Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach ...ion.uwinnipeg.ca/~clark/teach/zzArchives/3230/cc10-School.pdf · expands to include family life, arts 1980s ... Figure 10.2

11/10/2013

1

Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood:

A Cultural Approach

Chapter 10

Copyright © Pearson Education 2013

School

Chapter Overview

• History and current state of schooling for

adolescents in the U.S., other industrialized

countries, and developing countries

• Characteristics of effective schools, and the

effects of school climate

• Engagement and achievement in high school

• Cultural, ethnic, gender, and intellectual

differences on adolescents' school experiences

• Factors related to school dropout; prevention

programs

• The emerging adult in college, retention, and

dropout


The Rise of Schooling

Compulsory

education for

adolescents to 16

yrs is a recent

advent in America

The “Age of Adolescence”

In other Western

countries, a similar

trend took place.


Figure 10.1

Attendance a

normative

adolescent

experience

Developing Countries

• Education for urban middle class; adolescents engaged

in productive work, family labour

• Changing with industrialization; increasing enrollment

• Effects of economic development is evident in literacy

rates of youth vs. older generations

E.g., Egypt

Males 15–19 years old

74% can read & write

Females 15–19 years old


Males 65 + years old


Females 65 + years old

9% can read & write

11/10/2013

2

Changes in Secondary School


Table 10.1

Secondary School: Changes

19th C For the wealthy,

especially

males;

broad liberal

arts (Latin,

history); no

economic

purpose

1920 Framework for

high school as

we know it; not

just for wealthy;

many

immigrants;

training for

work/citizenship;

comprehensive

(general ed,

vocation

training)

Mid-20th C Expanding school

population;

curriculum

expands to

include family

life, arts

1980s Back to Basics

movement

ALARM ALARM

Discussion

Should high school courses be offered only

on academic subjects such as math and

English, or should courses in music and

physical education also be available?

The benefits of learning the arts:

1.

2.

3.

http://www.google.ca/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=9cksahEH0nob3M&tbnid=voGDS811IWTQ2M:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.costumesupercenter.com%2Fdramateacher.html&ei=36xxUqKXLom6yAHu_YDYDA&bvm=bv.55617003,d.aWc&psig=AFQjCNG4Jl07n7UOU_cqw3f5cyvaoQb3_Q&ust=1383267911353811

11/10/2013

3

Discussion

Should physical education be optional?

Diversity of American Education • Local and state level legislation & funding – not national

• Results in diversity in curriculum, rules and requirements, and resources

• 1994 – “Goals 2000” established by federal government toward national educational policy

• 2001 – “No Child Left Behind Act” provided federal funding for national testing, teacher training standards, and evaluation – Canada also has standardized math and literacy tests (E.g.,

Ontario can’t graduate unless pass literacy test

– Canada also has “code of conducts” for teachers and required memberships

• Even still, only 5% of school funding is provided by the federal government

World Stats: School Enrollment


Figure 10.2 Child Info (2012)

http://www.google.ca/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&docid=_Y9LWpK8bfpIkM&tbnid=GHd3zKX7bvylvM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fchatt.hdsb.ca%2F~innamoratoh%2F&ei=Ia1xUqe8NMblyQGCkYGAAg&bvm=bv.55617003,d.aWc&psig=AFQjCNG96sTfs4wsfigDyDgzAYX5Ld9yug&ust=1383267962680493

11/10/2013

4

Secondary Education: Developed Countries

USA, Canada, Japan –

Comprehensive High School

European Countries:

1. College Preparatory

• Goal is general education

2. Vocational School

• Learn skills for trade

3. Professional School

• Devoted to teacher training, arts

Some European countries have apprenticeship programs

Benefits and drawbacks of

these different systems?

• Europeans decide at early

age career direction

• Comprehensive very

flexible, broad range of

courses BUT teaching

wide range of students

difficult, teens frustrated if

they want job-skills only

In Developing Countries…


• Striking differences to developed countries

– Unequal education opportunities

– Likely attend primary school but likely to get

finish secondary school (no resources);

university/college rare esp. for girls

• Common themes in developing country

secondary schools – gender differences

In Developing Countries… Latin America – public secondary

schools overcrowded and under-

funded; private schools for wealthy

China and Japan – admission to

university for highest performing

students

Muslim Countries of North Africa –

secular education system, influence

of Islam is strong

Sub-Saharan Africa – lowest rates

of literacy; enrollment varies across

countries

India – colonial origins & British

model; 50% of adolescents enrolled

Gender gap not prevalent;

economic gap is.

