Active fault research in India: achievements and future perspective

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Active fault research in India:achievements and future perspectiveMithila Vermaa & Brijesh K. Bansalba Center for Seismology, Ministry of Earth Sciences, MausamBhavan, Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110003, Indiab Geosciences Division, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Prithvi Bhavan,Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110003, IndiaPublished online: 03 Jan 2014.

To cite this article: Mithila Verma & Brijesh K. Bansal (2014): Active fault research inIndia: achievements and future perspective, Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk, DOI:10.1080/19475705.2013.868371

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Active fault research in India: achievements and future perspective

MITHILA VERMAy* and BRIJESH K. BANSALzyCenter for Seismology, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Mausam Bhavan, Lodhi Road,

New Delhi 110003, India

zGeosciences Division, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Prithvi Bhavan, Lodhi Road,

New Delhi 110003, India

(Received 3 September 2013; accepted 19 November 2013)

This paper provides a brief overview of the progress made towards active fault

research in India. An 8 m high scarp running for more than 80 km in the Rann of

Kachchh is the classical example of the surface deformation caused by the great

earthquake (1819 Kachchh earthquake). Integration of geological/geomorphic

and seismological data has led to the identification of 67 active faults of regional

scale, 15 in the Himalaya, 17 in the adjoining foredeep with as many as 30

neotectonic faults in the stable Peninsular India. Large-scale trenching

programmes coupled with radiometric dates have begun to constraint the

recurrence period of earthquakes; of the order of 500–1000 years for great

earthquakes in the Himalaya and 10,000 years for earthquakes of >M6 in the

Peninsular India. The global positioning system (GPS) data in the stand alone

manner have provided the fault parameters and length of rupture for the 2004

Andaman Sumatra earthquakes. Ground penetration radar (GPR) and

interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) techniques have enabled

detection of large numbers of new active faults and their geometries. Utilization

of modern technologies form the central feature of the major programme

launched by the Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India to prepare

geographic information system (GIS) based active fault maps for the country.

1. Introduction

Earthquakes, unlike other geohazards like cyclones, floods, landslides, etc., strike with-out any notice and severely affect human habitation and economic activities; hence,

pose a major threat to the society. For effective seismic hazard assessment and its miti-

gation, demarcation of the areas, having similar earthquake threat, is essential, which in

turn requires detailed and accurate data on active faults, i.e. their location, spatial

extent, past earthquake activity, recurrence intervals, slip rate, etc. In general, an active

fault is the seismic source which had activated in the Quaternary period (2.5 Ma) or in

the late Pleistocene (0.1–1.2 Ma) and has the potential for reactivation in the future

(Yeats 2012). Some faults show frequent displacements and can be the source of highseismic hazard; therefore, identification and characterization of the active faults/seismic

source zones and assessing their role in seismic processes are considered to be very

important for any exercise related to earthquake hazard assessment and risk mitigation.

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

� 2013 Taylor & Francis

Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk, 2013

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mailto:[email protected]

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2013.868371

The Indian subcontinent is among the most seismically active regions of the worldand has a highly diverse seismotectonic set-up, ranging from the tectonically stable

cratonic regions to the orogenic and subduction belts. Its northern boundary repre-

sented by the Himalaya, which is a product of continent–continent collision and

holds enormous strains in its folds since the Neogene times, while the Indo-Burmese-

Andaman Arc in its eastern margin has a hybrid subduction–collision origin and is a

seat of high convergent stresses. Four great earthquakes (Mw > 8) occurred since

last century, along its northern and north-eastern boundaries, while the recent great

tsunamigenic earthquake in 2004 (Mw 9.3) occurred along its eastern boundary,which are active faults. The vast extent of Indo-Gangetic plains has developed on the

southern front of the rising Himalaya which is characterized with some of the major

transverse faults. The continental interior, i.e. the stable peninsular shield, is an

assemblage of a number of Archaean nuclei welded by the Proterozoic mobile belts.

Several passive and failed rifts which formed during the break-up of the Gondwana

supercontinent in Mesozoic period dissect the Indian shield linearly and are the sites

of higher stress concentrations of the intraplate region. These paleorifts are also com-

paratively active and show varying degree of seismicity. The region is also character-ized with the most intriguing site of reservoir triggered seismicity, at Koyna. More

than half of the country falls under moderate to very high hazard category, where

over 650 earthquakes of M 5 and above have occurred in the last one century, includ-

ing four great earthquakes (IMD Catalogue). Since historical times, these earth-

quakes have been responsible for huge loss of life and property. Hazard scenario has

increased several folds because a large earthquake in the present time may create

havoc due to high population density and rapid development of infrastructure.

