advertising, or among their friends – using evidence to · claims for which they would like to ‘Ask for Evidence’ - two or three if possible. • Get them to research whether

SENSE ABOUT SCIENCE3

The Evidence Hunter activities are designed to give young people the opportunity to explore claims they encounter – online, in the news, in advertising, or among their friends – using evidence to evaluate them.

4 EVIDENCE HUNTER ACTIVITY PACK

• Instructions on how to run the Evidence Hunter activities.

• Discussion points and questions to help participants understand

how, why and when to ask for evidence, and to encourage them

to think critically about claims they see in day-to-day life.

• Five examples of claims from five different sources (an

advertisement, a newspaper headline, a celebrity endorsement,

a scientific study and a scientific review) and a set of evidence

items that may or may not support them. These will form the

basis of the Evidence Hunting activity.

• You will need to provide: a print-out of the resource pack (claims,

sources and items cut out), tokens of two different colours (for

example Post-it notes) and a stack of newspapers or magazines.

Included in this guide

A statement that suggests something is true

The available information indicating

whether or not a claim is true

Definitions

Claim

Evidence


The Claims

1

2

3

4

5

‘Caffeine reduces premature hair loss’

‘Using social media affects your sleep’

‘Charcoal toothpaste whitens your teeth’

‘Eating dark chocolate reduces stress’

‘Being kind to others makes you happier’

Source: Alpecin Shampoo advertisement

Source: a headline in the Metro, a free newspaper

Source: Nicole Scherzinger, a celebrity

Source: ScienceDaily, a science news site

Source: University of Oxford

The company uses this claim to sell its product.

The newspaper is reporting a scientific study.

This is an endorsement based on personal experience.

This claim comes from a single piece of research.

This claim is concluded from several research results.

In the attached resource pack there are five claims from five

different sources. These will be explored during the Evidence

Hunting activities. Here’s a guide to each claim:


• Claims should be printed and stuck up to create five stations

within the activity area. Do not include the sources at this stage.

• Give participants a set of 10 tokens each – these are their

‘trust tokens’.

• After moving around the room and considering each claim,

participants must allocate their trust tokens to the claims they

think are most likely to be true. For example, out of 10 tokens

they might place 7 under the claim they believe the most and 3

under another claim they think could also be true. They may put

all tokens under one claim, or allocate them evenly across all

five of the claims.

The claim examples in this pack are taken from five sources:

Activity One

AN ADVERTISEMENT

A CELEBRITY

A NEWSPAPER

ONE PIECE OF RESEARCH

INDIVIDUAL

THE SUMMARY OF SEVERAL PIECES OF RESEARCH

1

3

5

2

4


• Now pin up the source next to each claim. Give each participant

10 more tokens of a different colour. Ask them to think about

how much they trust each source. They will then repeat the first

exercise. Now they know who made the claim, their allocations

may change.

DiscussionLook at the results - why did participants trust one claim

more than another?

For example, you might find that they are more likely to trust

claims that they can relate to or have experienced themselves.

DiscussionIs there a big difference between the results

of the two exercises?

Why do they trust one source more than another?

Did participants think about whether there might be

evidence for the claims?

What do they consider to be ‘evidence’?


• Divide into groups. Each group is given a set of printed website

excerpts. These are in the style of web browser windows.

• Having just discussed the definition and concept of evidence,

groups will read through these excerpts and identify those that

they think represent the strongest evidence.

• Each excerpt can be one of the following types:

Something that sounds ‘sciencey’ but isn’t actually evidence

One person’s experience

One scientific study

Multiple news stories about one scientific study

Multiple scientific studies compiled and analysed

TYPE ONE

TYPE TWO

TYPE THREE

TYPE FOUR

TYPE FIVE

Activity Two IN GROUPS


• The participants will then go around the room pinning their

evidence choices under the claim that they think it supports.

DiscussionWhy did the groups pick these examples as the

strongest evidence?

Can they describe the different types of evidence

they’re looking at?

What are the limitations of each type of evidence?

The accompanying evidence guide (p10-14) will help you

lead a discussion about this.

