphyrin TPR temperature programmed reduction TS transition state TSP tetrasulphophthalocyanine TW terawatt UGF uncompressed graphite felt UHV ultra-high vacuum

Acronyms and Abbreviations 1101

UME ultramicroelectrode UPD underpotential deposition UPS uninterruptible power supply UVPS UV-induced photoelectron spectroscopy USP ultrasonic spray pyrolysis UV-VIS ultraviolet-visible VLS vapor-liquid-solid VOC volatile organic species VRE voltage reversal effect VS vapor-solid WC tungsten carbide WGS water-gas shift XANES X-ray absorption near edge structure XAS X-ray absorption spectroscopy XPS X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy XRD x-ray diffraction XRE X-ray emission XRF X-ray fluorescence YSZ yttria-stabilized zirconia ZrP zirconyl chloride and phosphoric acid

Contributor Biographies

Dr. Jiujun Zhang (General Editor) is a Senior Research Officer and PEM Catalysis Core Competency Leader at the National Research Council of Canada Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation (NRC-IFCI). Dr. Zhang received his B.S. and M.Sc. in Electrochemistry from Peking University in 1982 and 1985, respectively, under the supervision of Professors Wenzhi Yang and Shengmin Cai, and his Ph.D. in Electrochemistry from Wuhan University in 1988, under the supervision of Professors Quanxing Cha, Juntao Lu, and Zigang Feng. After completing his Ph.D., he took a position as an associate professor at the Huazhong Normal University for two years. Starting in 1990, he carried out three terms of postdoctoral research at the California Institute of Technology with Professor Fred C. Anson, York University with Professors A.B.P. Lever and William J. Pietro, and the University of British Columbia with Professor Colin Oloman. Dr. Zhang has over twenty-six years of R&D experience in theoretical and applied electrochemistry, including over twelve years of fuel cell R&D (among these six years at Ballard Power Systems and four years at NRC-IFCI), and three years of electrochemical sensor experience. Dr. Zhang holds seven adjunct professorships, including one at the University of Waterloo and one at the University of British Columbia, and supervises several M.Sc. and Ph.D. students. He also currently supervises over ten researchers. His research is based on: low/non-Pt cathode catalyst development with long-term stability for catalyst cost reduction; preparation of novel material-supported Pt catalysts through ultrasonic spray pyrolysis; catalyst layer/cathode structure; fundamental understanding through first principles theoretical modeling; catalyst layer characterization and electrochemical evaluation; and preparation of cost-effective MEAs for fuel cell testing and evaluation. Dr. Zhang has co-authored more than 140 research papers published in refereed journals and holds over ten U.S. patents. He has also produced in excess of seventy industrial technical reports. Dr. Zhang is an active member of The Electrochemical Society, the International Society of Electrochemistry, and the American Chemical Society.

Dr. Christina Bock is a Senior Research Officer at the National Research Council of Canada (NRC). She has more than fifteen years of experience in

1104 Contributor Biographies

electrochemistry for water remediation, energy storage, and energy production. Dr. Bock is currently leading the project “Catalysts for Energy Conversion and Energy Storage” at the NRC Institute for Chemical Processes and Environmental Technologies (ICPET). The project consists of several sub-projects that are a mixture of developmental research on the laboratory scale and work with fuel cell test units. Over the past years the project has largely focused on direct methanol and proton exchange membrane fuel cells, with an emphasis on catalysts and catalyst layer development. Over the years, she has collaborated with several Canadian companies and other national laboratories. She has expertise in controlled catalyst synthesis on the nanoscale (U.S. patent application pending). In 2005, Dr. Bock received the Lash Miller Award of the Canadian section of the Electrochemical Society for her work in catalyst synthesis and novel characterization approaches. She is also actively involved with The Electrochemical Society, currently as chair of the New Technology Sub-committee.

Dr. Michael Eikerling (NRC-IFCI/SFU) has been an Assistant Professor in the Department of Chemistry at Simon Fraser University since May 2003. He received his Diploma in Theoretical Condensed Matter Physics from RWTH Aachen University, Germany, in 1995 and his Ph.D. in Theoretical Chemical Physics from the Technische Universität (TU) München in Germany in 1999. Thereafter, he spent periods as a research associate at the Research Centre Jülich in Germany, the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and TU München. He is an expert in physical theory and modelling of materials for fuel cells, with more than ten years of experience in this field. His position involves a 50% secondment to the National Research Council of Canada Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation. This shared appointment provides excellent conditions for combining fundamental research on the structure and properties of proton conducting media and complex electrodes, with applied research on the operation and optimization of fuel cells. Major themes of Dr. Eikerling’s research explore: (i) structural and dynamic properties of proton-conducting materials for fuel cells – using molecular-scale computer simulations and analytical theory to establish relations between chemical structure, mesoscopic morphology, transport of protons and water, and fuel cell performance; (ii) kinetic processes in nanoparticle electrocatalysis – developing simulation tools (Monte-Carlo and molecular dynamics) and analytical theories to understand the effects of catalyst particle size and surface structures on electrocatalytic activity, and the role of the substrate material; and (iii) catalyst layer modelling – understanding relations between random heterogeneous structures, water balance, and fuel cell performance. This research contributes to the fundamental understanding of structure-property relationships, the diagnostics of materials properties and fuel cell operation, and the identification of routes towards advanced structural design of proton conductors and electrodes.

Dr. El d Gyenge is an Associate Professor in the Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. In 2007 he was awarded the inaugural Elisabeth and Leslie Gould Professorship. Dr. Gyenge received his M.Eng. in Chemical Engineering/Industrial Organic

Contributor Biographies 1105

Chemistry from University Babes-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca, Romania in 1990, with a thesis in the area of organic electrosynthesis, under the supervision of Professor Liviu Oniciu. In 1995 and 2001, respectively, Dr. Gyenge received his M.A.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Chemical Engineering (specializing in Electrochemical Engineering) from the University of British Columbia. His Ph.D. thesis dealt with novel interfacial methods of oxygen electroreduction enhancement for hydrogen peroxide electrosynthesis, and was conducted under the supervision of Professor Colin Oloman. After completing his Ph.D., he worked in industrial R&D as a Senior Consultant for Electrochemical Processes at BC Research Inc. (presently incorporated in Cantest Ltd.). In this capacity Dr. Gyenge was instrumental in developing patented technologies in the area of lead-acid batteries, metal-air fuel cells, and zinc electrowinning. As a professor at the University of British Columbia, he conducts a dynamic group of graduate students and postdoctoral fellows, carrying out research in the area of electrocatalysis, interfacial phenomena, and electrochemical engineering, with emphases on electrochemical power sources (direct methanol, ethanol, formic acid, and borohydride fuel cells) and electrosynthesis. These activities have been reported in many refereed journal publications, conference proceedings, and invention disclosures. In addition to research, Dr. Gyenge teaches both senior undergraduate and graduate-level courses on fuel cells and electrochemical engineering. He is a member of the Electrochemical Society, the International Society of Electrochemistry, the American Chemical Society, and the Canadian Society of Chemical Engineering, a joint member of the American Institute of Chemical Engineering, and a foreign member-at-large of the General Assembly of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Dr. Gyenge dedicates the Chapter “Electrocatalytic Oxidation of Methanol, Ethanol, and Formic Acid” to the memory of Prof. Dr. Doc. Liviu Oniciu (University Babes-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca, Romania), who introduced him to electrochemistry and encouraged him from early on to pursue research in this field.

Helga Halvorsen is a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Ottawa, Canada. Under the supervision of Dr. Barry MacDougall, her thesis work focuses on the development of Pt nanocatalyst systems. Helga received her M.Sc. from the University of Western Ontario while studying coupled diffusion in surfactant solutions. She is the recipient of an Ontario Graduate Student Scholarship, in addition to several local awards for academic and research excellence.

Dr. Shiqiang (Rob) Hui is a Senior Research Officer and Acting Group Leader for High-Temperature Fuel Cells at the National Research Council of Canada Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation. He is an adjunct professor at the University of British Columbia, Canada and at three other major universities in China. Dr. Hui received his Ph.D. in Materials Science and Engineering at McMaster University in 2000. He has conducted research and development for materials, processing, and characterization for more than twenty years. Dr. Hui has worked on various projects, including chemical sensors, solid oxide fuel cells, magnetic materials, gas separation membranes, nanostructured materials, thin film fabrication, and protective coatings for metals. He has led or been involved in over thirty national and international projects funded by government or industry in China, the USA,

1106 Contributor Biographies

and Canada. Dr. Hui is an active member of The Electrochemical Society and has more than eighty research publications.

Dr. Kunchan Lee is a Research Associate at the National Research Council of Canada Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation (NRC-IFCI). Dr. Lee received his B.S. and M.Sc. from Pukyung National University in 1997 and 1999, respectively, and his Ph.D. in Materials Science and Engineering from Yokohama National University in 2004 under the supervision of Professor Ken-ichiro Ota. After completing his Ph.D., he carried out postdoctoral research at Yokohama National University as a researcher for Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) with Professor Ken-ichiro Ota, and then at NRC-IFCI as a postdoctoral fellow of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) with Dr. Jiujun Zhang. He has over seven years of research and development experience in material science and electrochemistry, including electrocatalysts and polymer membranes for PEM fuel cells. Currently, he has been conducting research on the development and evaluation of new non-noble electrocatalysts such as carbides, nitrides, chalcogenides, and macrocycles for PEM fuel cells. Dr. Lee has co-authored more than twenty refereed research papers and holds one Japan patent.

Dr. Baitao Li received her Ph.D. in Applied Chemistry from the University of Tokyo, Japan in 2003, under the supervision of Professor Fujimoto Kaoru; her dissertation focused on the synthesis of oxygenates from middle olefin in heterogeneous systems. In the same year, she commenced post-doctoral work in the laboratory of Dr. Tomishige Keiichi at the University of Tsukuba, Japan, where she worked on syngas production from methane reformation. She currently is at the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, South China University of Technology, in Guangzhou, China. She has published many papers in the Journal of Catalysis, Catalysis Today, Applied Catalysis, etc. Her research interests lie in synthesis and applications of catalytic materials, and the evaluation of catalytic reaction mechanisms by computational chemistry.

Dr. Hui Li is a Research Associate and PEMFC Contamination Consortium project leader at the National Research Council of Canada Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation (NRC-IFCI). Dr. Li received her B.S. and M.Sc. in Chemical Engineering from Tsinghu University in 1987 and 1990, respectively, under the supervision of Professor Jingshan Tong. After completing her M.Sc., she joined Kunming Metallurgical Institute as a research engineer for four years and then took a position as an associate professor at Sunwen University (then a branch of Zhongshan University) for eight years. In 2002, she started her Ph.D. program in Electrochemical Engineering at the University of British Columbia under the supervision of Professor Colin Oloman. After obtaining her Ph.D. in 2006, she carried out one term of postdoctoral research at the Clean Energy Research Centre (CERC) at the University of British Columbia with Professor Colin Oloman and Professor David Wilkinson. In 2007, she joined the Low-temperature PEMFC Group at NRC-IFCI, under the supervision of Dr. Jiujun Zhang. Dr. Li has years of research and development experience in theoretical and applied electrochemistry and in electrochemical engineering. Her research is based on PEMFC

Contributor Biographies 1107

contamination testing and contamination mitigation; preparation and development of electrochemical catalysts with long-term stability; catalyst layer/cathode structure; and catalyst layer characterization and electrochemical evaluation. Dr. Li has co-authored more than fifteen research papers published in refereed journals and has one technology licensed to the Mantra Energy Group. She has also produced many industrial technical reports.

Dr. Jing Li is a senior R&D materials scientist in Automotive Fuel Cell Cooperation (AFCC). Dr. Jing Li received his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry of Metallurgy and Materials at the Central South University of Technology, China. He held the positions of assistant professor and professor at the Institute of Physical Chemistry of Metallurgy and Materials (IPMM), Central South University of Technology, China from 1988 to 1994. In 1991–1992 and 1995–1996 Dr. Li worked as a visiting scientist in the Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Tokyo, Japan, and from 1996–1999, he worked as a Senior Research Associate in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, and the Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto. He moved from academy to industry in 1999 when he joined JDS Uniphase as a senior material scientist, and then worked at Ballard Power Systems as as a senior material scientist from 2003 to 2008. As a material scientist for over 20 years, Dr. Li has been working on nanostructured materials, polymer physics and chemistry, fuel cell catalyst and carbon materials, metals, and fiber optical materials. He has published more than fifty research papers in refereed journals and holds over seven patents in China, Japan, and the USA. He is an active member of The Electrochemical Society.

Dr. Yingwei Li is Professor of Physical Chemistry at the South China University of Technology, China. He received his B.S. (1998) and Ph.D. (2003) in Physical Chemistry from Tsinghua University, China. His Ph.D. work, on catalytic synthesis of iso-C4 hydrocarbons from CO hydrogenation, was carried out under the supervision of Professors Shaoyi Peng, Qiming Zhu, and Dehua He. From 2003 to 2004 he was a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Calgary, Canada, working with Professor Peter D. Clark on oxidative dehydrogenation of C2-C5alkanes. He returned to China in 2004 as a Research Fellow at Tsinghua University, where he worked with Professor Dehua He on hydrogen production from steam reforming of methanol. From 2005 to 2007 he was a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Michigan, USA, working with Professor Ralph T. Yang on hydrogen storage by spillover and the desulfurization of liquid fuels by adsorption. His research interests focus on hydrogen energy and catalysis chemistry, with particular recent interests being the production of hydrogen from alcohols and biomass, hydrogen storage on nanostructures, and fuel cell catalysts. He is the first author of over twenty peer-reviewed publications, and holds four patents, including two US patents.