Japan – nearly all graduate high

school

China – less than 75% attend

Girls’ less likely to attend

secondary school or go to

college

Rates of enrollment low for girls

because they are not expected to

enter workforce

Less than 50% attend overall

Sharp differences by gender,

class, and rural-urban residence


World Stats: 8th Grade Tests Figure 10.3 NCES (2012)

*Key influence on adolescents’ academic performance is the level of

economic development; similar for reading, math, science

11/10/2013

5

Effective Schools: Size Matters • Characteristics of large schools

• Characteristics of small schools

• Leadership

• Scholars agree: optimum school size for adolescents is

between 500-1000 students

Effective Schools: Size Matters

• Some research claims direct negative relation between class size and academic performance

• Smaller class size linked with:

• Small Class Size preferable for students with academic difficulties, more individual attention



• 2004 Ontario OSSTF study; N = 784

• As grade 9 and 10 Applied and Academic class size

increased the student’s pass rate declined

• Some relation to location with increase in class size

worse for urban compared with suburban/rural location


• Other scholars claim that typical variation (between 20 and 40 students) has little affect on achievement – Decreasing class size very expensive

• Small class size preferable for students with academic difficulties, more individual attention


11/10/2013

6

Junior High, Middle School, or Neither?

Plan Explanation

6-3-3 6 years elementary; 3 years junior high; 3

years high school

5-3-4 5 years elementary; 3 years middle school; 4

years high school

8-4 8 years elementary; 4 years high school


• How should adolescents’ secondary school education

be divided?

• Does it affect the quality of their education?

Adolescents’ School Experience

• 6-3-3/5-3-4 plan difficult (pubertal growth, body shape,

acne, move to larger class, alienation)

• Found middle schools and junior high have less

individual contact between teachers and students

• Students have many teachers compared to one

• Greater emphasis on teacher control

• Mismatched early adolescence with increased desires

for autonomy undermines their motivation and self-

esteem

• Why 8-4 plan preferred?

(Eccles et al,1997; Eccles & Roeser, 2003)

School Climate

• School size and transitions can be important

BUT maybe insofar as their influence on school

experience

– Includes… the kinds (e.g., quality) of interactions

teachers and students have in the classroom,

expectations of standards, methods used in the

classroom…


Optimum School Climate • Rutters, Coleman and others: Students better off when

– Supportive teachers, involved with students, dedicated, warmth, clear communication

– Firm-but-fair discipline

– High expectations for student performance and conduct

– Moderate control

• Higher attendance

• Higher achievement scores

• Lower rates of depression & delinquency

* Even after account for IQ and SES

11/10/2013

7

Engagement & Achievement

Engagement: the quality of being psychologically

committed to learning (alert, attentive, aim to learn)

Research indicates that more and more, students

are “physically present but psychologically absent”

(Steinberg, 1996, p. 67)

• Copying, cheating, not interested


Disengagement

What

trends

do you

see?


Figure 10.4 – NCES, 2002, p. 72

• Positive school climate

• Structure of the classroom environment

• Work/leisure environment

• Parents’ high expectations for achievement; involvement in their adolescent’s education

• Authoritative parenting

• Neglectful parenting

Main problem: Beyond the Classroom Discussion

What makes social class (SES) so important

in predicting academic achievement?

11/10/2013

8

School start time: Does it matter? • Adolescents require 8.5-9.5 hours of sleep

Peers, Friends, & School • Naturally compare themselves to peers

• If classmates performing poorly, above-average adolescent feels pretty good (big fish in little pond)

• If classmates high-achievers, might feel inferior

• In relation to school, the influence of friends is greater than that of parents in some respects:

• Friends with high achievement and aspirations support and encourage each other in school

High Achieving Friends vs.

Peers Peer Group Friends

If surrounded by high-achieving

peer group, adolescents have

lower academic self-concept and

expectations

In schools with lower

achievement levels, adolescents

have better academic self-

concepts and expectations

Even low-achieving adolescents

with high-achieving friends are

likely to have higher expectations

and aspirations

Big Fish in a little pond effect

Work Hours & School Performance Beyond 10 hrs/week, the more adolescents

work, the poorer their school performance.


11/10/2013

9

Discussion

• Steinberg (1996) described that socializing with

friends was the adolescents most common daily

activity.

• This amount of time spent with friends averaged to

20 to 25 hours a week which is more than the time

spent on work or school.

• Do you think if social time was limited, it would

increase school performance why or why not?


Ethnic Differences: Achievement

• Consider the ethnic differences in academic

achievement outlined in your chapter

• Explain the concept of effort vs. ability

• What explains these differences? • Some differences are intertwined with issues of social class,

parenting practices, friends’ influences

• Systemic prejudice and discrimination

• Consider these issues in relation to the next slide

on dropout rates….