Has the evidence changed their minds about which

claims they believe?

No matter the claim or source, we must always

look for the evidence.


Evidence GuideWHAT DOES ‘GOOD EVIDENCE’ LOOK LIKE?

Use this guide to help lead the group in a discussion about types

of evidence.

Terms like ‘free radicals’ and ‘detox’ can make people say “that sounds

complicated - it must be based on science!”, but this is often not the

case and can mask a lack of real scientific evidence.

Type 1: Something that sounds ‘sciencey’ but isn’t actually evidence

Did you know?Researchers carry out experiments, collect and examine

results, and compare these with the results of other

experiments to work out how things work or how well they

work. They will write a paper to describe what they did and

submit it to an academic journal where it can be reviewed and

published, so that other researchers can do the same.


Journalists often use anecdotes or personal stories to make their

articles seem more relevant to people’s lives. They are usually

presented as case studies of individuals’ experiences, which may

not include any facts or figures.

While research may well confirm the experience, we still have to do

that research. What we observe and experience individually helps us

decide what research to do, but shouldn’t be used in its place.

It’s important to ask questions - while you might hear one person

saying “it worked!”, what about the cases where it didn’t work?

Type 2: One person’s experience

Did you know?Vested interests can distort research in different ways,

from directly biasing an experiment towards a particular

outcome, to subtly influencing which result the research

report emphasises. So it’s important to find out who funded

what you’re looking at and ask whether it might have

had an influence or not. In scientific journals, academics

should always disclose their ‘interests’. Equally, celebrity

endorsements and testimonies should be questioned if it

appears that they are trying to influence the reader to buy a

particular product and ask whether the result aligns with their

interest.


A well-designed and carefully carried-out experimental study can

provide strong evidence. However, if it stands alone as the basis

for a claim it’s important to ask questions of its quality:

• How large was the study?

• Did they include appropriate controls?

• What was the question that the researchers wanted to answer?

• Was it published in a respected, peer-reviewed journal?

• Who produced the research - was it done independently?

Type 3: One scientific study

Did you know?Peer review is the process by which the scientific community

gives feedback on the quality of new research before it can be

published. It is the academic publishing standard for knowing

whether scientific results are valid, significant and original, and

checks that the researchers’ assertions are supported by the

results of the study.

Many of the claims we see online may not have come from

research published in a peer reviewed journal, so always ask:

has this been peer reviewed? If not, why not?


Sometimes if a piece of research hits the headlines its results can be

misunderstood by reporters and the actual findings can be overlooked

or exaggerated. On top of this, when the public sees the same

single study reported in several newspapers, its reliability can be

exaggerated - the ‘if everyone is saying it, it must be true’ effect.

If reading about scientific findings in a newspaper or online news site,

it’s important to find and check the original published paper. We should

then ask the same questions we would ask of any scientific study.

Type 4: Multiple news stories about one scientific study

Did you know?The ‘illusory truth effect’ is a psychological phenomenon

whereby the more times we hear something, the more accurate

we think it is. The human brain finds it easier to process phrases

and ideas that are familiar, meaning that we trust claims more

readily if they are repeated over time or across several sources.

Read more: Dechêne et al (2009), The Truth About the Truth: A Meta-Analytic Review of the Truth Effect, Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(2):238-57.


The strongest kinds of evidence are systematic reviews and

meta-analyses. These filter and analyse results from only the

highest quality studies in order to scientifically test a claim.

Type 5: Multiple scientific studies compiled and analysed

Did you know?Systematic reviews collect and analyse all of the relevant and

available data to assess the strength of the current evidence.

They follow detailed quality control guidelines to weed out

poor quality studies. Similarly, a meta-analysis is a statistical

method which pools together data from different studies on

the same subject to get the most complete possible picture

of the existing evidence.


• Hand out magazines, newspapers, or browse websites that

give examples of the kind of places we might encounter claims

in day-to-day life.

• Get participants to search through and identify claims where they

might want to ‘Ask for Evidence’.

• Ask them to think about where they might go to find out if there is

evidence behind the claim.