Dr. Shijun Liao is a Professor at South China University of Technology. He received his B.S. and M.Sc. in Physical Chemistry from Huazhong Normal University in 1982 and from Jilin University in 1988, respectively, and his Ph.D. in Industrial Catalysis from South China University of Technology in 1999, under the

1108 Contributor Biographies

supervision of Professor Wang Lefu. After completing his Ph.D., Dr. Liao worked as a postdoctoral fellow from 2000 to 2001 in Professor Linkov’s group at the University of the Western Cape in South Africa, and in 2005, he worked in Professor Viola Birss’s group at the University of Calgary, Canada as a visiting scientist. He has worked in universities for twenty-six years, and has been engaged in fuel cell and fuel cell catalysis research since 2000. Dr. Liao supervises more than twenty M.Sc. and Ph.D. students, as well as six researchers. His research is focused on preparation of novel anode and cathode catalysts, novel preparation methods for high-performance Pt-based and Pd-based catalysts, preparation of membrane electrode assemblies, and development of large power stacks for power station and vehicle applications. His main research achievements include a high-pressure colloidal method for preparation of high-performance catalysts, and a novel catalyst-coated membrane technique for preparation of high-performance MEAs. Dr. Liao has co-authored more than 130 research papers published in refereed journals and holds over ten China patents. One of his research achievements has received an award from the China Education Ministry for its successful application in industry. Dr. Liao is an active member of the Catalysis Society of China, the Associate Editor of the Journal of Nanomaterials, and a board member of several Chinese journals.

Dr. Hansan Liu is a Research Associate at the National Research Council of Canada Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation. He obtained his Ph.D. in the electrochemistry research group at Xiamen University, China, and has over ten years of research experience in the field of electrochemical energy conversion and storage devices, including Ni-MH batteries, lithium ion batteries, solar energy devices, supercapacitors, DMFCs, and PEMFCs. His research interests include fuel cell electrocatalysis, electrode materials of rechargeable batteries and capacitors, photoelectrocatalysis, and aerosol techniques for nanomaterial synthesis. Dr. Liu has authored or co-authored three book chapters, three patents (two pending), over thirty peer-reviewed journal papers, and eight industrial technical reports. Dr. Liu is a member of The Electrochemical Society as well as the International Society of Electrochemistry.

Dr. Kourosh Malek received his M.Sc. in Physical (Electro)Chemistry in 1997 from Sharif University of Technology, Iran. After commencing his Ph.D. in 1997, he moved to the Netherlands to continue his doctoral research work in the Department of Chemical Engineering at Delft University of Technology (TU Delft). He received his Ph.D. with honours in 2001, in physical chemistry emphasizing electrochemistry and catalysis. From 2001–2004 he was a postdoctoral research fellow in the Department of Chemical Engineering, TU Delft, working on the modelling of transport in heterogeneous porous media, and carried out several projects in the field of computational molecular catalysis and transport in porous media. This was followed by a research (onderzoeker)appointment at Schuit Institute of Catalysis, Eindhoven, Netherlands, working on molecular heterogeneous catalysis and the computational study of catalytic reactions, prior to joining the National Research Council of Canada Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation (NRC-IFCI) as a Research Officer in May 2006. Dr. Malek is

Contributor Biographies 1109

proficient in using multi-scale computer simulations for applications in heterogeneous catalysis and fuel cells. He also has a solid background in electrochemistry and molecular heterogeneous catalysis. Most of his research interests relate to the central theme of modeling and simulation of diffusion and reaction phenomena from the micro-scale (atomic) up to the macro-scale. His current research area includes self-organization phenomena in PEM fuel cells, modeling of diffusion and reaction in nanoporous (electro)catalysts and membranes, dynamic properties of heterogeneous nanoporous materials, and meso-scale simulations of diffusion and reaction processes in nanoporous catalysts with rough internal surfaces.

Dr. Zhigang Qi, currently a corporate Fellow at MTI Micro Fuel Cells Inc., is an electro/analytical chemist and materials scientist. Dr. Qi has diverse technical and managerial training. He received his B.Sc. and M.Sc. from the University of Science and Technology Beijing in 1985 and 1988, respectively. After teaching there for about two and a half years, he went to Canada and received a second M.Sc. from Memorial University of Newfoundland in 1993, and a Ph.D. from McGill University in 1996. He then worked with Professor Peter Pickup at Memorial University as a postdoctoral fellow for one and a half years. In 1997, Dr. Qi joined H Power Corp. as a Senior Staff Scientist and the Supervisor of the Electrochemistry Lab. In 2003, he moved to Plug Power Inc. as the Manager of the Analytical and Fundamentals group and was promoted to Corporate Fellow in late 2004. Dr. Qi joined MTI Micro Fuel Cells in November 2007. In the last twelve years, Dr. Qi has focused on improving the performance and durability of proton exchange membrane fuel cells, direct methanol fuel cells, and phosphoric acid fuel cells at both component and system levels. He has made a number of significant contributions to advancing these technologies, and some of his work has created new research directions. He has fifty-seven articles in peer-reviewed journals, six invited book chapters, twelve publications in proceedings volumes, and holds eight US patents, eight pending US patent applications, and numerous invention disclosures. Dr. Qi has been elected as an Editorial Board Member of the Journal of Power Sources since 2006. He also teaches “Fuel Cell Technology” as an adjunct professor at the Graduate College of Union University. He is a member of The Electrochemistry Society and the American Chemical Society.

Dr. Madhu Sudan Saha is a Research Associate with Professor Brant A. Peppley at Queen’s-RMC Fuel Cell Research Centre, Canada. Dr. Saha received his B.Sc. and M.Sc. in Chemistry from Dhaka University in 1993 and 1995, respectively, under the supervision of Professor Rowshan J. Mannan, and his D.Sc. in Electrochemistry from Tokyo Institute of Technology in 2001 under the supervision of Professor Takeo Ohsaka. The same year he took a position as a Research Scientist at Permelec Electrode Ltd., Japan, where he was responsible for developing high-performance MEAs for PEM fuel cells and for the electrochemical synthesis of biologically important organics. In 2004, he came to Northeastern University, USA, as a Research Scientist to work with Professor Sanjeev Mukerjee, investigating methanol crossover and cell performance in DMFCs, and developing ultra-low Pt-loading electrodes for PEMFC applications.

1110 Contributor Biographies

Dr. Saha also worked as a Research Associate with Professor Xueliang Sun at the University of Western Ontario, Canada. Dr. Saha has over seven years of R&D experience in theoretical and applied electrochemistry, including over two years of fuel cell R&D. He has co-authored more than twenty-five research papers published in refereed journals and holds over ten patents. He has also produced in excess of twenty industrial technical reports. Dr. Saha is an active member of The Electrochemical Society and the American Chemical Society. He was awarded the Monbukagakusho Fellowship from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (1998–2001). His research focuses on nanostructured materials, including nanotubes and nanowires synthesis, and electrochemical characterization and applications as alternative electrode supports for PEM fuel cells.

Dr. Pei Kang Shen is a Professor and Director of the Advanced Energy Materials Research Laboratory (AEMRL) at the Sun Yat-Sen University in China. Dr. Shen received his B.S. in Electrochemistry from Xiamen University in 1982. He spent seven years in Xiamen University as Assistant Lecturer before going to Essex University as a Senior Visiting Scientist in 1989. Dr. Shen received his Ph.D. in Chemistry from Essex University in 1992 under the supervision of Professor Alfred C. C. Tseung. He has continued to carry out research on fuel cells and functional materials since 1992 at Essex University, Hong Kong University, and the City University of Hong Kong. Dr. Shen moved to Sun Yat-Sen University in 2001. He is currently leading a highly interdisciplinary team of over twenty research members, including postdoctoral, doctoral, and masters students. For more than twenty years, Dr. Shen has been involved in research areas covering fuel cells and batteries, the electrochemistry of nanomaterials, nanocomposite functional materials, and high-performance polymer materials. Dr. Shen has co-authored more than 150 journal papers and holds over ten patents. He is an active member of The Electrochemical Society, the International Society of Electrochemistry, and the American Chemical Society.

Dr. Zheng Shi obtained her Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from Dalhousie University in 1990. Dr. Shi has over fifteen years of theoretical modeling experience in the fields of electronic structure, reaction mechanisms, drug development, catalysis development, and structure activity relationships. She has worked at several pharmaceutical companies as well as universities, including Simon Fraser University and the University of British Columbia, prior to joining the National Research Council of Canada Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation. Currently, Dr. Shi is working in the area of fuel cell catalysis development and catalyst contamination studies. Dr. Shi’s research focuses on the fundamental understanding of electrocatalysis reaction mechanisms, and the development of structure activity relationships and fuel cell contamination kinetic models.

Dr. Chaojie Song is a Research Officer at the National Research Council of Canada Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation (NRC-IFCI). He received his B.Sc. in Chemistry from Lanzhou University (1984), and his M.Sc. in Electrochemistry from Hebei Normal University (1989) under the supervision of Professors Wenzhi

Contributor Biographies 1111

Zhang and Xizun Wu. He received his Ph.D. in Inorganic/Analytical Chemistry from the University of New Brunswick (1997–2001) under the supervision of Professor Gilles Villemure, working on layered silicate clays, mesoporous molecular sieve silicas, and the use of these nanostructured materials in modified electrodes. He then conducted postdoctoral work under the supervision of Professor Kurt R. Hebert and Professor Surya K. Mallapragada at Iowa State University (April–December 2001). In 2002, he joined Professor Peter G. Pickup’s group at Memorial University of Newfoundland as a postdoctoral fellow, and then as a research associate in December 2003, working on fuel cell catalyst development. He joined the NRC-IFCI in 2004 as a NSERC (Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council) postdoctoral fellow, a research associate, and then a research officer under the supervision of Dr. Jiujun Zhang, working on high-temperature PEM fuel cells and fuel cell catalyst development. Dr. Song has over seventy research publications, including journal papers, conference presentations, and industrial technical reports. Dr. Song is an active member of The Electrochemical Society.

Professor Xueliang (Andy) Sun is a Canada Research Chair in the development of nanomaterials for fuel cells, and Associate Professor at the University of Western Ontario, Canada. Dr. Sun received his Ph.D. in Materials Chemistry in 1999 at the University of Manchester, UK, followed by work as a postdoctoral fellow at the University of British Columbia, Canada and as Research Associate at l’Institut national de la recherche scientifique (INRS), Canada. He has extensive experience in materials and in surface science more generally. In recent years, Dr. Sun has established a remarkable track record in nanoscience and nanotechnology for clean energy, mainly in the areas of synthesis and structure control of one-dimensional nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and nanowires, as well as their applications for fuel cells. He has published over thirty papers in peer-reviewed journals and one book chapter. He has also authored or co-authored seven patents for the synthesis of carbon nanotubes and nanowires as well as their application as fuel cell electrodes. At the University of Western Ontario, Dr. Sun is currently supervising over ten researchers, including research associates, postdoctoral fellows, and graduate students. Dr. Sun and his group have been developing various methods such as chemical vapor deposition, solution-based, and template methods to fabricate carbon nanotubes, nanowires, and nanoparticles as fuel cell electrodes. Dr. Sun has established extensive collaborations with General Motors (GM), Ballard Power Systems, the Canadian Department of National Defence (DND), INCO Ltd., and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) to work on nanomaterials and fuel cells. Dr. Sun is an active member of The Electrochemical Society and the Materials Research Society.

Dr. Haijiang Wang is a senior research officer, project manager of multi-projects, and core competency leader of the Unit Fuel Cell Team at the National Research Council of Canada Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation (NRC-IFCI). He is leading a team of over ten researchers to carry out research and development on novel fuel cell design, novel fuel cell materials, fuel cell diagnosis, and durability. Dr. Wang received his Ph.D. in Electrochemistry from the University of Copenhagen,

1112 Contributor Biographies

Denmark in 1993. He then joined Dr. Vernon Parker’s research group at Utah State University as a postdoctoral researcher to study electrochemically generated anion and cation radicals. In 1997 he began working with Natural Resources Canada as a research scientist to conduct research on fuel cell technology. In 1999 he joined Ballard Power Systems as a senior research scientist to continue his research on fuel cell technology. After spending five years with Ballard Power Systems, he joined NRC-IFCI in 2004. He is currently adjunct professor at five universities, including the University of British Columbia and the University of Waterloo. To date, Dr. Wang has accumulated twenty-five years of professional research experience in electrochemistry and fuel cell technology. He has published over fifty journal papers, forty industrial reports, given more than thirty conference papers or presentations, and holds three patents.