Almost all the major faults/fault zones in India are considered to be active andthus have the potential to generate large earthquakes. Various fault zones which may

be responding to the ongoing crustal deformation are known to be the site of large

earthquakes like Main Central Thrust, Main Boundary Thrust and Himalayan Fron-

tal Thrust in the Himalayan collision zone; Mishmi thrust, Lohit thrust, Kopili fault

in the North-East (NE) Indian region; Narmada-Son-Tapti and Godavari rift zones

in the peninsular India; Allah Bund fault, Kuchch Mainland fault, Katrol Hill fault

and Bhuj fault in the western Indian region; and N–S trending faults in the Andaman

Sumatra subduction zone are seismogenic in nature and are the sources of largeearthquakes in past (figure 1). These regions include large cities with high population

density, largest industrial complexes and lifeline structural facilities. Moreover,

many faults have their extension through urban centres which emphasize the urgent

need for better characterization of active faults to mitigate the impact of future earth-

quakes. Apart from the above proven active faults, some other seismogenic faults are

indicated by the occurrence and alignment patterns of small earthquakes. Such faults

need to be studied in detail, before they produce any large devastating earthquakes

in future. It is also observed that most of the faults have very long recurrence inter-vals, i.e. thousands to tens of thousands of years, whereas the seismic records are

available only for few hundreds of years. Therefore, identification, characterization

and mapping of active faults attain importance, especially, for seismic hazard zona-

tion and other seismotectonic studies.

Active fault research in India started by studying the surface rupture produced dur-

ing the 1897 great earthquake (M 8.7) in NE India (Oldham 1899). Lawson (1908)

reported the similar phenomena during 1906 San Francisco earthquake (M 7.9), which

led to the concept of active fault. Later, with the development of earthquake geology,

2 M. Verma and B.K. Bansal

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field evidences of several coseismic ruptures on the ground along the causative faults

were collected in different parts of the world. Major surface ruptures were observed

during the 1940 Imperial Valley earthquake (M 7.2); 1947 Mexico earthquake

(M 6.2); 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake (M 7.1); 1992 Landers earthquake (M 7.5) inCalifornia; 1855 West Wairarapa (M 8.2), 1931 Hawke’s Bay (M 7.8) and 1987 Edge-

cumbe (M 6.3) earthquakes in New Zealand and other seismically active regions like

China, Japan, Taiwan, Iran, Turkey, Greece, Iceland, Peru and Australia (Richter

1957; Yeats et al. 1997). However, systematic active fault mapping was first started in

the USA (California) along the San Andreas fault (Jenning 1975) followed by other

countries. Subsequently, many major active faults were investigated in detail in differ-

ent seismic regions of the world. During the 1970s and 1980s, the research of active

faults entered into a new phase, characterized by quantitative analysis, and the newtechniques and concepts were developed, viz. paleoseismology, fault segmentation,

blind thrust earthquake and probability analysis of seismic hazard (e.g. Wallace 1970;

Sieh 1978; Yonekura 1983; Stein & King 1984). Of late, new hazard models were

introduced based on the above inputs and their applicability in the analysis of seismic

hazard (e.g. Schwartz & Coppersmith 1984). In Indian context, such developments

appeared only during the 1990s, when paleoseismic data were used in conjunction

with age data to constrain recurrence of causative earthquakes. However, these delays

Figure 1. The seismotectonic map of Indian subcontinent shows the known active faults indifferent tectonic domains of the country with epicentral locations of the earthquakes from theperiod 819–2008 (Nath & Thingbaijam 2012).

Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk 3

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have been more than offset by adoption and implementation of modern multidisciplin-ary tools like global positioning system (GPS), ground penetration radar (GPR), inter-

ferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR), etc. In this paper, we, in the back ground

of the early leads and growth, encapsulate the progress in active fault research in India

with the objectives to draw the roadmap for future research.

2. Scenario of active fault research in India

In India, the active fault studies were probably started with the investigation of sur-face ruptures produced during the great earthquake of 12 June 1897 (M 8.7) in NE

India conducted by Oldham (1899). Based on detailed geological and geomorpholog-

ical investigations, two new faults were identified in the epicentral area after the

earthquake. The first was the Chedrang fault which was greater and extending over

18 km with up throw up to 10 m in crystalline rocks. A series of waterfalls alternating

with pools along the stream were the prominent geomorphic features that indicated

the fault. Another inferred Bordwar fault extended up to 7 miles followed by broken

trees and cracks in the ground. The ordinary signs of faulting were not detected butOldham (1899) suggested that there is a probability that displacement at the time of

earthquake might have been masked by the post earthquake return to original posi-

tion. Similarly, earlier studies described the occurrence of faulting during the great

earthquake on 16 June 1819 (Mw 7.8) in Gujarat, Western India. Among the Indian

earthquakes, this event has produced one of the spectacular evidences of faulting/

rupture. The plain of Rann of Kachchh got up-heaved and ruptured along 80 km

long segment from east to west along the fault named as Allah Bund (Oldham 1926).

The occurrence of faulting during the great Kachchh earthquake of 16 June 1819 pro-vides the earliest well-documented example of faulting associated with the earth-

quake (Richter 1957). Figure 2 shows the fault scarp along the Allah Bund fault

generated during the 1819 earthquake in Gujarat. Other Indian earthquakes that pro-

duced surface ruptures include the 1993 Killari earthquake (Mw 6.3) which deformed

the ground surface in a 100 m wide zone (Gupta et al. 1993; Pande et al. 1994); the

2001 Bhuj earthquake (Mw 7.3) induced rupturing along a 0.5 km segment of the

Kachchh Mainland Fault and along some transverse lineaments (Pande et al. 2003)

and the 2005 Muzaffarabad earthquake (Mw 7.6) which produced coseismic rupturealong NW–SE trending fault for a length of about 80 km (Kaneda et al. 2008).