Discussion

Where can we go to search for the evidence behind a claim?

Participants might regularly use Wikipedia - this can be a useful

resource, but it’s important to check that information is cited.

Google is also a useful tool, but ask questions of the results.

Remember to check the source - don’t just trust the headlines.

Find out if claims are correctly reported from a peer-reviewed paper.

Activity Three IN GROUPS


• This is an optional take-home activity for those participants

who would like to become Evidence Hunters and demonstrate

their new skills.

• Ask participants to spend the next week looking out for

claims for which they would like to ‘Ask for Evidence’

- two or three if possible.

• Get them to research whether there is evidence behind these

claims, and write down whether they think the claims are valid,

based on this evidence. They must be able to present this

reasoning to their activity leader at a following session

to demonstrate their new Evidence Hunter skills.

The Evidence Hunter challenge

INDIVIDUAL


Further Information

I don’t know what to believe

I’ve got nothing to lose by trying it

Making sense of statistics

Ask for Evidence: working out what’s reliable evidence

Ask for Evidence: help by subject

www.senseaboutscience.org/activities/i-dont-know-what-to-believe/

www.senseaboutscience.org/activities/ive-got-nothing-to-lose-by-trying-it/

www.senseaboutscience.org/activities/making-sense-of-statistics/

www.askforevidence.org/help/evidence

www.askforevidence.org/help/categories

This booklet explains how scientists present and judge research using the peer review process, and how the public can make sense of science stories.

Every day there are news reports about medical breakthroughs and wonder drugs. This guide explores how the public can ask for evidence to help weigh up claims and make decisions about healthcare.

This guide isn’t a lesson in statistics, but a source of questions you can ask and pitfalls to avoid. Knowing something about statistics can help us test and debunk claims and get closer to working out what the figures might be telling us.

This collection helps answer common questions about evidence and how to identify the most reliable information.

A range of resources, organised by subject, from Sense about Science and other organisations to help make sense of the claims you might encounter online.


ClaimA statement that suggests

something is true

EvidenceThe available information indicating whether or not a

claim is true

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Resource Pack References

www.huffingtonpost.com/dr-michael-j-breus/tweeting-not-sleeping-what-is-your-social-mediasleep-balance_b_9103468.html

www.howtobehappy.guru/kindness-makes-you-happier-and-here-is-why/

www.alpecin.com/en-de/hair-loss-scalp-problems/hair-loss/ www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-4944290/Trendy-charcoal-toothpaste-WON-T-make-teeth-white.html

www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/nice-one-being-kind-makes-you-happier-healthier-and-more-attractive-20141112-11ky2n.html

www.iol.co.za/lifestyle/style-beauty/beauty/the-secret-to-perfect-pearly-whites-is-to-make-them-black-first-7171336

www.harpersbazaar.com/uk/celebrities/news/a19614235/blake-lively-has-a-very-relatable-addiction/

www.instagram.com/p/BZjjkSbgty0/?hl=en&taken-by=maya.la.mode

www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/04/180424133628.htm

www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/apa.14210

www.nature.com/articles/ncomms15964

1

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Type 1: Something that sound ‘sciencey’ but isn’t actually evidence

Type 2: One person’s experience

Type 3: One scientific study

www.ox.ac.uk/news/2016-10-05-being-kind-others-does-make-you-happy-concludes-large-scale-review-evidence

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5380441/

15

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Type 4: Multiple news storiesabout one scientific study

Type 5: Multiple scientific studies compiled and analysed

www.mirror.co.uk/science/chocoholics-rejoice-eating-dark-chocolate-12423565

www.independent.co.uk/life-style/chocolate-reduce-stress-inflammation-cacao-research-a8328651.html

www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-1227313/How-bar-dark-chocolate-day-cut-stress-levels.html

Chocolate headlines

Sleep and social media headlines

www.metro.co.uk/2018/01/25/just-one-hour-of-social-media-a-day-can-ruin-your-sleep-7257718/

www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-5304209/Just-ONE-HOUR-social-media-ruins-sleep.html

www.standard.co.uk/news/world/using-social-media-for-just-one-hour-a-day-is-enough-to-disrupt-your-sleeping-pattern-a3749121.html