Gender Differences • Few gender differences in intellectual ability (Ch 5) but

apparent in academic achievement

• Adolescent girls enjoy school environment; are more likely to feel supported by their parents, teachers, and administrators. Boys tend to do less homework, watch more TV, and read fewer books.

• What hypotheses would you propose to explain why boys generally do worse than girls academically, from grade school through adolescence?

• Do you think gender stereotypes or roles come into play?


What about math? • Stereotype = women weaker in math

• Women perform roughly the same as men except when

the test material is advanced; then, often, do worse

• Stereotype threat

11/10/2013

10

Math: Stereotype Threat

Spencer et al. 1999

Math: Stereotype Threat

• Moderating role of

mothers’ gender

stereotypes (not fathers’)

(Tomasetto et al. 2011)

Adolescents with Disabilities

• Disabilities related to school difficulties include speech handicaps, mental retardation, emotional disorders, and learning disabilities

• About 10% of adolescents in American schools have been diagnosed with learning disability

– Reading is the most common source of difficulty

– Boys are twice as likely to have a learning disability


Spotlight: ADHD

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: – Problems of inattention, hyperactivity, impulsiveness

– Classified as learning disability

– One-half of adolescents with LD have been diagnosed with ADHD

– Boys four times as likely as girls to be diagnosed with ADHD

– Nearly 50% of those diagnosed have a sibling or parent with the disorder

– Critics argue the levels of diagnosis indicate improper diagnosis in many cases

– Diagnosis often made without full professional evaluation

– Nearly 9 out of 10 of children diagnosed are treated with Ritalin or other medication


11/10/2013

11

Spotlight: ADORE The Study

• Attention-deficit/hyperactivity Disorder Observational Research in Europe

(ADORE) study

• 1,500 children and adolescents (ages 6–18) in 10 countries

• Pediatricians and child psychiatrists collected observational data at seven points

over two years

• Parents’ assessments showed high agreement with health professionals

Findings

• Higher rates of ADHD among boys than girls; varied widely across countries

• Symptoms similar among boys and girls

• Girls more likely to have additional emotional problems and be bullied by peers

• Boys more likely to have additional conduct problems

• Frequent problems in relationships associated with ADHD among boys and girls

• Parents reported frequent stresses due to children’s ADHD behavior

• European approaches to treatment diverse


ADHD in High School

• Onset of adolescence does not diminish the

difficulties present in children with ADHD

• Poor self-concept, self-esteem, self-confidence,

depression, anxiety, interpersonal awkwardness

• Transition to high school aggravates symptoms

– Increased number of teachers; larger, busier schools

– less personalized, less individual attention and focus

– Schedule variations confusing, poor time management

• Student entitled to support and accommodations;

teacher entitled to access resources for support

Tracking: Stratified Levels

1. Upper – college preparatory level

2. General – for average students

3. Remedial/Special Education –academically behind

• Some schools have a vocational track for technical or trade preparation

• Students across tracks usually take some classes together (e.g., music, physical education)

• Best way to ensure students are engaged?

– Schoolwork best suited to achievement level and ability (not all on college track)

– Dooms students in lower track to second-rate education (labeling, low quality teacher, fall further behind with lower and lower level material)

High School Dropout

• Importance of obtaining education increased

from 50 years ago

• By 2010, only 8% of young people had not

obtained a high school diploma by age 24

What factors are related to school drop-out?

Besides limited job options, what are some

negative consequences of dropping out?

11/10/2013

12

Ethnic Differences

• Decline for all

ethnic groups

• Males more

likely to drop

out (except

Asian)

Figure 10.5 – NCES, 2007, p. 73

College Attendance


Figure 10.6

College Students Recent high school grads that enter college ~70%

Female undergraduate population 58%

Asian Americans who enter college ~90%

White students 71%

Black and Latino students 60%

• Increase over past 2 decades for all groups • More likely for ‘mature students’ to attend • Business still a top major; education and engineering

also high • Takes longer to obtain 4-yr degree

• Tuition increases, loans (not grants), students work, switching majors, internships preferred

• Finances affect retention

College Life: Four Subcultures

1. Collegiate

– Fraternities, sports events, parties

2. Vocational

– Practical: get degree for job

3. Academic

– Drawn to ideas and knowledge

4. Rebel

– Nonconformists

(Clark & Trow, 1966)

Most students are satisfied if they experience personal

growth: distinct identity, intellectual values, socially

confident, critical thinking

Documents

Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Cultural Approach ...ion.uwinnipeg.ca/~clark/teach/zzArchives/3230/cc10-School.pdf · expands to include family life, arts 1980s ... Figure 10.2