Most of the earlier research in India was mainly focused towards identifying the

active faults based on geological and geomorphological investigations. A good

amount of work in this direction was carried out by Geological Survey of India,

which has been compiled in the form of an atlas entitled “Seismotectonic Atlas of

India and its Environs” in 2000 (Dasgupta et al. 2000). This atlas contains several

seismotectonic maps for different parts of India prepared on 1:1 million scale. As per

the atlas, about 67 active faults of regional extent exist in the country; out of which,15 major active faults exist in the Himalayan belt, trending both parallel and trans-

verse to it. Most of these came into existence during the terminal phase of the Hima-

layan orogeny and still participate in the strain accumulation and its release. Also,

about 16 tectonically active faults have been delineated in the Indo-Gangetic and

Brahmaputra Plains, which are generally concealed under a thick pile of alluvium.

The Peninsular India is marked by the presence of about 30 neotectonic faults, con-

fined mostly in the paleorift systems. The Andaman and Nicobar Group of Islands,

falling under very high hazard zone (Zone V) of the Seismic Zoning Map of India


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(BIS, 2002), are characterized by the presence of three N–S trending faults of

regional extent. In addition, there are some hidden faults which contribute for seis-

micity in the country (www.portal.gsi.gov.in). The active tectonics in Himalaya, par-

ticularly Sub-Himalaya which is reflected by many geomorphic features such as river

terraces, alluvial fans, streams and ridges, triangular facets, sag ponds, structurally

controlled drainage pattern, etc. has received considerable attention of earth scien-tists. For example, Nakata (1989)identified active faults in different parts of Himala-

yan belt. Valdiya (1984, 1993) investigated the neotectonic activity in the Himalayan

belt. Geomorphic signatures for active tectonics were observed in the Trans-Yamuna

segment of the western Doon valley, North-West (NW) Himalaya by Philip (1995)

and Philip and Sah (1999).

A major initiative in active fault studies was taken following the 1993 Killari

(Latur) earthquake. This earthquake occurred in the stable continental region with

no documented seismic history and poor geomorphological expressions provided achallenging opportunity to understand the seismogenesis within the shield regions.

In this study, paleoseismological data in conjunction with age data were used to con-

strain recurrence of causative earthquakes. Attempts have also been made to con-

strain the geometry of the causative structures and the nature of near-surface crustal

deformation using geophysical data, near-fault geomorphology and trenching inves-

tigations. Besides, investigations were also made in tectonically active regions like

Himalaya, Kachchh region in Gujarat, etc. The major work carried out in different

tectonic regions of the country, is presented in the following sections.

Figure 2. The fault scarp along the Allah Bund fault generated during the 1819 earthquake innorth Gujarat (Courtesy: Dr. V.K. Gahalaut, NGRI).


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2.1. Active fault investigations in Himalayan collision zone

2.1.1. North-west and central Himalayan regions. Active faulting in the Himala-

yan foothill was first reported by Nakata (1972). Later, several studies related to

active faults were undertaken during last few decades which provided importantdata related to active deformation in the NW Himalaya (Nakata 1989; Valdiya

1992; Yeats et al. 1992; Wesnousky et al. 1999). Based on the investigations of land-

form evolution, alluviation history of the valley and Quaternary stress field, Tandon

and Joshi (1987) reported an active fault with the sinistral strike-slip movement

along the Ravi River near Chamba town, NW Himalaya. This fault was ruptured

during the 24 March 1995 earthquake (M 4.9) and caused damage to a large num-

ber of buildings in the Chamba town of Himachal Pradesh. The seismogenic nature

of this fault was revealed by seismological investigations and it was reported thatthe earlier event of 1967 near Rajpur occurred due to reactivation of this fault

(Joshi 2004). The old fault scarps (pre-dates the 1905 event) were delineated along

the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) near Dehradun, based on morphotectonic

and paleoseismological investigations of the fluvial terrace deposits (Wesnousky

et al. 1999). Trench measurements along the Sirmuri Tal fault in Dehradun valley

suggested that two major past earthquakes occurred in the last 1000 years (Oatney

et al. 2001). Two large earthquakes, one during 1294–1423 AD and another at

about 260 AD, with significant surface ruptures along the Kala Amb (BlackMango) tear fault (along the HFT) were reported based on trench investigations in

the NW Himalaya (Kumar et al. 2001). Many new active faults were also reported

along HFT in the Himalayan foothill zone, namely, the Chandigarh fault, Pinjore

Garden fault and Barsar thrust based on observed geomorphic features such as ver-

tical dislocation, warping and backtilting of the fluvial and alluvial fan deposits of