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4350893/

journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1541931213601814

www.alpecin.com/en-gb/research/studies/effectiveness-of-a-caffeine-containing-liquid-against-premature-hereditary-hair-loss-in-men/

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rest

ing

phas

e. T

he h

air r

oot t

hen

rele

ases

the

hair

and

it fa

lls o

ut w

ithou

t the

thre

at o

f hai

r lo

ss. S

ubse

quen

tly, t

he h

air r

oot s

tart

s an

othe

r gro

wth

pha

se

and

does

so

abou

t 14

times

bef

ore

dyin

g.

3

This

tren

d in

volv

es b

rush

ing

teet

h us

ing

an a

ctiv

ated

ch

arco

al –

the

prod

uct c

omes

as

in c

apsu

le fo

rm o

r as

a po

wde

r – m

ixed

with

wat

er to

cre

ate

a pa

ste

whi

ch is

then

ap

plie

d to

a b

rush

and

use

d to

scr

ub te

eth.

It’s

belie

ved

char

coal

can

abs

orb

tann

ins

– th

ese

are

the

com

poun

ds fo

und

in c

offe

e, te

a an

d w

ine

that

sta

in y

our

teet

h.

And

it’s

also

cla

imed

the

gritt

y bl

ack

stuf

f has

the

pow

er to

el

imin

ate

toxi

c ba

cter

ia w

hich

cau

se b

ad b

reat

h.

Whi

le m

any

clai

m th

e pr

oduc

t has

mira

cle

whi

teni

ng

prop

ertie

s, S

ydne

y-ba

sed

cosm

etic

den

tist D

r Luk

e Cr

onin

w

arne

d ag

ains

t em

brac

ing

the

trend

bec

ause

ther

e’s li

mite

d ev

iden

ce to

sup

port

if it

’s an

y go

od fo

r you

, or y

our t

eeth

.

‘It’s

uncl

ear i

f act

ivat

ed c

harc

oal i

s sa

fe a

s th

ere

are

conc

erns

that

it m

ay b

e to

o ab

rasi

ve to

use

on

your

teet

h an

d gu

ms,’

he

said

in A

ugus

t.

The

Scie

nce

Behi

nd T

he T

rend

4

This

tren

d in

volv

es b

rush

ing

teet

h us

ing

an a

ctiv

ated

ch

arco

al –

the

prod

uct c

omes

as

in c

apsu

le fo

rm o

r as

a po

wde

r – m

ixed

with

wat

er to

cre

ate

a pa

ste

whi

ch is

then

ap

plie

d to

a b

rush

and

use

d to

scr

ub te

eth.

It’s

belie

ved

char

coal

can

abs

orb

tann

ins

– th

ese

are

the

com

poun

ds fo

und

in c

offe

e, te

a an

d w

ine

that

sta

in y

our

teet

h.

And

it’s

also

cla

imed

the

gritt

y bl

ack

stuf

f has

the

pow

er to

el

imin

ate

toxi

c ba

cter

ia w

hich

cau

se b

ad b

reat

h.

Whi

le m

any

clai

m th

e pr

oduc

t has

mira

cle

whi

teni

ng

prop

ertie

s, S

ydne

y-ba

sed

cosm

etic

den

tist D

r Luk

e Cr

onin

w

arne

d ag

ains

t em

brac

ing

the

trend

bec

ause

ther

e’s li

mite

d ev

iden

ce to

sup

port

if it

’s an

y go

od fo

r you

, or y

our t

eeth

.

‘It’s

uncl

ear i

f act

ivat

ed c

harc

oal i

s sa

fe a

s th

ere

are

conc

erns

that

it m

ay b

e to

o ab

rasi

ve to

use

on

your

teet

h an

d gu

ms,’

he

said

in A

ugus

t.