Dr. Qianpu Wang received his Diploma in Metallurgy Engineering from the Central South University, China in 1986 and his Ph.D. in Multiphase Flow from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway in 2001. He then joined the National Research Council of Canada Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation (NRC-IFCI) as a post-doctoral fellow until 2004. Thereafter he has been a research officer at NRC-IFCI. His research interests include fundamental understanding of mass transport limitations, catalyst utilization in catalyst layers, and fuel cell/stack modeling and optimization.

Dr. Xiaoli Wang is an engineer in the Fuel Cell Vehicle Division of the Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation of China (SAIC). She received her B.S. in Chemical Engineering from Dalian University of Technology in 2001. Dr. Wang then went on to study at the Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS-DICP), where she received her Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering in 2006 under the supervision of Professor Huamin Zhang. Dr. Wang has over five years of experience in the research and development of proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Her research involves electrode design, catalyst layer/MEA characterization, and catalyst synthesis and electrochemical evaluation. She currently focuses on research for fuel cell engine systems, and is participating in a development project on fuel cell cars that will feature in the 2010 World Exposition in Shanghai. Dr. Wang has co-authored eleven research papers published in refereed journals, and holds five China patents.

Dr. Wei Xing is professor and leader of the Chemical Power Research Section at the Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry (CIAC), Chinese Academy of Sciences. Dr. Xing received his B.S. in Chemical Engineering from Zhejiang University in 1987 under the supervision of Professor Qingyang Shen, and his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from CIAC in 1995 under the supervision of Professors Shiquan Xi and Tianhong Lu. After completing his Ph.D., he worked as a researcher at the Hong Kong Productivity Council for three years. From 1999 to 2001, he worked as an associate professor at CIAC, and from 2001 to the present, he has worked as a professor and section leader at CIAC. His research interests are focused on fundamental understanding of the electrochemical system of PEM fuel cells (PEMFCs), including direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs), as well as

Contributor Biographies 1113

materials (catalysts and membranes) and integrated technologies of PEMFCs and DMFCs. Dr. Xing has over twenty years of R&D experience in theoretical and applied electrochemistry, including over ten years of fuel cell R&D. He has co-authored more than 100 research papers published in refereed journals and holds over twenty China and US patents. He has completed and directed many national scientific projects, such as the National High Techniques Program “Direct Alcohol Fuel Cell”, and the Key Nature Science Foundation “Fundamental Research on Direct Alcohol Fuel Cell”, amongst others. Dr. Xing is a syndic of the Chinese Chemical Society, a fellow of the Chinese Society of Electrochemistry, and a member of the Academic Committee of the CIAC. He is also a member of the International Society of Electrochemistry and of the American Chemical Society.

Dr. Siyu Ye received his B.Sc. in 1982 and his Ph.D. (under the supervision of Professors Zhaowu Tian and Renyuan Qian) in 1988, both from Xiamen University. He was a Volkswagen Foundation Postdoctoral Fellow (award accompanied by research funding) at the University Duisburg-Essen, Germany (1988–1991) and Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Québec at Montréal, Canada (1991–1993). From 1994 to 2000, he was a senior research scientist at the Hydro-Québec Research Institute, Canada. In 2000, Dr. Ye joined Ballard Power Systems as a senior research scientist. He was promoted to principal research scientist in 2002. He is also an Adjunct Professor at the University of British Columbia, Canada. Dr. Ye is recognized as a leading world expert in electrocatalysis and electrocatalyst development for fuel cells. He has been instrumental in developing Ballard’s high-performance, durable anode and cathode catalyst technology. Presently, Dr. Ye is leading Ballard’s next-generation catalyst technology development, including catalyst layer design and processing. He has more than ten years of fuel cell experience, with expertise in catalyst materials, electrodes, and MEA design. He also has over sixty peer-reviewed papers, as well as many patents and patent applications. Dr Ye is co-author of the book Optical Methods in Electrochemistry, published by Science Press (Beijing) in 1990, and has been an invited speaker at many professional conferences.

Dr. Xiao-Zi Yuan is a Research Officer in the Unit Cell Team at the National Research Council of Canada Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation (NRC-IFCI). Dr. Yuan received her B.S. and M.Sc. in Electrochemical Engineering from Nanjing University of Technology in 1991 and 1994, respectively, under the supervision of Professor Baoming Wei, and her Ph.D. in Material Science from Shanghai Jiaotong University in 2003, under the supervision of Professor Zifeng Ma. After completing her M.Sc., she held a lecturer position at Nantong University for six years, and after completing her Ph.D. was an associate professor there for one year. Beginning in 2005, she held a three-year postdoctoral research position at NRC-IFCI with Dr. Haijiang Wang. Dr. Yuan has over fourteen years of R&D experience in applied electrochemistry, including over eight years of fuel cell R&D (among these three years at Shanghai Jiaotong University, one year at Fachhochschule Mannheim, and four years at NRC-IFCI). Currently her research focuses on the areas of PEMFC design, testing, and diagnosis, and the study of PEMFC durability. Dr. Yuan has published more than twenty research papers in

1114 Contributor Biographies

refereed journals and holds five China patents. She has also produced over ten technical reports.

Professor Huamin Zhang is the PEMFC key materials and technology group leader as well as the director of the DICP-SAMSUNG Fuel Cell Joint Lab and of the DICP-BORONG Redox Flow Storage Battery Joint Lab at Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS-DICP). Professor Zhang received his B.S. from Shandong University in 1982, and his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from Kyushu University in Japan in 1985 and 1988, respectively, under the supervision of Professor Noboru Yamazoe. After completing his Ph.D., Professor Zhang worked in Japan on projects in function materials, catalytic materials, solid oxide materials, and fuel cells. As a professor and the director of the Fuel Cell Center at DICP since 2000, he has been in charge of: the “Fuel Cell Engine” project of the national “863” high-technology project “Fuel Cell Vehicle”, supported by the National Ministry of Science and Technology; the Knowledge Innovation Program “Large Power Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Engine and Hydrogen Source”, supported by the Chinese Academy of Sciences; the international cooperation project “Key Technology of Fuel Cells”, supported by the National Ministry of Science and Technology; and the Orientated Project of the Knowledge Innovation Program “Fluoride Ionomer for PEMFC”, supported by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Presently, he is the scientist responsible for the national “863” high-technology project “Research on Testing the Key Materials, Components, and Environmental Adaptability of Fuel Cells”. Under his leadership Professor Zhang’s team successfully developed a 30 kW fuel cell engine and a 100 kW fuel cell engine for China’s first fuel cell mini-bus and first fuel cell bus, respectively. Professor Zhang’s current research interests are in low-Pt and non-noble metal electrocatalysts, self-humidified membranes, advanced MEA fabrication and process technologies for PEMFCs, and vanadium redox flow batteries. Professor Zhang has co-authored more than 150 research papers published in refereed journals.

Dr. Jianlu Zhang is a Research Associate at the National Research Council of Canada Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation (NRC-IFCI). Dr. Zhang received his B.S. in Chemistry from Liaocheng University in 1998, his M.Sc. in Applied Chemistry from Dalian University of Technology in 2001 under the supervision of Professors Xianyun Su and Tianxi Cai, and his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS-DICP) in 2005, under the supervision of Professor Huamin Zhang. He carried out his postdoctoral research at NRC-IFCI as an NSERC (Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council) postdoctoral fellow for two years under the supervision of Dr. Jiujun Zhang. Dr. Zhang has over seven years of experience in the research and development of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) as well as two years of experience in industrial catalyst research and development. Currently, his research focuses on PEMFCs, including fuel cell design, testing and diagnosis, catalyst layer/MEA characterization and electrochemical evaluation, contamination study, and fundamental understanding of high-temperature (> 90oC) PEM fuel cells

Contributor Biographies 1115

(HT-PEMFCs). Dr. Zhang has co-authored twenty-six research papers published in refereed journals and holds five China and Korea patents.

Ms. Lei Zhang received her BE in Materials Science and Engineering from Wuhan University of Technology in 1990, her first M.Sc. majoring in Inorganic Chemistry from Wuhan University in 1993, and her second M.Sc. in Materials Chemistry from Simon Fraser University in 2000. After completing her first M.Sc., she took a position as a materials engineer at Lorrex Health Product Co. for five years, where she led various projects managing the R&D and manufacturing of health-related electronic products. From 2002 to 2004, Ms. Zhang worked as a research scientist and a key technical resource for Molecular Membrane Technologies on molecular sieve membrane development. Ms. Zhang has over ten years of R&D experience in nanomaterials, ceramics, membranes, and catalysts, including over three years of fuel cell R&D. At present, Ms. Zhang is a Research Council Officer and PEM Catalysis Core Competency Project Technical Leader working at the National Research Council of Canada Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation (NRC-IFCI). Her research is based on low/non-Pt cathode catalyst development with long-term stability for catalyst cost reduction; preparation of low/non-Pt catalysts; catalyst layer/cathode structure; catalyst layer characterization and electrochemical evaluation; and preparation of cost-effective MEAs for fuel cell testing and evaluation. Ms. Zhang has co-authored more than twenty research papers published in refereed journals and holds three US patents. She has also produced in excess of twenty industrial technical reports.

Author Index

Bock, Christina, 447–85

Eikerling, Michael H., 381–446

Gyenge, El d, 165–287

Halvorsen, Helga, 447–85 Hui, Rob, 861–88

Lee, Kunchan, 135–64, 715–57 Li, Baitao, 487–546 Li, Hui, 135–64, 331–54 Li, Jing, 1041–94 Li, Yingwei, 487–546 Liao, Shijun, 487–546 Liu, Hansan, 609–30, 631–54

MacDougall, Barry, 447–85 Malek, Kourosh, 381–446 Maric, Radenka, 917–63

Qi, Zhigang, 547–607

Saha, Madhu Sudan, 655–714 Shen, Pei Kang, 355–80 Shi, Zheng, 289–329 Song, Chaojie, 89–134, 331–54, 861–88 Sun, Xueliang, 655–714

Wang, Haijiang, 1–87 Wang, Qianpu, 381–446 Wang, Xiaoli, 889–916

Xia, Dingguo, 631–54 Xing, Wei, 1003–40

Ye, Siyu, 759–860 Yuan, Xiao-Zi, 1–87

Zhang, Huamin, 889–916 Zhang, Jianlu, 331–54, 889–916, 965–

1002 Zhang, Jiujun, 135–64, 331–54, 609–30,

631–54, 715–57, 861–88, 889–916, 965–1002

Zhang, Lei, 715–57

Subject Index

ab initio molecular dynamics, 290, 310 absorption, 364, 366 AC impedance, 58, 66, 72, 76–8, 975,

988–92, 997 accelerated testing, 21–4, 997

accelerated degradation test, 701 accelerated durability test, 997 accelerated stress test, 1054–6

activated carbon adsorbent, 346 activation, 167–9, 178–9, 182, 184–91,

194–5, 207–8, 210, 212, 235, 265, 585, 587–8, 590–1, 898, 910

activation energy, 93, 195, 207, 212, 297–301, 304, 306–11, 324 and high-temperature PEMFCs, 864,

872–5 activation loss, 5, 46, 69–71, 74–6 activation overpotential, 971–3 activation polarization, 359 active carbon, 101–3, 106 active component, 487–9, 497–500, 505–

16active site, 501, 508, 534–5 activity, 611, 617–22, 624

and catalyst layer fabrication, 1027–8 and catalyst preparation, 893, 902,

906–8 and catalyst selection, 1003–11 and catalyst surfaces, 1054–6 and chemical vapor deposition

process, 930, 935–7, 940 of CO oxidation, 766, 773, 779, 788–

91, 797, 800, 803 of CO-tolerant catalysts, 763, 766,

773, 775–82, 785–811 evaluation of, 547–602

of flame-deposited catalysts, 950–8 at high temperatures, 867, 876, 878 of the HOR, 763, 779–80, 785, 788,

791–2, 796, 801–2, 804 of metal oxides, 742–7 of non-noble electrocatalysts, 715–48 of the ORR, 786–7, 810, 853 and physical characterization of

catalysts, 487–93, 502–4, 507, 511–21

of Pt-based catalysts, 926–9 of reversal-tolerant catalyst layers,

850–3 on rotating disk electrode, 980 and Ru crossover, 1063–4 and spray-based synthesis, 917–18,

925 and technical targets, 1088 of transition metal carbides, 725–8,

748 of transition metal chalcogenides,

734–42, 748 of transition metal macrocycles, 716–

24, 748 of transition metal nitrides, 728–34,

748 of water electrolysis, 852–3

additive effects, 349–50 adlayer, 211, 213 adsorption, 165–7, 169, 176, 191–2, 207,

211–12, 220, 228, 234, 249, 255, 262–3 of carbon monoxide, 153, 158, 197,

207, 209, 212, 763, 766–81, 783, 786, 788–9, 793, 796, 801, 805, 864–5

1120 Subject Index

and carbon supports, 676, 702 and electrochemical methods, 547,

550–2, 560–5, 572, 581, 596, 599, 601

of ethanol, 219–20 and first principles methods, 289–324 of formic acid, 168, 206–7, 213–14,

216 heat of, 233 of hydrogen, 136, 139, 141, 143–4,

149–52, 154, 157, 159, 213–14, 216, 218, 265

of M-N4 complexes, 118 of methanol, 35–7, 165–6, 168, 180,

182, 187, 227, 261 and non-noble electrocatalysts, 717–

18, 728–30, 739 of oxygen, 106, 111, 114–15 and platinum-based alloy catalysts,

636–9, 646–50 and reaction thermodynamics, 314–16 of SO4

2 , 216 surface, 293–305

adsorption energy, 294–8, 303, 305, 309, 314, 317–18, 320, 324

adsorption strength, 521, 534 adsorptive filtration, 343 agglomerate, 978, 991 agglomerate model, 65, 385–6, 388, 417,

433 agglomeration, 361, 363, 373–4, 867,

869, 876, 879, 882, 884 air bleeding, 760–2, 795, 1060 air blowing, 18 air breathing, 18 air contaminants, 340, 346, 349 air filtration, 346 air supply, 9, 18 alkaline fuel cell, 1–2, 156, 367–8, 1041 alloying effect, 524, 632–9, 640, 643–9,

650–1 alloys, 149, 151–4, 156–9, 611, 623–4.