Late Pleistocene–Holocene age (Malik & Nakata 2003). The study reported that the

height (12–50 m) of these faults scarps suggest continued tectonic movement

through Late Pleistocene to recent times. Malik and Mathew (2005) also reportedthe evidences of paleoearthquakes on the Pinjore Garden fault through trench

investigations with approximately 2 m displacement along the fault during single

event. The active fault scarps (15–38 m high) have also been delineated along the

HFT in Frontal Himalaya (Philip & Virdi 2006, 2007). They reported the occur-

rence of many large magnitude events in the past, rupturing the surface. Trench

investigations along the Chandigarh fault revealed the total displacement of 3.5 m

due to one large (Mw 7) prehistoric earthquake which might have occurred around

1300–1400 AD along the HFT (Malik et al. 2008). Paleosiesmological investigationsalong the HFT near Kala Amb, NW Himalaya, reported the existence of two dis-

tinct faults considered to be associated with the reactivation of the HFT during

Late Pleistocene and Holocene period (Philip et al. 2012). Two major earthquakes

were reported in the area, one with 12 m or larger surface displacement and magni-

tude 7.5 or greater between 29.3 and 17 ka in the Late Pleistocene and another large

earthquake recurred with 20–22 m or more surface displacement and magnitude of

7.7 or greater between 5.8 and 2 ka in the Holocene.

Recently, the investigations related to lateral propagation of fault segments havealso been undertaken in NW Himalaya (figure 3(a)). Malik et al. (2010) identified

two new parallel NNW–SSE striking active fault scarps named as Hajipur faults,

i.e. HF1 (figure 3(b)) and HF2 (figure 3(c)) along the north-western end of the

Janauri anticline in the foothill zone. They reported that the new faults identified,


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Figure 3. (a) CORONA satellite image showing two traces of newly identified active faultsHF1 and HF2, named as Hajipur fault at the northern fringe of the Janauri anticline. Openarrow shows direction of lateral propagation of the faults. (b) Fault scarps associated withHF1 near Siprian and Bamonwal village and (c) NW–SE striking fault scarp along HF2 nearHajipur village. The scarp along HF2 trace shows less dissected morphology. The movementsalong this fault have displaced the floodplain deposits of Beas River resulting into 6 to 8mhigh scarp (Malik et al. 2010).


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represent the imbricate faults of the HFT. The reduction in the height of scarps withmaximum of about 10–12 m near the hill range reducing to 8 m and finally attaining

height of as low as 2 m along HF1 and from 6 to 8 m near hill range, reducing up to

1.5 m along the HF2 suggest the lateral propagation of the faults and related fold-

ing in the frontal part of Himalaya. They further reported that these newly devel-

oped faults are responsible for the northward shift of the Beas River. This study

revealed the younger displacement along the HF2 as compared to HF1, during

recent geological past and is comparatively more active than HF1. Net displacement

�9 m and the age about 2600 � 500 years was estimated by using optically simu-lated luminescence (OSL) and accelerator mass spectroscopy (AMS) dating meth-

ods (Malik et al. 2010). The paleoseismological investigations further north, i.e. in

Kashmir Himalayan region, suggest the occurrence of a major earthquake during

1555 AD in Kashmir, which caused ground fissures and rupture extended up to

100 km (Ambraseys & Jackson 2003). Singh and Jain (2007) revealed the seismo-

genic nature of Kaurik-Chango fault in the eastern Ladakh region and reported the

occurrence of paleoseismic activities with large magnitude between 90,000 years

(third activity) and 26,000 years (last geological event) with recurrence interval ofapproximately 10,000 years during the Quaternary period (Singh & Jain 2007).

The neotectonic activity along the segments of the Main Boundary thrust (MBT)

in southern Kumaun Himalaya has been investigated based on landform evidences

such as lakes, terraces, gorges, uplifted terrain, fault scarps, etc. (Kothyari et al.

2010). Earlier, Valdiya et al. (1984) and Valdiya (2001) reported a 10–30 m vertical

displacement of terraces of the Late Pleistocene to early Holocene in the MBT zone

of this sector. The trench investigation along HFT in the frontal region of Kumaun

Himalaya suggests the occurrence of the major earthquake (M 7.5) during 1404–1400 AD with a coseismic slip of about 18–26 m. The recurrence interval of large

earthquake (M > 7.5) along the HFT is estimated to be �1000–1100 years in this

region (Kumar et al. 2006). Gupta et al. (2012) revealed the seismogenic nature of

already identified active fault namely, Tons thrust in the vicinity of Tehri dam in

Kumaun-Garhwal Himalaya based on seismological investigations. The authors sug-

gested that the tectonic loading on the active Tons fault is due to local seismicity cou-

pled with the loading and unloading of the reservoir which might cause additional

seismic risk in this critically stressed region. Besides, some studies have been carriedout in Indo-Gangetic plains using satellite imageries, geological and geomorphologi-

cal investigations and GPR data.