The

Scie

nce

Behi

nd T

he T

rend

4

In th

e la

st w

eek

Donn

a Fa

irall

has

left

a c

offe

e vo

uche

r on

a st

rang

er’s

car,

orde

red

a Ch

ristm

as h

ampe

r for

a n

eedy

fa

mily

and

off

ered

to b

abys

it fo

r frie

nds

with

a n

ewbo

rn b

aby.

Donn

a sa

ys s

he e

njoy

s be

ing

kind

to o

ther

peo

ple,

frie

nds

and

stra

nger

s w

hene

ver s

he c

an. “

It m

akes

me

feel

val

ued

as a

per

son,

hum

bled

, may

be a

littl

e le

ss s

elfi s

h” s

ays

the

crea

tive

arts

dire

ctor

from

Cof

fs H

arbo

ur.

Nice

one

: bei

ng k

ind

mak

es y

ou h

appi

er,

hea

lthie

r and

mor

e at

tract

ive

5

NICO

LE S

CHER

ZING

ER S

HARE

S HE

R SE

CRET

BEH

IND

HER

PERF

ECTL

Y W

HITE

SM

ILE.

The

X Fa

ctor

judg

e sa

id s

he b

rush

es h

er te

eth

with

a

pow

dere

d fo

rm o

f the

sub

stan

ce, w

hich

is s

aid

to re

mov

e to

xins

and

sta

ins

and

kill

bact

eria

.

Reve

alin

g he

r unu

sual

bea

uty

regi

me,

the

38 y

ear o

ld s

inge

r to

ld th

e M

ail:

‘I’d m

uch

rath

er b

rush

my

teet

h w

ith c

oal.

Mak

es

your

teet

h w

hite

r.’

Alth

ough

she

refe

rs to

the

whi

tene

r as

coal

the

ingr

edie

nt u

sed

in a

var

iety

of p

rodu

cts

on th

e m

arke

t is

activ

ated

cha

rcoa

l.

The

secr

et to

per

fect

pea

rly w

hite

s is

to m

ake

them

bla

ck fi

rst

6

“I ca

n’t s

tart

the

day

with

out a

hot

cho

cola

te, o

r fi n

ish

it w

ithou

t a fe

w s

quar

es o

f dar

k ch

ocol

ate,”

she

told

Mar

ie

Clai

re in

201

4. “I

t’s g

ood

for m

y m

ood!

”

Blak

e Li

vely

has

a

very

rela

tabl

e ad

dict

ion

7

Just

trie

d th

e @

activ

ated

coco

ch

arco

al p

owde

r and

I’m

OBS

ESSE

D. M

y te

eth

look

ed w

hite

r eve

n af

ter

the

fi rst

use

! Thi

s st

uff

is 1

00%

nat

ural

, org

anic

, cr

uelty

free

, and

mad

e w

ith m

edic

al g

rade

ac

tivat

ed c

harc

oal.

Wha

t’s n

ot to

love

? Cl

ick

the

link

in m

y bi

o to

get

yo

ur c

harc

oal p

owde

r an

d en

joy

free

exp

edite

d sh

ippi

ng. U

se p

rom

o co

de M

AYA

at c

heck

out

for a

n ad

ditio

nal 1

5%

off!

Vide

o of

the

proc

ess

com

ing

soon

–sta

y tu

ned!

may

a.la

.mod

e

8

“I ca

n’t s

tart

the

day

with

out a

hot

cho

cola

te, o

r fi n

ish

it w

ithou

t a fe

w s

quar

es o

f dar

k ch

ocol

ate,”

she

told

Mar

ie

Clai

re in

201

4. “I

t’s g

ood

for m

y m

ood!

”

Blak

e Li

vely

has

a

very

rela

tabl

e ad

dict

ion

7

Just

trie

d th

e @

activ

ated

coco

ch

arco

al p

owde

r and

I’m

OBS

ESSE

D. M

y te

eth

look

ed w

hite

r eve

n af

ter

the

fi rst

use

! Thi

s st

uff

is 1

00%

nat

ural

, org

anic

, cr

uelty

free

, and

mad

e w

ith m

edic

al g

rade

ac

tivat

ed c

harc

oal.