See also specific alloys binary, 623–4, 646–7, 761–2, 764,

775–6, 781–95, 804, 806, 809 degree of alloying, 636, 640, 643 formation energy, 447–9, 451, 454–7,

463, 465, 468–74, 479 lattice parameter, 807, 852 platinum-based, 631–51 ternary, 612–18, 621, 624, 626, 632,

644–6, 649–51, 728, 734–42, 762,

764, 782, 794–6, 809, 851–3 ammonium, 337, 339–40, 346–7, 351–1 anchor effect, 364, 373 anion exchange membrane fuel cell, 367–

9, 373 annealing, 465, 471, 473–4 anode, 165–6, 168, 170

and catalyst layer degradation, 1041–3, 1046, 1053–66

and catalyst layer engineering, 231–70

and catalyst layers, 356–9, 361–2, 364–70, 373–4

and CO-tolerant catalysts, 759–811 and combinatorial methods, 611, 617–

18, 622, 624–6 contamination of, 331–9, 346, 349–50 electrode, kinetics of, 172–231 extended reaction zone, 222, 246,

253–60 and the hydrogen oxidation reaction,

135, 141–2, 148–9, 159 in the membrane electrode assembly,

889, 891, 898, 911 and PEMFC fundamentals, 5–7, 9, 11,

13, 18–20, 31, 33, 35, 38–40, 45–8, 51–3, 56–7, 60, 65–6, 68, 70–2, 78

and performance evaluation, 965–97 reaction mechanism of, 172–231 and reversal-tolerant catalyst layers,

835–56 anthracene spacer, 120 anthraquinone, 109–10 apparent exchange current density, 33, 57,

93 aprotic solvents, 89–90, 127, 129 Arrhenius equation/model, 23–4, 55–6,

93, 188, 863 associative mechanism, 111–14, 314 ATR-IR spectroscopy, 775 ATR-SEIRA spectroscopy, 775 auger electron spectroscopy, 739 average electron number, 101 back-diffusion, 865 backpressure, 987, 991, 994 backup power, 25, 30, 347 backward reaction, 968–9 bandwidth, 293–4 barrier, dissociation, 296, 298, 300–1,

309–11, 314 (BCA)Co2, 120

Subject Index 1121

(BCY)Co2, 120 benzene, 347–8 BET method, 498–9, 503 bimetallic catalysts, 447–9, 460, 462,

468–74 bifunctional effects, 646–9, 781, 798 bifunctional mechanism, 158, 168, 179–

80, 187, 213, 508, 521 bimodal porous morphology, 388 binary alloy, 168, 172–95, 198–200, 203–

19, 221, 255, 623–4, 632–3, 637, 643–4, 646–7, 649

binder, 356, 360–4, 370, 373–4 binding energy, 512–15, 517, 520–2

of CO, 34, 761, 766, 773, 780–3 of H2O, 178–9, 317, 320 of metal ad-atom, 454 of OH, 114–17 optimum, 293 of oxygen, 116, 120, 300–1, 314–15,

317 of Pt/C, 242

bipolar plate, 4, 15–7, 22–3, 79, 1011, 1031–2, 1041–2

bistability, 388, 392, 432–3 Boennemann method, 462 bond

C C, 223, 234 CO, 166–7, 173, 176, 203, 220, 233 HCOO, 203 OH, 178–9

boron-doped diamond, 876 boundary, 361–2 Bragg’s law, 488–9, 496 bridge-adsorption, 718, 1058 bridge-bond CO, 764, 775, 792, 864,

1058 Bruggeman correlation, 974 brushing method, 877 bulk composition, 498, 513 Butler-Volmer equation, 56–8, 65, 93–4,

968, 1048 carbides, 136, 149, 156, 159, 716, 725–8,

733–4, 748, 796, 876, 1087 carbon, 382–9, 391, 395, 397, 398, 400,

402–7, 412, 417–20, 433, 438 active, 101 corrosion, 836, 840–1, 849, 853–4,

873–8 1066, 1080-7

functionalized, 802–3 glassy, 102–7

high surface area, 793, 803, 873, 995, 1083–4, 1086

reticulated vitreous, 253–7 carbon aerogel, 155 carbon black, 154–5, 157, 224, 238–40,

249, 251–3, 363–4, 400, 448–61, 471, 487, 495, 500, 510, 512, 516, 530, 536, 561, 656, 666, 670, 680, 684, 689, 696–7, 700–3, 718, 807, 843, 849, 901, 917, 940, 942. See alsoVulcan® carbon

carbon cryogel, 155–6 carbon dioxide, 332–3, 350 carbon fiber, 663–4, 685–6, 695–7, 911.

See also carbon nanofiber carbon materials, 89, 101, 106–9, 129,

403, 487, 510, 516–17, 527. See alsocarbon black, carbon nanocoil, carbon nanofiber, carbon nanotube; carbon support

carbon monoxide, 1056–61 adsorption, 763, 766–81, 783, 786,

788–9, 793, 796, 801, 805, 864–5 bonding, 765, 776–7, 781, 801, 804,

864, 939 coverage, 760, 763–8, 772, 774–6,

779–83, 785, 792, 798, 810 desorption, 765, 777, 779 electrochemistry, 766–70 and high-temperature fuel cells, 763,

767, 788 linear-bond, 864 monolayer, 798, 984, 1058 oxidation, 760, 764, 766, 768–9, 774–

80, 788, 790–3, 796, 798–800, 802–3, 810, 1057–9

stripping, 777, 785–7, 790–6, 803–4, 808–9, 844, 950–1, 983–4, 1046, 1065

surface coverage, 864 carbon monoxide poisoning, 152, 156,

157, 159, 332, 337, 760–4, 767–71, 781, 783, 789–90, 793, 795, 797, 799, 801, 803–5, 809, 844, 863–4, 1058–61

carbon monoxide tolerance, 33, 332, 339, 564–5, 571, 600–1, 611, 624–5, 632, 648, 759–811, 844, 865, 978, 1003, 1006–9, 1032, 1059 See alsocatalysts, CO-tolerant bifunctional mechanism, 771–3, 783,

1007

1122 Subject Index

direct mechanism, 773–4 electronic effect, 761, 772–4, 776–7,

780, 791, 801, 1007 ligand effect, 766, 773–4, 776–7, 783,

810 mechanisms of, 764–81 modeling of, 774–81

carbon nanocoil, 245–6, 510–12 carbon nanofiber, 655–703, 1086–7

graphitic, 684 herringbone structures, 661, 682 platelet structures, 661, 682 ribbon structures, 661, 682 tubular structures, 661

carbon nanotube, 487, 495–6, 502–3, 508–15, 517–18, 655–703, 876, 906, 930–9, 1086–7 782, 802-3, 876, 930-9, 1086-7 multiwalled, 104–5, 223–4, 243–4,

364, 657–60, 690–1, 876, 930–1, 938–9

nitrogen-doped, 692–3 single-walled, 659, 678, 930–2 single-walled carbon nanohorn, 676,

703 carbon oxidation, 836, 867, 874–5, 1064,

1085–6 carbon paper, 659, 663–5, 671–2, 684–6,

695, 697, 701, 727, 890, 906, 930, 945

carbon powder, 356, 365, 373 carbon supports, 655–703. See also

carbon nanocoil; carbon nanofiber; carbon nanotube; Vulcan® carbon. and catalyst layer degradation, 1044–

5, 1049–50, 1054, 1066, 1072, 1075–6, 1080–7

and catalyst layer optimization, 1010, 1025–7

and CO-tolerant catalysts, 762, 765, 775–7, 779, 783, 786–8, 791, 793, 796–803, 805, 807–9

corrosion of, 995, 1043, 1054, 1063, 1066, 1075, 1080–7

and high-temperature catalysts/catalyst layers, 867–77, 884

and high-temperature fuel cells, 861–84

and non-noble electrocatalysts, 715, 721–4

and reversal-tolerant catalyst layers,

839–40, 845, 849 and synthesis of catalysts, thin

catalyst layers, 918–21, 945–6, 954

carbonitride, 733–4, 748 catalysis

and catalyst layer degradation, 1046, 1075, 1086

and CO-tolerant catalysts, 760, 773, 784, 800, 847, 852, 861

and non-noble catalysts, 715, 717, 730, 742, 744, 748

heterogeneous, 919 of CO oxidation, 760, 773 of the ORR, 289–330, 847

catalyst activity evaluation, 547–602 catalyst coated membrane, 356, 367, 371,

374, 976–7, 1029 catalyst deactivation, 489, 521 catalyst decal transfer, 372 catalyst gradient, 895, 908–10 catalyst ink, 356, 365, 371–2, 868, 877,

889, 892–8, 900, 902, 911–12 catalyst layer, 14–6, 22–3, 65–6, 69, 74,

76, 78, 169, 170, 190, 192, 212, 218–19, 219, 230–69 and MEA principles, 369–74 and Nafion®, 14 composite, 903–4 contamination of anode, 331–9, 349–

51 contamination of cathode, 339–51 degradation, 1044–88 engineering, 231–70 fundamentals, 355–69 in high-temperature fuel cells, 861–84 non-uniform, 895, 910–11 performance evaluation, 965–97 preparation, 191, 889–912 reversal-tolerant, 845–56 super-thin, 904–8 thin, 917–58 three-dimensional, 65–6 ultra-thin nanostructured composite,

433–8 catalyst layer models, 381–439

comparison and evaluation, 433–7 performance and optimization, 412–

32 structure, 383–95 structure formation, 398–411 theory, 395–7

Subject Index 1123

catalyst libraries, 612–15, 618–21, 626, 628–9

catalyst loading, 168, 170, 180–3, 198–200, 212, 217, 221–3, 228–30, 237, 246, 252–3, 256, 259, 763, 784–5, 787, 794, 799–801, 807–8, 810, 854, 856

catalyst nanoparticles, 390, 395–6, 433, 438

catalyst powder deposition, 372 catalyst preparation, 782, 789–90, 801–2,

805–9, 851 and catalyst sites, 889, 895, 899, 911

catalyst screening, 199–201 catalyst stability, 489–90, 512, 525–32 catalyst support, 154–6, 168, 188, 224,

230, 236–7, 242–6, 253–69, 487, 489, 490–6, 499–512, 515–16, 520–23, 527–8, 533–6, 655–703. See alsospecific support types

catalyst surface, 198, 230–7, 250, 253, 255–6, 261

catalyst synthesis, 447–79 catalyst tolerance, 861, 863, 865, 876,

884. See also carbon monoxide tolerance

catalyst utilization, 190, 212, 230, 246, 253, 257, 259, 266, 385–6, 388–91, 393, 412, 419, 424–6, 430, 433–9, 551

catalyst-coated gas diffusion layer, 892, 976

catalyst-coated membrane, 892, 898, 911, 940, 976–7, 1029, 1047

catalysts, 21–4, 78. See also specific catalysts and combinatorial chemistry, 853 and high-temperature fuel cells, 861–

84and water electrolysis, 838–42, 847,

849–55 bifunctional, 37 binary, 168, 172–95, 198–200, 203–

19, 221, 255, 761–2, 764, 775–6, 781–95, 804, 806, 809

CO-tolerant, 759–811 combinatorial methods, 609–29 contamination of, 331–51 early development, 1–2 for the HOR, 33–4 in ethanol oxidation, 37–40 in formic acid oxidation, 41–2

ink, 356, 365, 371–2, 868, 877, 889, 892–8, 900, 902, 911–12

low Pt loading, 925, 946, 956, 958 methanol-tolerant, 48 noble metal, 32–3, 129, 149–56, 458,

460, 474, 487, 490, 499, 515, 572, 611, 622, 628, 631, 641, 656, 684, 718, 733, 736, 798, 802, 804, 808, 919, 1004, 1010 (See also specific metals and compounds)

non-noble, 32–3, 89, 144, 149, 156–7, 226–7, 292, 316–74, 447, 474–9, 611–12, 622–3, 628, 716–49, 782, 794, 878, 958, 978, 1010, 1071 (See also carbides; Raney nickel; other specific metals and compounds)

non-precious metal, 172, 185, 195, 224–8, 316, 776, 810 (See alsospecific metals and compounds)

poisoning, 17, 166, 168, 189, 192, 202, 204, 214, 218, 235, 246, 248–50, 267, 491, 502, 508, 521, 533 (See also catalysts, contamination of)

quaternary, 165, 195–200, 612, 624–6, 632, 645–6, 649–51, 794, 809

reversal-tolerant, 835–56 selection of, 1003–11 skeleton, 471–2 skin-layer, 468, 471–3 ternary, 165, 195–203, 255, 762, 764,