2.1.2. North-east Himalayan region. Several active faults-related studies have been

carried out in NE Himalayan region and major faults like Dauki fault, Kopili fault,

Oldham fault, Dudhnoi fault, Sylhet fault, etc. were identified (Nandy 2001). Detailed

geological mapping along Dauki fault revealed the high angle reverse faulting at places(Das Gupta 1977). Similarly, the existence of N–S trending major strike-slip Kopili

fault, and the N–S Jamuna fault were reported on the basis of seismotectonic and mor-

photectonic investigations (Das Gupta & Nandy 1982). Paleoseismological measure-

ments along the Chedrang fault, associated with the great 1897 event (Oldham 1899)

in the Shillong plateau, suggest the occurrence of at least four large earthquakes

around 500 � 150, 1100 � 150 and >1500 � 150 year before present (BP), besides the

1897 event in the Shillong plateau (Sukhija et al. 1999). The recurrence interval of

about 400–600 years was estimated for large earthquakes in the region. Trench


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investigations made in the meizoseismal area of the great 1950 Assam Earthquake,revealed two past seismic events (1548 and 1697 AD) from this region (Reddy et al.

2009). Three active thrust faults have also been identified in the Neora–Jaldhaka Valley

of the Darjeeling–Sikkim Sub-Himalayan foothill region through geological mapping

(Guha et al. 2007). These are Gorubathan, Matiali and Chalsa thrusts. The geological

evidences of surface rupture were reported only along the Gorubathan thrust, while

the Matiali and Chalsa faults were found blind thrusts. Radiocarbon dates of organic-

rich clay components indicate the Gorubathan thrust post-dated 33,875 � 550 BP.

Similarly, many active faults have been identified in the Arunachal Himalaya based onobserved geomorphic signatures such as structurally controlled watersheds with drain-

ages following tectonic alignments, compressed meandering, narrowing, widening and

deflection of channels, knick points on the longitudinal profiles of river/streams,

unpaired terraces, etc. (Mrinalinee Devi et al. 2011). They also reported that the offset

of mountain front (�10 km) sinistrally along a NW–SE trend indicated a transverse

fault, named as Banderdewa fault along the HFT. Recently, active nature of a promi-

nent N–S trending strike-slip Churachandpur Mao fault (CMF) has been identified

using the GPS geodetic measurements in NE Himalaya (Kumar et al. 2011). Thecrustal deformation of about 16–22 mm/year in the east and 33–42 mm/year in the

west of the CMF fault was estimated (figure 4). The micro-deformation measurements

along the vertical, N–S and E–W components indicate the displacement of 0.111 mm/

year (downward), 0.03 mm/year (north) and 0.011 mm/year (west). The measurements

indicate the creeping nature of the fault towards the western slopes which results the

microseismicity as well as the landslides along the CMF.

Figure 4. (a) Location of the Churachandpur Mao fault (CMF) in NE India and (b) thecrustal velocity estimates (ITRF 2000 reference) across the CMF computed from GPS geodeticmeasurements during 2004–2010 (Kumar et al. 2011).


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2.2. Active fault investigations in peninsular India

2.2.1. Peninsular Indian shield region. The Peninsular Indian shield was initially

considered as stable continental region, i.e. aseismic in nature. However, the deadly

1993 Killari (Latur) earthquake (Mw 6.3) in Maharashtra and 1997 Jabalpur (Mw6.1) in Madhya Pradesh changed the entire perception. Soon after the occurrence of

1993 Latur earthquake, a number of initiatives like seismological, geophysical and

active fault investigations in the Indian shield region were launched to know the

causative sources and their seismogenic nature. Gupta et al. (1993) inferred the defor-

mation zone of about 3 km in NW–SE direction with a width of 300 m, produced by

the Latur earthquake. This deformation was mainly characterized by surface rupture

and was associated with geomorphic changes in the form of relative subsidence and/

or uplift and local upheavals of the ground surface on a small scale. However, Chettyand Rao (1994) observed a narrow, linear ridge about 40 m long and 2–8 m wide

bounded on either side by subsidence close to Killari (in south-eastern side). They

reported south-dipping fault planes with an apparent displacement of about 10 cm

through trench investigations. Deep drilling (700 m) investigations made on both the

sides of 1993 rupture zone, revealed a fault with displacement of about 6 m, at a

depth of 220 m. Down-dip slickenlines on steep-dipping slickenside surfaces in the

drill cores confirm dip–slip nature of the fault (Gupta et al. 1998). Considering that

the observed displacement (6 m) is too much for a single earthquake of Mw 6.1, theysuggested repeated seismicity in the area. Rajendran et al. (1996) and Rajendran and

Rajendran (1999) observed flexures, warps, buckle folds and vertical offsets in the

sedimentary sections of the epicentral area of 1993 Latur earthquake and suggested

reactivation of the pre-existing fault in the area. On the basis of available radiocar-

bon age data and archaeological evidences, it was suggested that the area experienced

an earthquake around 350–450 AD. Paleoseismological investigations carried out by

Sukhija et al. (2006) near the meizoseismal area of the 1993 Latur earthquake

revealed the occurrence of a prehistoric seismic event around 190 BC–410 AD.Besides, several studies were carried out along the well-known Narmada-Son fault

(NSF), a seismically active 1000 km long fault (Biswas 1987; Roy 1990). Geophysical

investigations in the central part of this zone revealed that it is a deep-seated fault

zone (Reddy et al. 1995).