Wha

t’s n

ot to

love

? Cl

ick

the

link

in m

y bi

o to

get

yo

ur c

harc

oal p

owde

r an

d en

joy

free

exp

edite

d sh

ippi

ng. U

se p

rom

o co

de M

AYA

at c

heck

out

for a

n ad

ditio

nal 1

5%

off!

Vide

o of

the

proc

ess

com

ing

soon

–sta

y tu

ned!

may

a.la

.mod

e

8

New

rese

arch

sho

ws

ther

e m

ight

be

heal

th b

enefi

ts to

ea

ting

cert

ain

type

s of

dar

k ch

ocol

ate.

Fin

ding

s sh

ow th

at

cons

umin

g da

rk c

hoco

late

that

has

a h

igh

conc

entra

tion

of

caca

o ha

s po

sitiv

e ef

fect

s on

stre

ss le

vels

, infl

am

mat

ion,

m

ood,

mem

ory

and

imm

unity

.

Whi

le it

is w

ell k

now

n th

at c

acao

is a

maj

or s

ourc

e of

fl a

vono

ids,

this

is th

e fi r

st ti

me

the

effe

ct h

as b

een

stud

ied

in

hum

an s

ubje

cts

to d

eter

min

e ho

w it

can

sup

port

cog

nitiv

e,

endo

crin

e an

d ca

rdio

vasc

ular

hea

lth.

Dark

cho

cola

te c

onsu

mpt

ion

redu

ces

stre

ss a

nd in

fl am

mat

ion

9

AIM

This

stu

dy e

xam

ined

the

asso

ciat

ion

betw

een

soci

al m

edia

and

sle

ep d

urat

ion

amon

g Ca

nadi

an s

tude

nts

aged

11–

20.

MET

HODS

Data

from

524

2 st

uden

ts w

ere

obta

ined

from

the

2015

Ont

ario

Stu

dent

Dru

g Us

e an

d H

ealth

Sur

vey,

a pr

ovin

ce‐w

ide,

sch

ool‐b

ased

sur

vey t

hat h

as b

een

cond

ucte

d ev

ery t

wo

year

s si

nce

1977

. We

mea

sure

d th

e re

spon

dent

s’ sl

eep

dura

tion

agai

nst t

he re

com

men

ded

rang

es o

f 9–1

1 h

per n

ight

at 1

1–13

year

s of

age

, 8–1

0 h

at 1

4–17

and

7–9

h p

er n

ight

for t

hose

age

d 18

year

s or

mor

e.

RESU

LTS

Over

all, 3

6.4%

of s

tude

nts

met

or e

xcee

ded

the

reco

mm

ende

d sl

eep

dura

tion

and

63.6

% s

lept

less

than

reco

mm

ende

d, w

ith 7

3.4%

of s

tude

nts

repo

rting

th

at th

ey u

sed

soci

al m

edia

for a

t lea

st o

ne h

our p

er d

ay. A

fter a

djus

ting

for

vario

us c

ovar

iate

s, th

e us

e of

soc

ial m

edia

was

ass

ocia

ted

with

gre

ater

odd

s of

sho

rt sl

eep

dura

tion

in a

dos

e–re

spon

se m

anne

r (p

for l

inea

r tre

nd <

0.00

1).

Odds

ratio

s ra

nged

from

1.8

2 fo

r soc

ial m

edia

use

of a

t lea

st o

ne h

our p

er d

ay

to 2

.98

for a

t lea

st fi

ve h

ours

per

day

.

CONC

LUSI

ON

Grea

ter u

se o

f soc

ial m

edia

was

ass

ocia

ted

with

sho

rter s

leep

dur

atio

n in

a

dose

–res

pons

e fa

shio

n am

ong

Cana

dian

stu

dent

s ag

ed 1

1–20

.