782, 794–6, 809 catalytic interface, 212–13, 236–69 catalytic mechanism, non-noble catalysts,

716, 735 d-band, 294, 296, 299–302, 304–5, 324 Debye-Scherrer equation, 561 decal transfer process, 897–8, 1023 degradation, 331, 334–5, 337, 339–41,

346–51, 361–4, 373–4, 836–9, 842–9. See also accelerated degradation test and high-temperature fuel cells, 861,

867–75, 877, 880, 884 and performance evaluation, 993–7

dehydronation, 366 density functional theory, 111, 114, 290–

1, 297, 299–300, 304–5, 313, 316, 320, 322, 396, 438

density of state, 290, 294, 726, 742, 781 deposition methods

colloidal, 666–7, 676–8

1124 Subject Index

electrochemical, 665, 668, 672–6, 684–6, 688

electrophoretic, 665 homogeneous deposition

precipitation, 668, 682 impregnation, 667–72 in situ polymerization, 668, 682 ion-exchange, 667, 678 microwave heated polyol, 668, 679–

80potential control electrodeposition,

673–4 sputtering, 666, 668, 680–2, 685

derivative thermal gravimetry, 526–9 desorption, 137, 145, 147, 149–52 diagnosis, 982, 988–9, 994 dibenzotetraazaannulene, 719–20 differential scanning calorimetry, 526–8 differential thermal analysis, 526–7, 530–

1diffraction angle, 488, 496 diffraction peak, 488–9, 491–2, 494–5 diffusion, 357–8, 360, 363–9, 371 diffusion coefficient, 550, 557–8, 568–9,

571–2 dihexadecyl hydrogen phosphate, 104 dihydrodibenzotetraazaannulene, 120 direct alcohol fuel cell, 358, 366, 370, 373 direct ethanol fuel cell, 10, 35, 37–8, 165,

221–4, 249–50, 259 direct formic acid fuel cell, 10, 35, 40,

166, 211, 217–18, 260 direct liquid fuel cell, 34–5, 37, 169, 171,

227, 241, 245, 248, 253, 254, 266, 269, 566, 715

direct methanol fuel cell, 10, 15, 30, 35, 47–8, 89, 165, 169–70, 180–6, 189, 192, 197–200, 231, 236, 239, 242, 244–6, 252–3, 256–60, 265, 268, 358–60, 366–7, 487, 493, 495, 503, 505, 507–8, 510, 512–1, 523, 530, 533, 554, 560, 576, 581, 584, 595, 611–12, 622, 625–8, 889, 965, 984

dispersion, 487, 490, 499–502, 508–10, 516

disproportionation, 127, 369 dissipative particle dynamics, 404 dissociation barrier, 296, 298, 300–1,

309–11, 314 dissociation energy, 296–7, 309 dissociation energy of the O–O bond, 114,

296, 309

dissociation, in H2O, 179–80, 184–5 dissociative adsorption, 35, 115, 335, 339 dissociative mechanism, 111–12, 114–15 dissolution, 364, 370, 869–72, 884, 995.

See also platinum dissolution double-layer capacitance, 575, 580, 1049 droplet size, 944 dry-spraying, 372, 898 dual-bonded composite catalyst layer,

903–4 durability, 2, 21–4, 135, 289, 331, 337,

360–4, 734, 1054–6 and catalyst activity evaluation, 553,

556, 588–9, 592–602 and catalyst synthesis, 889, 899, 904,

928, 940 and CO-tolerant catalysts, 762, 786,

811, 835–7, 854, 856 and high-temperature fuel cells, 861,

867–9, 876, 881 and nanosupports, 665, 682, 700–3,

715 of the MEA, 994–7

dynamic hydrogen electrode, 548, 554 economics, 476–7 effective (physicochemical) properties,

382, 386, 395–8, 407–11, 439 effectiveness factors, 388, 419, 424, 437–

8effectiveness of catalyst utilization, 385,

388–91, 393, 433–4, 438 Einstein relation, 512–13 electric field, 297–8, 309–10, 313–16 electrical work, 966 electroactive platinum surface area, 93 electroadsorption, 143–4, 981–2 electrocatalysis, 136, 149–59, 611–12,

628–9. See also catalysis combinatorial methods, 612–22

electrocatalysts, 136, 145, 152, 155–9. See also catalysts and CO tolerance, 759–811 contamination of, 331–51 physical characterization of, 487–536 and reversal tolerance, 835–56

electrocatalytic activity, 382, 393, 407 electrocatalytically active surface area,

383–5, 387, 389, 397 electrochemical, 451, 465–7, 471, 474,

476 electrochemical active surface area, 487,

498–9, 501–2, 560–3, 598–9, 1066,

Subject Index 1125

1075–8 electrochemical activity, 147–9 electrochemical cell, 547–56, 586 electrochemical deposition, 904–6, 917,

958 electrochemical half-cell testing, 616–17,

620–2 electrochemical impedance spectroscopy,

392–3, 988–90, 996–7, 1031–2, 1048–9

electrochemical mass spectroscopy, 536 electrochemical methods, 453–4, 463,

547–602 electrochemical modification, 691 electrochemical reaction, 356, 358–61,

368–9, 374, 382–5, 419–23 and performance evaluation, 965–6,

972, 981, 983, 990 electrochemical surface area, 981, 983–4,

1055–6, 1066, 1075–6 electrochemistry, 547–602, 612–13, 622,

774 of carbon monoxide and hydrogen,

766–70, 774 electrode Pt surface area, 982–4, 1045–6 electrodeposition, 192, 224, 235–6, 255–

61, 264, 613–14, 628 electrodeposition, 365, 372 electrodes

activity, 135, 143, 145, 147, 152, 156–8

and catalyst activity evaluation, 547–9, 551–2, 554–60, 562, 565, 575, 577, 580–4, 586, 591–4, 598, 600, 602

and catalyst preparation, 499–501, 503, 510–12, 516–17, 533

and CO-tolerant catalysts, 762–3, 768, 772–6, 779, 783, 785

and cost reduction, 1088 flooding

846, 1012-1014, 1016, 1061-2 kinetics, 136, 138

167, 230, 235, 269 and nanosupports, 656–7, 659, 665–6,

668–70, 674, 676, 678, 680, 682, 684–8, 695–703

and non-noble electrocatalysts, 716, 719, 725–7, 735, 744

overpotential, 967 polarization, 967 potential, 138–41, 144–5, 158, 172,

177, 180, 203–5, 208, 214, 219, 222, 229, 236, 308–9, 313

structure, 355, 367, 369 three-dimensional, 236, 246, 253–60

electrodesorption, 981–2 electrolyte, 136–7, 143–5, 149–51, 157,

159 electron affinity, 306–9 electron conductivity, 890, 894, 896 electron diffraction, 488, 496–7 electron spectroscopy for chemical

analysis, 512–13 electron transfer coefficient, 139, 142–3,

147–8, 339, 862–3, 968–9 electron transfer mediator, 106 electron transfer number, 57, 66, 94, 96,

98, 101, 104–5, 111–13, 147, 728–9, 732, 969, 1069

electronic conductivity, 974–5 electronic effect, 166, 195, 209, 213, 260,

636, 647–8 electroosmosis, 865 electroosmotic drag, 21, 368 electrooxidation, 166–7, 172–240, 247–

57, 261, 264–7, 332–5, 339, 342, 345–6, 980, 984, 1006–8

elemental composition, 512, 515, 523 elementary reaction, 93–4 end-on interaction, 293, 309–10, 317, 322 energy dispersive spectroscopy, 522–5 energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy,

790, 843–4, 1050 enthalpy, 41, 49, 144, 149–50 entropy, 144, 864, 875 equilibrium, 140–2, 968, 971 equilibrium coverage of surface, 864 equilibrium soluble concentrations, 1068–

9equivalent circuit, 575–84, 989–92 ethanol, 165–270 ethanol oxidation, 37–40, 167, 219–33,

247, 249–50, 261 evaporative deposition, 372 ex situ methods, 965 exchange current density, 33, 53–7, 59,

61, 65–6, 73, 78, 90–5, 112–15, 121, 124–5, 129, 140–3, 147–50, 157, 386, 390, 393, 395, 411, 420, 430, 550, 586, 590–3, 862–4, 968–70, 973, 1046–8

fabrication, of the MEA, 889–912 fabrication and optimization, of MEAs,

1126 Subject Index

1029–33 failure analysis, 1044–53 failure mode, 21–2, 995–7 Fe-N4 system, 118, 121, 320 Fe tetrakis(4-N-methylpyridyl) porphyrin,

118 Fe tetrasulfonate phthalocyanines, 118 Fe(III) phthalocyanine, 127 FeIIITPFPP (5,10,15,20-Tetrakis

(pentafluorophenyl)-21H,23H-porphine iron (III)), 98

Fenton agent, 1056–7 FePc, 92, 121–2 FePcCl16, 95–6 Feret-max, 1076–7 Feret-min, 1076–7 Fermi level, 300, 302, 305 filter, 342–3, 346, 348, 351 finite transmission-line equivalent circuit,

580 five-layer MEA, 891–2 flame-based processing, 918, 941–3, 947–

57flooding, 9, 16, 21, 69, 74, 347, 392, 413,

420, 430 electrode, 846, 1012–4, 1016, 1061–2

flow field, 553–5, 589–90, 889–90 flow-field design, 6, 8, 16–7, 19, 987 flow rate, 8, 18–20, 68, 79, 174 formal potential, 96, 103, 126–8 formic acid oxidation, 34, 40, 165–7, 172,

202, 204, 206, 217–19, 233–4, 264–6, 270

forward reaction, 969 four-electron reaction, 717–18, 724, 728–

9, 732, 738, 740, 744, 746, 979, 1069, 1084

four-electron reduction pathway, 11–2, 89–90, 98–101, 104, 117–18, 120, 122, 129

four-probe configuration, 578–9 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy,

532–4, 764–6, 800 free energy, 311, 313, 315, 320 frequency response analyzer, 578 fuel cell contamination, 331–51 fuel cell diagnosis, 1045–50 fuel cell efficiency, 48–50 fuel cell failure, 331, 346 fuel cell stack, 986, 988 fuel cell structure, 1042–3 fuel cell voltage, and performance

evaluation, 967–97 fuel cells, 447, 451, 455, 457–8, 460,

462–3, 468, 471, 474–7, 487, 491–2, 495, 501, 503, 507–8, 512–18, 521, 527, 531–2, 534, 547–50, 552, 560, 567, 570, 572, 578–602, 611–12, 615–19, 621–2, 625, 628 See also specific fuel cell types

fuel crossover, 45–8, 72, 261 functional groups, 672–3, 678, 688–9,

802–3 galvanostat, 560 gas diffusion electrode, 195, 236, 243,

245–6, 253, 255, 260, 383–5, 864, 889–93, 895

gas diffusion layer, 1, 14–6, 22–3, 69, 73, 79, 248, 331, 355–7, 365, 368–72, 374, 693–4, 696–7, 889–900, 903–4, 906, 908, 910–11, 1042, 1051 and performance evaluation, 965,

973–6 gas management, 890, 1011–18, 1027,

1029 gas permeability, 890, 918 gasket, 6, 22–3, 987, 1081 Gibbs free energy, 42–3, 49, 55, 138, 144,

207, 311, 315, 320, 359, 593, 966 glass transition temperature, 549, 911,

1030 glassy carbon, 101–7 gluing method, 877 gradient arrays, 612–15, 628 graphite, 6, 16–7, 72, 95–9, 101–4, 118,

128–9, 165, 168, 185–6, 209, 230–1, 238, 249, 255–61, 270, 318–21, 849, 876. See also highly oriented pyrolytic graphite; pyrolytic graphite

graphite felt, 253–8 graphitization, 363, 373 graphitized carbon, 876, 1084, 1086 H2/air boundary, 1081–2 half-cells, 357, 547, 551–2, 591, 972,

978–86, 997 hardware design, 987 heat rejection, 861, 866, 884 heat (thermal) treatment, 106, 120–1, 452,

469, 471, 473–6, 628, 633, 636, 640, 717–23, 728, 731, 734 and high-temperature fuel cells, 877 and non-noble electrocatalysts, 717–

23, 728, 731, 734 heteroatom doped carbons, 105–6

Subject Index 1127

heterogeneous catalysis, 149 heterogeneous media, theory of, 355, 397,

407, 411 Heyrovsky reaction, 137, 142–3, 151–2,

159 high-energy ball milling, 457–8 high frequency, in AC impedance spectra,

990–1 high-spatial-resolution energy dispersive

spectroscopy, 524 high temperature, and performance

evaluation, 993–7 high-temperature PEM fuel cells, 861–84,

995 reaction kinetics, 861–2, 863, 873,

884 high through-put screening, 627–8 highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, 104,

209 homogeneity, 723, 803–9, 978, 1017,

1025 hot points, 993–5 hot-pressing, 897, 911 humidifier, 761, 865, 986–7, 1056, 1060 humidity, low/zero, 976, 990–1, 997 hydrogen, and CO-tolerant catalysts, 759–