2.2.2. Kachchh rift basin region. Kachchh region (Gujarat) has a very old tectonic

history and has witnessed several moderate and large earthquakes. The 1819 Allah

Bund (Mw 7.8) and the 2001 Bhuj (Mw 7.7) are the two notable earthquakes

amongst them. While the 1819 Allah Bund earthquake (Mw 7.8) was the earliest

documented large earthquake in Kachchh region (Oldham 1926), the Bhuj earth-

quake of 2001 (Mw 7.7) is the largest intraplate earthquake in the Indian history dur-ing the instrumental era. Kachchh is a pericratonic E–W oriented rift basin and

consists of 4000 m thick Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks (Biswas 1977). It

is bounded by Nagar Parkar Block in the north and the Saurashtra block in the

south. At the east, the Radhanpur–Barmer arch makes the boundary and the rift

merges with continental shelf towards the west. A subsurface, topographic feature

called the “median high” (NNE–SSW) divides the basin into western and eastern

Kachchh Mainland block (Biswas 1987). The region is characterized with some of

the major faults, viz. the Nagar Parkar Fault (NPF), the Allah Bund Fault (ABF),


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the Island Belt Fault (IBF), the Banni Fault (BF), the Kachchh Mainland Fault(KMF), the Katrol Hill Fault (KHF) and the South Wagad Fault (SWF) with E–W

as the general trends of these faults (Biswas & Khattri 2002) (figure 1). After the

2001 Bhuj earthquake in Gujarat, several ground and space-based investigations like

geomorphic, radiometric, GPR and GPS-based geodesy were undertaken to identify

the active faults.

Many active fault traces were identified in the Kachchh mainland, based on

field survey and aerial photo interpretation along the KHF zone and KMF zone

(Malik et al. 2001). These fault traces have strike direction as WNW–ESE, E–Wand NNW–SSE along the pediment zones of Northern Hill Range. The faults lat-

erally show discontinuous pattern and run parallel and sub-parallel to the

Kachchh Mainland Fault. Mandal et al. (2004), on the basis of seismological

analysis, delineated an east–west trending blind thrust dipping (�45o) towards

south (named as North Wagad Fault), about 25 km north of KMF, as the causa-

tive fault for the 2001 Bhuj earthquake (Mw 7.7). Of late, GPR technique proved

to be an important tool to identify the surface faults. Under a study, carried out

along the KHF using GPR, Maurya et al. (2005) show the changing subsurfacegeometry of the fault from a south-dipping near vertical reverse fault to vertical

normal fault. In another study along the KHF, based on the geomorphic and

GPR investigations, Patidar et al. (2007) reported three phases of upliftment along

the fault, i.e. earliest middle Pleistocene; early Holocene and last, late Holocene

which is continuing at present. The uplift is controlled by over all compressive

stress regimes which indicate periodic reactivation of the KHF. Further investiga-

tions, using GPR technique along the Katrol Hill fault revealed the splaying

nature of the fault in Quaternary sediments which further indicate its neotectonicreactivation in compressive stress regime (Patidar et al. 2008). A study based on

field investigations and luminescence dating carried out along the eastern North-

ern Hill Range (NHR) fault, which is a topographic expression of an active fault

related fold on the hanging wall, shows progressive decrease in the incision age

on channel fill and valley fill terraces from �12 to 4.3 ka (Mathew et al. 2006).

This age progression suggests an active vertical and lateral fold growth along

KMF and the average uplift rate along the eastern NHR during late Holocene

was 10 � 1 mm/year (Mathew et al. 2006). The authors further suggested thateastward progression of NHR ridge along KMF resulted in the thrust faulting on

south waged fault which resulting in the Bhuj 2001 earthquake (Mathew et al.

2006). A recent study based on the field and GPR investigations along the E–W

trending active Gedi fault revealed its exact location on the ground and shallow

subsurface nature of the fault. The GPR data indicate that the Gedi fault is a

steep north-dipping reverse fault which becomes vertical at depth and is character-

ized by the moderate earthquake activity under a compressive stress regime

(Maurya et al. 2013).Besides, morphotectonic analysis along NSF in Gujarat indicate its tectonically

active nature, which is corroborated by the highest elevation of scarps and the allu-

vial deposits, the deepest incision (�40 m depth) and steep northward slope of the

alluvial plains (Joshi et al. 2013). The study revealed that the NSF cut across by four

transverse faults, viz. the Tilakwada fault, Karjan fault, Madhumati fault and Raj-

pardi fault are found to be neotectonically active (figure 5). The segment between

Karjan fault and Madhumati fault has comparatively undergone the highest inten-

sity of neotectonic activity.