Use

of s

ocia

l med

ia is

ass

ocia

ted

with

sho

rt s

leep

dur

atio

n in

a

dose

–res

pons

e m

anne

r in

stud

ents

age

d 11

to 2

0 ye

ars

10

ABST

RACT

Gen

erou

s be

havi

our i

s kn

own

to in

crea

se h

appi

ness

, whi

ch

coul

d th

ereb

y m

otiv

ate

gene

rosi

ty. I

n th

is s

tudy

, we

use

func

tiona

l mag

netic

reso

nanc

e im

agin

g an

d a

publ

ic p

ledg

e fo

r fut

ure

gene

rosi

ty to

inve

stig

ate

the

brai

n m

echa

nism

s th

at li

nk g

ener

ous

beha

viou

r with

incr

ease

s in

hap

pine

ss.

Part

icip

ants

pro

mis

ed to

spe

nd m

oney

ove

r the

nex

t 4 w

eeks

ei

ther

on

othe

rs (e

xper

imen

tal g

roup

) or o

n th

emse

lves

(c

ontro

l gro

up).

Her

e, w

e re

port

that

, com

pare

d to

con

trols

, pa

rtic

ipan

ts in

the

expe

rimen

tal g

roup

mak

e m

ore

gene

rous

ch

oice

s in

an

inde

pend

ent d

ecis

ion-

mak

ing

task

and

sho

w

stro

nger

incr

ease

s in

sel

f-rep

orte

d ha

ppin

ess.

Gen

erou

s de

cisi

ons

enga

ge th

e te

mpo

ro-p

arie

tal j

unct

ion

(TPJ

) in

the

expe

rimen

tal m

ore

than

in th

e co

ntro

l gro

up a

nd d

iffer

entia

lly

mod

ulat

e th

e co

nnec

tivity

bet

wee

n TP

J an

d ve

ntra

l str

iatu

m.

Impo

rtan

tly, s

tria

tal a

ctiv

ity d

urin

g ge

nero

us d

ecis

ions

is

dire

ctly

rela

ted

to c

hang

es in

hap

pine

ss. T

hese

resu

lts

dem

onst

rate

that

top–

dow

n co

ntro

l of s

tria

tal a

ctiv

ity p

lays

a

fund

amen

tal r

ole

in li

nkin

g co

mm

itmen

t-ind

uced

gen

eros

ity

with

hap

pine

ss.

A ne

ural

link

bet

ween

gen

eros

ity a

nd h

appi

ness

11

BACK

GRO

UND

Coco

a po

lyph

enol

s ha

ve b

een

show

n to

redu

ce s

tress

in

high

ly s

tress

ed, a

s w

ell a

s no

rmal

hea

lthy

indi

vidu

als,

we

won

dere

d w

heth

er c

omm

erci

ally

ava

ilabl

e ch

ocol

ate

coul

d re

duce

per

ceiv

ed s

tress

in m

edic

al s

tude

nts

or n

ot, s

o w

e de

cide

d to

con

duct

this

stu

dy.

RESU

LTS

Mea

n st

ress

sco

res

com

pare

d be

twee

n th

e gr

oups

by

ANOV

A re

veal

ed s

tatis

tical

ly n

ot s

igni

fi can

t diff

eren

ces

befo

re (F

=0

.505

; P=0

.606

) and

afte

r cho

cola

te c

onsu

mpt

ion

(F=0

.188

; P=

0.82

9). P

aire

d ‘t’

test

com

pare

d st

ress

sco

res

mea

ns b

efor

e an

d af

ter c

hoco

late

sup

plem

enta

tion

with

in th

e sa

me

grou

p an

d ex

hibi

ted

stat

istic

ally

sig

nifi c

ant d

ecre

ase

in D

C (t

= 2.

341;

p

valu

e =

0.03

) and

MC

(t =

3.30

2; p

val

ue =

0.0

04) g

roup

s. M

ean

stre

ss s

core

s de

crea

sed,

on

aver

age,

by

appr

oxim

atel

y 2

and

3 po

ints

in D

C an

d M

C gr

oups

, res

pect

ivel

y, at

95%

Con

fi den

ce

Inte

rval

. The

diff

eren

ce w

as m

ore

evid

ent a

nd s

tatis

tical

ly

sign

ifi ca

nt in

fem

ale

stud

ents

as

com

pare

d to

the

mal

es.