811 hydrogen, and voltage reversal tolerance,

835–56 hydrogen adsorption, 143–7, 332–4, 337,

339, 350 hydrogen adsorption/desorption, 560–3,

572, 581, 596, 599 hydrogen adsorption/desorption method,

499–500 hydrogen carrier, 337 hydrogen crossover, 45–7, 588, 593–4,

598 hydrogen cyanide, 340, 347 hydrogen electrode, 548, 554, 560 hydrogen evolution reaction, 136, 140,

143–7, 150–2 hydrogen gain, 600–2 hydrogen highway, 4 hydrogen oxidation reaction, 13, 31, 33–

4, 53, 57–8, 66, 78, 124, 135–59, 356–7, 1006 and catalyst contamination, 333–4,

337, 339 and catalyst degradation, 1056–8 and CO-tolerant catalysts, 762–3,

768–73, 776, 779, 781–4, 788–9,

791–6, 798, 802, 804–5, 810 and combinatorial methods, 611, 624–

5, 628 and electrochemical methods, 564,

567, 581–3, 593, 600 and high-temperature fuel cells, 862–

4, 862–5 and non-noble electrocatalysts, 716,

727 and performance evaluation, 967–71,

978, 980, 984, 990 hydrogen peroxide, 292, 294, 298–9,

307–8, 317–18, 320, 323, 717, 725, 726, 734, 738, 746, 761, 911, 993–5, 994, 1029, 1060 production, 89–90, 101–12, 117–21,

127 hydrogen pumping, 580, 601–2 hydrogen purification, 9 hydrogen reformer, 9 hydrogen-rich reformate gas, 332–3 hydrogen sulfide, 332, 334–6, 339, 346–

51, 1056, 1060–1 hydrophilicity, 356, 365, 373, 553, 590,

599, 875, 894–5, 897–903, 1015–19, 1027 and performance, 975–8

hydrophilicity, 331, 341, 347 hydrophobicity, 331, 341, 356–7, 373,

553, 590, 848, 875–7, 890–1, 893–6, 899–903, 906, 910, 1011, 1013–20, 1023, 1029 and performance, 975–8, 996

hydroquinone, 1085–6 impedance, 547, 559, 574–8, 580, 582–4 impedance spectroscopy, 547, 573–84,

602, 778–9, 847 impregnation, 450–1, 476, 478 impregnation method, 877 impregnation reduction, 372 impregnation-reduction method, 907 impurities, 331–2, 334, 337, 339–40,

342–4, 994–5 in-plane, 908–9 in situ methods, 982–3, 988–93, 996–7 incubation, 601 inductively coupled plasma mass

spectrometry, 996 inhibition effect, 636–7 inkjet printing, 366, 613 interdigited flow field, 554 interface, catalytic, 212–13, 236–69

1128 Subject Index

interfacial kinetics, 385–6, 393 intermediate, 143–4, 149, 151–2, 166–8,

172–6, 202–3, 209, 214, 220, 233, 261, 292–4, 298–301, 303–5, 310, 313–18, 320, 324

intermediate adsorption, 298–9 intermittent microwave heating, 368 intermittent microwave irradiation

method, 901 internal combustion engine, 343 intrinsic exchange current density, 92–3 ion-beam assisted deposition, 907–8 ionic conductivity, 578–81 ionic conductor, 356–7 ionic liquids treatment, 691 ionization potential, 306, 322–3 ionomer, 212, 219, 230, 236–69, 331,

337, 346, 350, 382–4, 386–91, 397–8, 400, 403–7, 411–13, 418–20, 425–6, 428, 433, 438, 865, 868–70, 877–8, 891, 893–902, 905–6, 910–11 and performance evaluation, 975–7,

992, 995 ionomer impregnation, 372 IR thermography, 619, 628 iridium, 145–9, 153, 780, 782, 810, 850–5 iron, 299–300, 303–5, 316–20, 322, 715,

717–24, 728, 733–4, 733–9, 736–9, 744, 747–8, 761, 781–2, 791, 810, 930–2, 963, 979, 1006, 1010, 1056, 1071, 1086. See also individual Fe compounds

kinetic current density, 97–8, 304 kinetic loss, 331, 337–9, 342, 347, 349–

50kinetics, 549–50, 552, 557, 560, 566,

568–9, 576, 581, 584–5, 588, 591, 602 of the oxygen reduction reaction, 89–

93, 106–8, 113–14, 121–2, 124, 127

and performance evaluation, 968, 972–3, 981, 988–9, 990, 995

Kohn-Sham orbital, 290 Koutecky-Levich equation, 97–9, 568–72,

978–9 lanthanoid, 743–4, 754 lattice constant, 298–9, 303 lattice spacing, 488 leaching, 634–5, 640–2, 649 lifetime, lifetime testing, 871, 873, 994–7,

1003, 1033

ligand effect, 719–20, 766, 773–7, 783, 810

limiting current density, 140–1 linear adsorption, 864, 1058 linear-bond CO, 864 linear sweep voltammetry, 558, 566 liquid fuel cell, 359, 366–7 liquid permeability, 407, 411 liquid-to-vapor conversion, 429–30 liquid/vapor interfacial area, 411 load bank, 986–7, 990 low platinum loading catalyst, 925, 946,

956, 958 low-temperature chemical precipitation,

448 low-temperature fuel cells, 457, 532–3,

536. See also specific fuel cell types Luggin capillary, 548, 552 macrocycle, 716–24, 738–9, 748 macrocyclic complexes, 117, 120–2, 292,

316, 474–6 macrohomogeneous model/theory, 385–6,

397, 417, 425–8 macroporous catalyst films, 465 mask arrays, 615–16, 628 mass transfer, 971–3, 990–1, 995 mass transfer loss, 331, 972–3, 995 mass transfer resistance, 988–90, 992,

1013, 1019–20 mass transport, 22, 69–73, 76, 78, 174,

240–1, 385, 391–3, 439, 868, 900, 902, 908, 911

mass transport loss, 908, 1047, 1066, 1086

mass transport resistance, 557, 570, 576, 584–5, 589–91, 595, 599–600

mechanical degradation, 22–3 mechanical strength, 890, 911 mechanism, of degradation at high

temperatures, 861, 869–75 mechanism, of the hydrogen oxidation

reaction, 136–8, 143, 147, 151–4, 157–9

membrane, 11–3, 355–61, 365–74, 612, 621. See also membrane electrode assembly

membrane electrode assembly, 5–7, 13–5, 24, 47, 241, 331, 340–1, 357, 360–9, 374, 384, 389, 392, 403, 412, 429, 552–3, 555–6, 575, 589, 592, 594, 602, 656, 680, 693–700 865-6, 868, 871-2, 877-8, 880-3

Subject Index 1129

evaluation, 965–97 fabrication, 889–912 fabrication and optimization, 1029–33 performance, 1003–33

membrane reactor, 332 membrane resistance, 975, 989–92 (Me4Ph5Cor)Co, 120 mesoporous catalyst films, 463–5 mesoscale simulations, 396, 404 metal-N4, 721, 724 metal phthalocyanine, 117–21, 127–8 metal porphyrin, 98–9, 117–22 metal-support interaction, 803, 876 methanol, 165–270 methanol crossover, 47–8 methanol oxidation, 35–7, 166, 168–9,

172–201, 224–9, 232–9, 243–9, 252–70, 478, 566, 576, 583–4, 595, 597, 717, 725–6, 760, 774, 786, 792, 795, 799, 804, 808, 918, 930, 936–8, 978, 984, 1003, 1008–9

methanol oxidation reaction, 611–12, 617, 621, 625–6, 628, 632, 643, 645–51, 984, 1009

methanol tolerance, 475–7, 628, 632 microemulsion, 450–3 microporous layer, 15, 890–11, 1011–15,

1017–19 microstructure, 356, 365

formation, 382, 398, 403–8 optimization, 385

migration, 62, 94, 108, 836, 884, 995, 1046, 1050, 1066, 1075, 1079

Miller indices, 488–9 mitigation, 157, 331, 337, 339, 342–3,

346, 348, 351, 640, 761, 797, 878, 994, 1057, 1063–6, 1086–8

mixed potential, 45–8, 112–13 modeling, 73, 331, 1055

of carbon monoxide tolerance, 774–81

of catalyst contamination, 337–9, 349–50

catalyst layer, 381–439 theoretical, 289, 294, 317, 322–4

molecular dynamics, 384, 398–403, 407 molecular modeling, 382, 433. See also

modeling, catalyst layer molten carbonate fuel cell, 1 monolayer, 118, 145, 147, 158, 213–16,

258, 345, 472–4, 499, 557, 562–3, 601, 672, 685, 691, 723, 779, 798,

800–1, 982, 984, 1042, 1058 morphology, 488, 505–12 Mo4Ru2Se8, 122 multiple contaminants, 348–9 multiwalled carbon nanotube. See carbon

nanotube, multiwalled Nafion®, 2, 12–4, 21–2, 40, 47, 92–3,

114, 170–1, 180, 192, 194, 199, 212, 219, 222, 240–2, 252–4, 264, 268, 361–2, 365–7, 383–4, 398, 400–5, 427–8, 499, 501, 524, 528–30, 549, 551–2, 569–71, 578–81, 583, 587, 591, 594–6, 598–9, 865, 867–8, 877, 894–900, 902–7, 910–1

Nafion®-bonded, 903 Nafion®-pyrolyzed method, 900–1 nanocrystal, 369 nanoparticles, 168, 188, 195, 198, 208–9,

218, 223, 228, 230, 233–4, 238, 241, 243, 245, 249–51, 254–5, 262, 267–8, 357, 361, 363–7, 369–70, 373, 869, 871, 875–6, 878–9. See also platinum nanoparticles

nanopores, 383–8, 391, 397–8, 405, 407–8, 410–15, 417–20, 425, 428, 430–3, 436–9

nanostructured thin film, 685–7, 904–6, 940

nanostructured thin film electrode, 904–6 nanostructures, 235, 241–8, 255 nanostructuring substrates, 466–7 nanowires, 655–7, 661–5, 684–7, 702–3

metal oxide, 665, 684–7, 702–3 Nernst equation, 42, 44, 61–2, 71, 144,

174, 392, 417, 967 Nernst-Planck equation, 419–20 Nernst potential, 96, 144–5, 151 nickel, 34, 148–9, 153, 156–7, 159, 171,

457, 495, 661, 684, 717, 729, 929–31 nitric oxide oxidation, 345 nitrides, 318, 320–1, 553, 620, 725, 728–

34, 748 nitrogen-doped carbon, 105–6, 318 nitrogen oxides, 339–40, 343–6, 348–51 noble metal catalysts, 32–3, 129, 149–56,

458, 460, 474, 487, 490, 499, 515, 572, 611, 622, 628, 631, 641, 656, 684, 718, 733, 736, 798, 802, 804, 808, 919, 1004, 1010. See alsospecific metals and compounds

non-covalent functionalization, 692 non-noble catalysts, 32–3, 89, 144, 149,

1130 Subject Index

156–7, 226–7, 292, 316–74, 447, 474–9, 611–12, 622–3, 628, 716–49, 782, 794, 878, 958, 978, 1010, 1071. See also carbides; other specific metals and compounds; Raney nickel and sulfides, 735–41

non-precious metal catalysts, 172, 185, 195, 224–9, 316, 776, 810. See alsospecific metals and compounds

non-uniform catalyst layer, 895, 910–11 NOx contamination, 339–40, 343–6, 348,

350–1 Nyquist plot, 76, 576–80, 583–4, 952, 989 OH, 292, 294, 298–9, 301, 303–5, 308–9,

311–12, 314–17, 322 binding energy of, 114–17

ohmic loss, 69, 72–5, 331, 852, 910, 917, 950, 958, 965, 972, 1012, 1029, 1047, 1086

ohmic overpotential, 971–3, 1046–7 ohmic polarization, 69, 72, 359 Ohm’s law, 972 one-dimension nanomaterials, 656, 661,

684, 702. See also carbon nanofibers, carbon nanotubes, nanowires

one-electron reduction pathway, 89–90, 94, 117, 128–9

one-step synthesis, 471–2 onset potential, 726–9, 733, 766, 785–6,

790–6, 804 OOH, 294, 298–9, 308–11, 314–20 open circuit, 585, 597 open circuit voltage, 23–4, 43–9, 67, 70,

72, 74, 342, 359–61, 367, 566–7, 580–1, 585, 588, 590, 592–5, 598, 602, 966–8, 973, 985, 993, 995, 1063

operating pressure, 18 operating temperature, 18–9, 341 optical screening, 627 optimization, catalyst layer composition,

1003–33 optimization, performance, 965, 989 optimization studies, 412–34 organic stabilizers, 460 oscillation, 177, 204, 364 Ostwald ripening, 869–71, 945, 954,

1066, 1075–6 output voltage, 359 overpotential, 90–1, 94, 107–8, 112–13,

121, 124–5, 129, 135, 140–4, 147, 151, 158, 167, 184, 194–5, 229–30, 255, 303, 305, 312, 317, 320, 322,