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3. Recent developments

During last few years, new techniques, viz; InSAR, GPR, GPS, etc. have been suc-

cessfully used in active fault research leading to significant advancement of ourknowledge. Many new near-surface faults delineated using GPR. The GPS-based

geodetic technique is being used to estimate the slip rate and strain accumulation

along the major faults in different parts of the country. Also, several large earth-

quakes and their relationship to active faulting, e.g. 2005 Kashmir; 2004 Andaman

Sumatra; 2001 Bhuj and 2011 Sikkim earthquakes have been investigated using GPS

geodesy. The maximum offset during 2005 Kashmir earthquake was estimated to be

26 cm at a site, 44 km from the epicentre and 19 cm at 85 km east of epicentre (Bend-

ick et al. 2007). The slip rate along Karakoram fault in NW Himalaya estimated tobe �3 mm/year (Mukul et al. 2010). A slip �16 mm was measured towards N 46�Eduring 2001 Bhuj earthquake (Jade 2004). The rupture area was estimated to be 50 �40 km2 (Wallace et al. 2006). GPS-based geodetic studies carried out in Andaman

and Nicobar Islands region after the great Sumatra earthquake (Mw 9.3), helped in

estimation of coseismic horizontal and vertical displacements (Verma & Bansal

2012). The coseismic horizontal displacement of 1.6 m (Harewak Island) to 6.6 m

(Car Nicobar) in WSW to SE direction, whereas the vertical displacements as the

coseismic subsidence (1–2 m) on east coast of Andaman and Nicobar Island and an

Figure 5. The geological map of the Narmada basin in Saurashtra region (Gujarat) showingthe Narmada Son fault with morphotectonic segments (I–IV), differentiated by transversefaults F1–F4. The figure also depicts the tectonic control of faults on the linear contact of thealluvial plain with the pre-Quaternary lithologies (Joshi et al. 2013).


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uplift of 0.5–1.0 m was measured in North and little Andaman (Gahalaut et al. 2006;Banerjee et al. 2007; Jade et al. 2007). A rupture of about 1400 km and width of

about 100–150 km with maximum slip of about 20 m was measured between great

Nicobar and little Andaman (Gahalaut et al. 2006). Using the estimates of interseis-

mic, coseismic and postseismic deformation, a recurrence interval of about 400 years

has been estimated for 2004 Sumatra Andaman type earthquake (Gahalaut et al.

2008). Besides, the convergence rate of about 2 � 1 mm/year is estimated along the

Narmada-Son lineament across the central India (Banerjee et al. 2008), whereas very

low (<1.5 mm/year) and localized crustal deformation (up to 3.3 � 0.5 mm/year) hasbeen observed at the southern margin of the Godavari failed rift of Indian shield

(figure 6) (Mahesh et al. 2012). In a nutshell, all these new observations are useful in

identification and characterization of active faults precisely.

Figure 6. Map of Godavari basin shows Godavari failed rift (GFR) with velocity at GPS sitesin Indian reference frame. It also depicts the seismicity clusters in region I and region II withthe 1969 Bhadrachalam earthquake (Mw 5.7) with two estimates of focal mechanism (Chandra1977; Chung 1993). The seismicity cluster in region I indicate the ongoing crustal deformationalong the KF and KGF. KF-Kaddam fault, KGF-Kinnersani-Godavari fault, KLF-KoleruLake fault, GVF-Godavari valley fault, NSFR-Narmada Son failed rift, KR-Kachchh rift(Mahesh et al. 2012).


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4. Gaps in current knowledge and practice

Understanding the seismic source zones is one of the essential requirements for accu-

rate seismic hazard assessment of any region. As mentioned in the preceding sections,

during last three decades, a number of techniques and concepts were developed andused in different parts of the world, in the field of active fault research. This includes

paleoseismology, fault segmentation, blind thrust earthquakes, marine active faults,

probability analysis of seismic risk, etc. The research on active faults can be catego-

rized into three phases: (1) description of the relationship between faults and strong

earthquakes through the study of surface ruptures by field investigations; (2) recon-

naissance on active faults and preparation of maps of active faults of different areas;

and (3) quantitative study of active faults to quantity/estimate slip rate, seismic recur-

rence interval based on historical and paleoearthquake data (Honglin & Tsukuda2003). Detailed mapping with quantitative studies of major active faults carried out

in seismically active regions such as California, New Zealand, China, Japan, Taiwan,

etc., covers almost all aspects of active faults, including the geometry and structure

of the fault zone, moving sense, slip rate in the Quaternary or in the Holocene, paleo-

seismology and the recurrence interval of large earthquakes, surface ruptures and

coseismic displacements, deformation mechanism and dynamics, and seismic risk

analysis (Honglin & Tsukuda 2003). The large-scale maps prepared for various

regions are mainly based on these studies.The precise identification and characterization of active faults in urban areas has

attained utmost importance for earthquake disaster mitigation in the wake of cata-

strophic effects of large earthquakes, occurred in different parts of the globe. The con-

cepts of paleoseismology and fault segmentation are very active disciplines in the field

of active fault research in present time. Paleoseismologic data are beingused to enhance

the accuracy of paleoearthquake location, compiling the paleoseismic history, recur-

rence intervals and rupture patterns along the faults aswell as tomakemediumor long-

term earthquake forecast. Also, fault segmentation based on the geometric, structuraland active features is undertaken in major active fault zones to know rupture behav-

iour.All these efforts have direct application in seismic hazard of any region.