339–41, 554, 558, 564, 568, 582–5, 587–8, 591–3, 600–1, 862, 864

oxidants, 688–9, 760–1 oxidation, in high-temperature fuel cells,

861–84 oxidation, selective, 332 oxidation-resistant supports, 868, 876–7 oxidation state, 512–13, 515, 519 oxides, 716, 722, 727–8, 730–1, 734,

742–8 oxycarbides, 876 oxygen

atomic, 111–12, 293–5, 298–302, 304–5, 310, 315–17

O2 adsorption energy, 114–15 oxygen adsorption, 111, 114–15, 292–

303, 342, 346–7, 351, 1086 oxygen bleeding, 339 oxygen diffusion, 385, 393, 397, 412,

421, 424–5, 428–30, 437 oxygen gain, 599–600, 602 oxygen reduction reaction, 5, 13, 31–3,

53, 58, 66, 69, 89–129, 135–6, 149, 356–7, 361, 363–4, 369–71, 861–3, 891, 925, 1042–3, 1049 and binary catalysts, 853 and catalyst contamination, 339–42,

350 and catalyst degradation, 1062, 1086 and catalyst layer modeling, 392, 396,

431, 438 and catalyst layer optimization, 990,

995, 1009–10, 1031 and CO-tolerant catalysts, 786–7, 792,

810 and combinatorial methods, 611–12,

619–20, 623–4, 627–8 and electrochemical methods, 550–1,

560, 565–6, 570, 572, 582–4, 586, 591, 593, 600

and first principles methods, 289–324 kinetics of, 89–93, 106–8, 113–14,

121–2, 124, 127 mechanism of, 89–90, 99–118, 121–9 and methanol, 984 and nanosupports, 683, 685, 688, 695,

703 and non-noble electrocatalysts, 715–

48 and performance evaluation, 968,

970–1, 978–9, 984 and physical characterization of

Subject Index 1131

catalysts, 487, 492, 495, 507, 513–16

and platinum-based alloys, 631–42, 650

and PtCo alloys, 792 and PtRu catalysts, 786–7 and reversal-tolerant catalysts, 846–7 and ruthenium, 1064–6 and temperature, 863, 970–1 and ternary catalysts, 853

oxynitrides, 730–3, 748 ozone contamination, 348, 350–1

-stacking, 692 painting, 365, 372 palladium, 32, 34, 39–40, 115, 145–9,

153, 165, 167, 178, 208, 213–19, 223–4, 233, 248–51, 260, 267, 302–5, 315, 368–9, 371, 396, 471, 489, 491, 566–7, 760, 764, 793–4, 800, 804–5, 929–30, 1005

particle size, 447–53, 456, 458–67, 488–91, 493–4, 502–4, 508–9, 524, 560–3, 593, 598

paste, 894, 898, 900 pathways, 292–3, 296, 298, 311, 314, 316 (PCA)Co2, 120 (PCY)Co2, 119 PEM fuel cells. See also high-temperature

PEM fuel cells catalyst contamination in, 331–51 catalyst ink and layer preparation,

889–910 catalyst layer composition, 1003–33 catalyst layer evaluation, 965–97 catalyst layer modeling, 381–439 catalyst layer synthesis, 917–58 catalyst layers and membrane

electrode assemblies, 355–74 catalyst physical characterization,

487–536 catalyst synthesis, 447–79, 917–58 CO-tolerant catalysts in, 759–811 and combinatorial methods, 609–29 and electrochemical methods, 547–

602 failure diagnosis and mitigation,

1041–88 fundamentals, 1–79 MEA evaluation, 965–97 MEA preparation, 911–12 and nanotechnology, 655–703 and non-noble electrocatalysts

715-48 and platinum-based alloy catalysts,

631–51 voltage reversal in, 835–56

percolation theory, 386, 407–11, 413 perfluorosulfonate acid ionomer, 356–7,

360–1, 365 performance, 2, 5–6, 8, 11–21, 27, 30–2,

68–9, 78–9, 94, 154, 157, 169, 172–230, 238–42, 245–8, 253–69, 476–9, 487, 550–4, 556, 567, 588–92, 594–6, 599, 601–2, 889 and catalyst layer preparation, 893,

896, 898–911 of catalyst layers, 355–74 and cathode degradation, 1066–87 and chemical vapor deposition

processes, 920–41, 958 and CO tolerance, 759–811 and contamination, 1057–61 degradation of, 331–41, 343–51, 362 evaluation, 965–97 and flame-based processing, 942–58 in high-temperature fuel cells, 866–8,

877–83 of the membrane electrode assembly,

1003–33, 1042, 1049 modeling, of catalyst layers, 382,

412–39 optimization, 154, 356–7, 367, 397,

643, 896, 920, 965, 989 and polarization curves, 1046–8 and ruthenium, 1064–6 and spray-based processes, 920–9,

958 and support, 490–6, 499, 503, 507,

510, 512, 515, 527, 531, 536 targets, 1088 testing protocols, 1055–6 and voltage reversal tolerance, 835–

56 permeability, 11, 13, 16–7, 359–61, 370,

407–12, 684, 890, 918, 974, 992–4, 1012–13, 1015, 1017

perovskite, 716, 733, 742–8 phase angle, 574, 576–7, 582 phase diagrams, 469–70 phase equilibrium, 357 phosphoric acid fuel cell, 1, 548–50, 560,

565, 584, 632, 763, 793, 805, 810–11, 842, 864, 869, 872, 875, 895, 1019, 1041, 1075–6, 1079

1132 Subject Index

phthalocyanine, 322–3, 475, 716, 718–24 physical characterization, of

electrocatalysts, 487–536 physical-chemical evaluation, 965–97 physical modeling, 397, 412 physical surface area, 498–9 physical vapor deposition, 456–7, 521,

624, 907–8, 917, 958 pin holes, in membranes, 993–5 platinum, 4–5, 13–5, 32–41, 46, 53, 57–8,

66, 135–6, 143–59, 289, 292–3, 295–305, 308–12, 315–17, 322–3, 332–5, 337, 339–42, 345, 347, 349–51, 489–96, 499–505, 507–17, 521, 523–4, 527–31, 533, 535–6, 548–52, 560–7, 570–3, 578–83, 591, 593–6, 600–1, 611–28. See also Pt compounds and ionsband, 1074 and catalyst layer degradation, 1069,

1074–5, 1078–9 and CO-tolerant catalysts, 759–811 depletion layer, 1079–80 deposition in the membrane, 1075 electrode, 91–3, 105, 110–14 and ethanol, 165–270 and formic acid, 165–270 loading, 873, 893, 898, 904, 906–9 and methanol, 165–270 nanoparticles, 656, 663, 666–73, 675–

93, 696–9, 702–3, 925, 930, 934–7, 945

oxidation, 46, 112–13, 1070 particle agglomeration, 869, 1046,

1075–80 particle isolation, 869 particle size, 1050, 1052, 1069, 1074–

5, 1078–9 redeposition, 869, 871, 884, 1079 Ru-modified, 775–7, 799–800 skin, 299–300, 303–4, 474 utilization, 382, 388–91, 394, 398,

417, 437–8, 715, 882, 884, 894, 896–7, 899–901, 906–8, 910–11, 921, 930, 983–4, 1019–20, 1024–31, 1046

and voltage reversal, 835–56 platinum alloys, 299–305, 310, 312, 315–

16, 624–7, 631–51, 656, 775–6, 779–80, 782–3, 794, 796, 810, 928, 958. See also specific alloys

platinum dissolution, 869–72, 884, 1046,

1050, 1054, 1066–73, 1075, 1078–9 kinetics, 1069–71

platinum-free catalysts, 368, 371, 764, 782, 804–5, 809, 930. See alsocatalysts, non-noble; catalysts, non-precious metal

platinum group metals, 136, 149–56 platinum sulfide, 335, 347 platinum-support interaction, 666, 676,

678–81, 684, 688, 691–3, 701, 703 Pt2+, 870, 895, 1067–9, 1073, 1075 Pt4+, 895, 1069, 1073, 1075 Pt-alloy/Ccorr-resistant, 875 PtAu, 567, 804 Pt/C, 99–101, 124–5, 156, 165, 169, 180–

4, 188, 194, 197, 206–7, 217, 219, 222–4, 231–3, 240–1, 250, 266–7, 305, 334–5, 342, 356, 362–5, 368–71, 374, 384, 398, 400, 403, 406, 417, 420, 438, 471, 491–2, 499–500, 502–4, 508, 517, 527–30, 551, 563–6, 570, 583, 596, 616, 633–43, 650, 676–7, 680, 683, 685, 691, 693, 696–7, 700, 702–3, 733, 743, 778–9, 782, 787, 790, 794, 798–805, 810, 846–7, 868, 872, 874–81, 894–8, 900, 902, 905–6, 1068, 1070, 1072–3, 1076–8, 1084–7

PtCo, 632, 634, 640–1, 682, 782, 791–2, 810, 1006, 1010, 1071–3

PtCr, 632–3, 637, 640, 1006, 1010, 1043, 1071

PtCrRu, 794 PtFe, 782, 791, 1006, 1010, 1071 PtFe alloys, 92, 115 PTFE-bonded, 893, 895–6, 900–1, 903,

910 PTFE/C, 901–2 Pt-H2O, 1067–8 PtM, 115, 203–13, 515, 791–4, 1071–3 PtMo, 774, 780, 782, 787–91, 794, 796,

806, 810, 1006–7 Pt/MoOx, 447, 797 PtNi, 632–4, 640, 763, 782, 791, 810,

811, 1006, 1010, 1071 Pt3Ni, 115 PtO, 92–5, 112–13 PtPd, 180–3, 200, 212–13, 219–23, 233–

4, 250, 255, 259–61, 265, 793–4 Pt/Pt2+ dissolution equilibrium

1068-9 PtRh, 763, 796, 810–11, 1006 PtRu, 39–40, 153, 168–9, 179, 181–2,

Subject Index 1133

186, 188–92, 194–5, 197–200, 208–9, 219, 224, 231, 234–46, 238–9, 250, 252–61, 265–8, 366, 369, 371, 447–8, 453–6, 461–2, 470, 492–3, 495–6, 523, 535–6, 565, 621, 626, 642–4, 646–51, 666, 679, 761–3, 765, 771, 773–6, 778–90, 792, 794–802, 804–11, 839, 845, 854, 920–1, 938–9, 942, 950, 1059–60, 1064–6 and CO tolerance, 761–3, 773–811 effect of composition, 784–6 effect of particle size, 786 and voltage reversal, 839, 854

PtRuAg, 796 PtRuAu, 796 PtRuMo, 782, 794–5, 810 PtRu-MoOx, 796–9 PtRuNb, 794 PtRuOs, 794 PtRuSn, 795–6 PtRu-VOx, 796 PtRuW, 794–6 PtRu-WOx, 796–9 PtRuZr, 794 PtSn, 643, 647–8, 773–4, 779–80, 782,

790–1, 796, 810 Pt-sols, 460–1 PtTa, 792 Pt/TiO2/C, 876 PtV, 1071 Pt-WO3, 648, 1006 Pt-WOx, 797–9 PtxCo1-x/C, 1072–3 Pt4ZrO2/C, 868, 879–81 poisoning, 331–7, 341–2, 346–7, 350. See

also carbon monoxide poisoning; catalysts, poisonings

Poisson-Nernst-Planck theory, 421, 434–5 polarization, 93–5, 129, 359–60, 367–8,

588–92, 602 and carbon monoxide, 770, 785, 787,

789, 793, 796, 804 and voltage reversal, 842

polarization curve, 57, 67–78, 94–5, 165, 171, 183–4, 196, 200, 213, 215, 222, 229, 246, 254, 269, 343–6, 971–3, 979, 984–6, 988, 996–7, 1045–8, 1050, 1055–6

polyacrylonitrile, 722–4 polybenzimidazole, 867–9, 877–8, 882 polybenzimidazole membrane, 867–9,

877–9, 994, 996

poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) method, 104

polymer electrolyte fuel cell, 381, 384, 386–8, 391, 393, 395, 398, 403–4, 407, 409, 413, 427, 429, 432–3, 438. See also PEM fuel cell

polymer electrolyte membranes, 381–2, 392, 394, 409, 413, 426, 428–30. See also proton exchange membranes and CO tolerance, 759–64, 787, 790,

799, 810–11 and voltage reversal, 836, 839, 841,

844, 848, 851–2 polyol method, 461–2 polypyrrole, 723–4 polytetrafluoroethylene, 356–7, 360–73,

551, 848, 890–1, 893–8, 900–3, 906, 910, 934, 976, 996, 1013–19, 1023, 1063–4

pore size distribution, 384, 398, 405, 412–15, 431

pore structure, 922, 952, 973–4, 1012, 1015, 1018–19, 1027

porosimetry, 974, 1019 porosity, 356, 364, 366–7, 890, 893, 895,

899, 910–11 porous distribution, 383–7 porous rotating disk electrode, 978 porphyrin, 32, 121–2, 184, 224, 322–3 portable electronic products, 355, 367 portable power, 1, 25, 30–1, 34 potential cycling, 547, 556, 558, 602,

1069–71, 1076, 1080–1 potential step, 547, 558–9, 602 potential sweep, 547, 560, 568, 602 potentiostat, 556–60, 570, 578 Pourbaix diagram, 1068, 1071–2 power density, 135, 155, 182, 212, 218,