In Indian context, though, there has been consistent refinement in assessment of

the seismic hazard (Verma & Bansal 2013a); however, information on active faults

and their potential have not been integrated with the overall methodology, adopted

for seismic hazard estimation. The main reason for this is non-availability of the

detailed information on active faults. Although efforts made so far, led to the identi-

fication and characterization of some important structures and sources in the coun-try, however, details on most potentially active faults are not known. Different

segments of the tertiary mobile belt in extra-peninsular India and palaeorifts of pen-

insular part are the sites of active faulting in the present seismotectonic regime. A

comprehensive study of the active faults is therefore very important for evaluation of

their earthquake potential which is yet to be carried out. However, the historical,

instrumental and paleoseismic data, available so far, for these high seismic risk areas

are inadequate to precisely correlate the observed seismicity pattern with the known

tectonic features. Several faults which are known to be the potential sources of earth-quake activity, viz. the boundary thrust faults, N–S trending transverse faults in

Himalayan region and Indo-Gangetic plains, major earthquake triggering faults in

peninsular region and major E–W trending faults in Kachchh region in Western

coast of India, are yet to be precisely characterized. Also, earthquake data along the


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several fault zones are limited and relationship of seismic phenomenon with faultmovement is not known. The active fault studies carried out in India, are mostly, lim-

ited to identification of faults as “active faults” only; therefore, these efforts lack the

detailed information regarding an individual fault, i.e. fault type, its spatial extent,

dip, strike, age, slip rate, age and magnitude of last event it generated, recurrence

interval, dating method, etc. (Verma & Bansal 2013b). Most of the studies carried

out till date, are in a piecemeal manner and lack a comprehensive or systematic

approach. Moreover, no common methodology has been used for field mapping,

trenching/logging and dating event horizons such as fault slip, fault gouge, colluvialwedges, paleoliquefaction, etc.

Studies based on paleoseismological investigations provide some data for past

earthquake activity, its magnitude, recurrence intervals, etc.; however, some uncer-

tainty regarding the predictive values of past earthquake activity, recurrence interval

and magnitude of earthquake events is always felt. Although the efforts made so far,

led to prepare first cut map of faults of the country with some details, however, a

complete database on neotectonics and paleoseismology is required to be created at

national level using the standard methodologies/approaches for active faults in termsof their potential for future seismic hazard due to reactivation.

5. Future outlook

Detailed geological information on the active faults is considered as an important

input for seismic hazard estimation and mitigation strategies as well as for planning

critical facilities such as nuclear power plants, hydropower projects and other impor-

tant structures. Recognizing this fact and to meet the country’s requirement to address

seismic hazard associated with its diverse tectonic regimes, Ministry of Earth Sciences

(MoES) has initiated a dedicated programme to undertake active fault mapping of the

country in a more systematic and comprehensive way. This programme aimed at thefollowing: (1) defining and categorization of the active faults in Indian perspective; (2)

adopting uniform methodologies for field mapping, trenching/logging, dating, etc.; (3)

generation of composite data and ensure its availability to the users in a Geographic

Information System (GIS) compatible format; and (4) preparation of active fault

maps of the different regions and the country as a whole. The programme will be

implemented in a phased manner. The north-west and Central Himalaya, Himalayan

Foothills, NE Himalaya and Shillong Plateau would be the priority areas, as no large

earthquake occurred in these areas since the 1950 earthquake. Kachchh region, Sau-rashtra and other rift basins and cratonic regions in peninsular India showing mild

persistent seismicity, are some of the priority areas for the future active fault studies.

A national database would also be created on active faults with more accuracy in

appropriate GIS format. Maps of active faults of different tectonic regions and the

country as a whole and the library of active fault data will be the important expected

outcomes of this programme. The database thus created would allow resolving the

specific scientific issues in different geological settings of the country.

6. Conclusions

Most of the work carried out in India towards active fault research is limited to iden-

tification of active faults, based on geomorphological and geological investigations.


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Detailed information on fault type, its spatial extent, recurrence interval of earth-quakes it produced, potential of fault, long-term and short-term slip rate, etc., which

is considered to be essential for applications like, slope stability studies and seismic

hazard estimation in different tectonic regimes, is not available, in general. It is also

clear that no systematic approach was adopted to map the active faults of the coun-

try. The new initiative, as explained in preceding sections, towards identification and

characterization of active faults, would not only deliver the library of data-sets on

active faults, but shall also facilitate generating active fault maps of the country.

These efforts shall pave the way for better understanding of seismotectonics of differ-ent regions of the country and the products developed through this initiative will not

only help in accurate seismic hazard assessment, but will also provide important

inputs for land use planning, urban development as well as developing the new rela-

tionships for earthquake-resistant design of the structures.

Acknowledgements

Authors express their gratitude to Secretary, MoES for his consistent support and encourage-ment. Critical comments and suggestions offered by Prof B.R. Arora and the two reviewershas helped in improving the manuscript. Mr. Anup K. Sutar and Mr. Rahul Aswal helped informatting figures and references.

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Documents

Active fault research in India: achievements and future perspective