242, 259–60, 988 power output, 347 pre-treatment, 106, 157, 228, 339 precursor, 295–6, 310–11 propanol, 549, 567 protocols, testing, 1054–6 proton, 355–60, 365, 367, 370 proton conductivity, 715, 836, 865, 877,

893, 895, 903, 907, 975, 994, 1020 proton diffusion, 382–3, 421 proton exchange membranes, 331, 339,

548, 579. See also polymer electrolyte membranes

proton-induced X-ray emission, 597–8

1134 Subject Index

pseudo-elementary step, 94 pyrolysis, 721–4 pyrolytic graphite, 102, 104, 249

quaternary alloys, 165, 195–200, 612, 624–6, 632, 645–6, 649–51, 794, 809

quinone and derivatives, 89, 108–10, 129, 1085–6

radial distribution function, 402–3, 405–6 radiolysis, 125 Raman spectroscopy, 1053–4 random composite morphology, 382, 411 random heterogeneous media, 397, 407 Raney nickel, 149, 156–7, 159 rate constant, 139–40, 147, 149 rate determining step, 33, 37, 39, 57–8,

66, 90, 92, 94, 102, 107–8, 110, 113, 137–8, 140, 149, 151–2, 168, 185, 187, 204, 206, 293, 306, 309–11, 322, 339, 357, 360, 420, 590–1, 593, 631, 647, 768, 779, 862, 969, 1032

rate limiting step. See rate determining step

reactant, 355–7, 360–1, 364–5, 368 reactant humidity, 21 reaction constant, 98 reaction energy, 311–16, 324 reaction mechanism, 291–3, 298–9, 304–

6, 310–16, 322, 324 reaction order, 140–1 reaction penetration depth, 382, 385, 391,

393, 426, 431, 433, 437 reaction rate, 90–1, 94, 968–9. See also

rate determining step reaction rate distribution, 382–3, 390–1,

425–6, 432, 438 reactive sputtering, 725–6, 728, 731, 733,

739–40, 746 recovery, 335, 339, 342, 344–7, 349–51 “redox catalysis” procedure, 117 reduction temperature, 536 reference electrode, 547–8, 552, 554–5,

559, 583, 982–4, 989, 993, 1030 reformation process, 332, 337 relative humidity, 975, 987–8, 990–2,

994, 996 reliability, 21, 23, 25, 30 resistance, 972–5, 977, 984, 988–92 resistivity, 746 resolution, 505–7, 511, 524 reticulated vitreous carbon, 253–7 reversal, cell voltage, 835–56

reversal tolerance, 835–56 reversal-tolerant catalyst layer, 845–56 reversible fuel cell potential, 42–4, 303,

311–20, 968–9, 973 rhodium, 145–9, 153 rotating disk electrode, 93, 97–9, 104,

107, 129, 547, 567–9, 570–1, 978–80, 1045

rotating ring-disk electrode, 93, 99–101, 103, 105, 111, 120, 129, 547, 567–70, 572–3, 602

Ru1.92Mo0.08SeO4, 122 ruthenium, 144, 146–9, 153, 157–9

See also PtRu and CO tolerance, 760–6, 771–811 crossover, 1064–6 leaching, 1064–6 Pt-modified, 780, 799–802 and reversal tolerance, 839–56

rutile, 731–2, 746–7 RuxSy, 122, 124 RuxSy(CO)n, 122, 124

Sabatier’s principle, 293 salvation energy, 127 Sarin, 340, 347 scanning differential electrochemical

mass spectroscopy, 619, 628 scanning electron microscopy, 505–6,

510–11, 523, 525, 536, 905, 978, 996, 1050–1, 1073–5, 1081, 1083

Scherrer formula, 489–91 screen printing, 365 seal, 6–7, 22–3 secondary electron imaging, 506 segmented cells, 589 selective oxidation, 332 selenide, 740–2 selenium, 735–42 self-organization phenomena, 382, 384,

388, 396, 404, 433, 438 self-organized electron transfer, 123–4 serpentine channels, 553–4 shape control, 449, 467–8 side-on interaction, 293, 322 silane-assisted treatment, 689–90 single cell, 6–8, 68, 70, 75–6, 547, 553–4,

589–90, 982, 987–8, 993 single crystal electrodes, 143–4, 150 sintering, 622, 640–1, 682, 697, 700, 761–

2, 793, 808, 836, 867, 879, 881, 884, 993, 995, 1016–17

Subject Index 1135

skeleton catalyst, 471–2 skin-layer catalyst, 468, 471–3 slab model, 291, 295–7 SO2 poisoning, 339–43, 346, 348–9 sol-gel technique, 449–50 solid oxide fuel cells, 1, 518 solution-based growth method, 663, 665 solution method, 877, 882–3, 1019–20 solvent, 356, 365, 372 sonochemical treatment, 689 spillover effect, 646, 648, 650 spinel

716, 735-48 spontaneous deposition, 472–3 spray pyrolysis, 454–5, 917, 919–29 spraying, 365, 371–2 spreading, 371 sputtering, 615–16, 620–1, 624, 626, 628 sputtering-deposition, 893, 895, 904 stability, 331, 335, 361–2, 364, 368, 370,

373–4, 553, 556, 588, 611, 624, 628, 632, 640–3, 649–51, 655–6, 666, 676, 684, 693, 700–3

and non-noble electrocatalysts, 715–48 stability diagram, 432 stack, 1–2, 8–9, 16, 20, 23, 25–6, 30, 67–

9, 73, 75–6, 587, 589–90, 602 stack array, 1061 standard free energy of adsorption, 865 standard potential, 292, 557 start-up, 761, 787, 810, 836–7, 1061,

1075 startup-shutdown cycles, 1081 starvation, 364 starvation, air, 837–9, 1062 starvation, fuel, 839–49, 854–6, 1062–5 stationary power, 25, 27–30 statistical limitations, 382, 390 steady-state performance, 374 steady-state polarization, 68, 93–5, 129 stoichiometric number, 107–8 stoichiometries, low, 1061 stoichiometry, 19 strain, 299–300, 303, 305 structural effect, 636 sub-monolayer formation, 472–3 substrate layer (SL), 890–1 sulfides, and non-noble electrocatalysts,

735–41 sulfonic acid group, 867, 900 sulfur compound, 332, 334–6, 339, 342,

346–51

sulfur dioxide, 863, 900, 1060–1 sulfur organics, 332 sulfur oxides, 340–3, 346, 348–50 superoxide ion, 89–90, 94, 102, 117, 125–

9support, 356, 361–6, 369, 371, 373–4 support materials, 655–703. See also

nanofibers, nanotubes, nanowires supported catalysts, 154–6, 655–703 surface area, 867, 869, 871–3, 876, 892,

895 surface concentration, 96–8 surface coverage, 139–44, 153, 158 surface morphology, 149–50, 154 surface oxidation, 688–9 surface science study, 774–81 surface structure, 149–50, 152 symmetry factor, 94, 107, 346 synergistic effect, 371 synergistic multielectron transfer, 123 synthesis, of catalysts, 447–79 synthesis, of supports, 657–93, 703 synthesis, template-based, 665 system, 1, 3–7, 9–11, 18–9, 21–2, 27, 30,

33, 37, 62, 76

Tafel equation, 141, 147, 591 Tafel reaction, 136–8, 140–3 Tafel slope, 91, 94, 107–8, 113–15, 121,

124–5, 129, 143, 147–8, 292–3, 303–4, 310, 882, 968–73, 1046–8

tantalum, 725–8, 730–1, 733, 736 technical target, 1077–8 temperature, and performance evaluation,

967–8, 970–1, 975, 980, 986–9, 993–7

temperature programmed desorption, 534 temperature programmed reduction, 534–

5template-based synthesis, 665 template preparation, 463–7 templates, 234–6, 241–2, 266, 463–7 ternary alloy, 612–18, 621, 624, 626, 632,

644–6, 649–51, 728, 734–42, 762, 794–6, 809, 851–3

test station, 986–8 testing, accelerated, 21–4 testing protocols, 1054–6 tetracarboxyphthalocyanine, 719 tetramethoxyphenylporphyrin, 120, 719–

20, 723–4 tetraphenylporphyrin, 718–19

1136 Subject Index

tetrasulfophthalocyanine, 719 theoretical voltage, 359 thermal analysis, 525–32 thermal degradation, 22, 701 thermal (heat) treatment, 106, 120–1, 452,

469, 471, 473–6, 628, 633, 636, 640 thermal management, 8, 9 thermal voltage, 573 thermodynamic stability, 1066–9 thermodynamic voltage, 593, 600 thermodynamics, 138, 144–5 thermogravimetry, 489–91, 525–32 thin-film rotating disk electrode, 978 thiospinel, 737–9 three-dimensional electrode structure,

684–5, 703 three-phase boundary, 891–2 three-phase interface, 355–8, 360, 365,

372, 374, 873 three-phase reaction zone, 904 through-plane, 908, 910 time constant, 573–4, 576, 586 titanium, 157, 725, 728–36, 746–7, 850–4 toluene, 340, 347–8 trans-configuration, 118–19. See also cis-

configuration transfer coefficient, 55, 57, 74, 90–4, 113 transient kinetic model, 338–9 transition metal carbides, 89, 124–5, 129 transition metal chalcogenides, 89, 122–4,

477–8 transition metal macrocyclic compounds,

89, 117–22, 129 transition metals, 715–48 transition state, 291, 296, 300, 306–8 transmission electron microscopy, 497,

503–11, 523–4, 536, 561, 731–2, 845, 945, 996, 1045, 1050–3, 1073–80

transportation, 1, 25–7 transportation systems, 355 triple-phase boundary, 391, 437, 551 tungsten carbides, 156, 363, 369, 370–1,

716, 725–7, 876 two-electron reaction, 717–18, 724, 728,

738, 746, 1046, 1069–70, 1085 two-electron reduction pathway, 89–90,

100, 102–4, 108–9, 111, 113, 117–18, 121–2, 129

two-phase boundary, 434–8 two-phase catalysts

434-6, 468-71 two-probe configuration, 578–9

two-scale system, 412 two-step synthesis, 471–2 typical element, 733

ultra-microtome, 1050–1 ultra-thin nanostructured composite

catalyst layers, 433–8 ultrasonic spray pyrolysis, 723–4 uncompensated electrolyte resistance,

548, 552 United States Department of Energy, 383,

760, 1055–6, 1087–8 utilization, 356–7, 360, 364–5, 372. See

also catalyst utilization UV-induced photoelectron spectroscopy,

519–22 UV-VIS spectrophotometry, 532

valence band, 513, 519–22 vapor-based growth method, 663–4 vapor deposition, 450, 455–7

See also chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition

vapor-liquid-solid growth method, 663 vapor-solid growth method, 663 Vegard’s law, 469–70 volatile organic compounds, 340, 347–8,

350–1 Volmer reaction, 136–9, 143, 145, 151–2,

159, 581 voltage efficiency, 383, 386, 391, 393,

412, 425, 428, 432–3 voltage loss, 31–3, 45, 67–78, 381–2,

385–6, 390–4, 425–6, 439 voltage reversal, 1061–5. See also

catalysts, reversal-tolerant; cell voltage reversal

Vulcan® carbon, 13, 114, 156, 168, 174, 179, 182, 191, 197–8, 216. 221, 228, 237–8, 244–53, 263–4, 342, 362, 364, 400, 405, 448, 452, 461, 491, 504, 508, 511, 516, 523–4, 528, 566, 571, 573, 633–4, 682, 697, 702, 723, 783–5, 794, 798–9, 802–4, 807, 849, 855, 873–4, 876, 1008, 1015, 1019, 1043, 1053, 1058–9, 1078, 1084

Warburg impedance, 575–7 warfare gases, 340, 347–8, 351 water accumulation, 387–8, 395, 412,

425, 428, 431–2 water at anodes, 839, 847–50

Subject Index 1137

water balance, 18, 21 water electrolysis, 838–42, 847, 849–55 water flooding, 866–7, 893, 900 water-gas shift reaction, 332–3, 564, 600–

1water management, 8, 9, 17, 18, 21, 22,

374, 387, 428–34, 438–9, 846, 861, 865–6, 875, 877, 884, 890–1, 906, 1011–16, 1032, 1072

water retention, 849, 911 W2C, 92, 124–5 W2CPt/C, 124–5 WCoSe, 122 wet-spraying, 898 wettability, 890, 975–8 whiskers, 904–5, 939–40 working electrode, 547–9, 556, 559–60,

568, 570, 981–2, 989, 993, 1003, 1030

X-ray absorption spectroscopy, 776, 786, 801

X-ray diffraction, 488–96, 502, 530, 784–5, 789, 795–6, 798, 800, 807–8, 852, 996, 1004, 1051–3, 1052–3, 1075

X-ray emission, 497–8 X-ray fluorescence, 497–8 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, 513–

21, 530, 726–7, 739, 742, 776, 790, 808–9, 844, 852, 954–5, 1054, 1085

yttria-stabilized zirconia, 518–19

zeolite, 876, 930 zirconium, 730–2, 746–7 zirconium phosphate-Nafion® composite

membrane, 867