CONC

LUSI

ON

Cons

umpt

ion

of 4

0 g

of D

ark

and

Milk

cho

cola

te d

aily

dur

ing

a pe

riod

of 2

wee

ks a

ppea

r to

be a

n ef

fect

ive

way

to re

duce

pe

rcei

ved

stre

ss in

fem

ales

.

E� e

cts

of c

hoco

late

inta

ke o

n Pe

rcei

ved

Stre

ss;

a Co

ntro

lled

Clin

ical

Stu

dy

12

ABST

RACT

Gen

erou

s be

havi

our i

s kn

own

to in

crea

se h

appi

ness

, whi

ch

coul

d th

ereb

y m

otiv

ate

gene

rosi

ty. I

n th

is s

tudy

, we

use

func

tiona

l mag

netic

reso

nanc

e im

agin

g an

d a

publ

ic p

ledg

e fo

r fut

ure

gene

rosi

ty to

inve

stig

ate

the

brai

n m

echa

nism

s th

at li

nk g

ener

ous

beha

viou

r with

incr

ease

s in

hap

pine

ss.

Part

icip

ants

pro

mis

ed to

spe

nd m

oney

ove

r the

nex

t 4 w

eeks

ei

ther

on

othe

rs (e

xper

imen

tal g

roup

) or o

n th

emse

lves

(c

ontro

l gro

up).

Her

e, w

e re

port

that

, com

pare

d to

con

trols

, pa

rtic

ipan

ts in

the

expe

rimen

tal g

roup

mak

e m

ore

gene

rous

ch

oice

s in

an

inde

pend

ent d

ecis

ion-

mak

ing

task

and

sho

w

stro

nger

incr

ease

s in

sel

f-rep

orte

d ha

ppin

ess.

Gen

erou

s de

cisi

ons

enga

ge th

e te

mpo

ro-p

arie

tal j

unct

ion

(TPJ

) in

the

expe

rimen

tal m

ore

than

in th

e co

ntro

l gro

up a

nd d

iffer

entia

lly

mod

ulat

e th

e co

nnec

tivity

bet

wee

n TP

J an

d ve

ntra

l str

iatu

m.

Impo

rtan

tly, s

tria

tal a

ctiv

ity d

urin

g ge

nero

us d

ecis

ions

is

dire

ctly

rela

ted

to c

hang

es in

hap

pine

ss. T

hese

resu

lts

dem

onst

rate

that

top–

dow

n co

ntro

l of s

tria

tal a

ctiv

ity p

lays

a

fund

amen

tal r

ole

in li

nkin

g co

mm

itmen

t-ind

uced

gen

eros

ity

with

hap

pine

ss.

A ne

ural

link

bet

ween

gen

eros

ity a

nd h

appi

ness

11

BACK

GRO

UND

Coco

a po

lyph

enol

s ha

ve b

een

show

n to

redu

ce s

tress

in

high

ly s

tress

ed, a

s w

ell a

s no

rmal

hea

lthy

indi

vidu

als,

we

won

dere

d w

heth

er c

omm

erci

ally

ava

ilabl

e ch

ocol

ate

coul

d re

duce

per

ceiv

ed s

tress

in m

edic

al s

tude

nts

or n

ot, s

o w

e de

cide

d to

con

duct

this

stu

dy.

RESU

LTS

Mea

n st

ress

sco

res

com

pare

d be

twee

n th

e gr

oups

by

ANOV

A re

veal

ed s

tatis

tical

ly n

ot s

igni

fi can

t diff

eren

ces

befo

re (F

=0

.505

; P=0

.606

) and

afte

r cho

cola

te c

onsu

mpt

ion

(F=0

.188

; P=

0.82

9). P

aire

d ‘t’

test

com

pare

d st

ress

sco

res

mea

ns b

efor

e an

d af

ter c

hoco

late

sup

plem

enta

tion

with

in th

e sa

me

grou

p an

d ex

hibi

ted

stat

istic

ally

sig

nifi c

ant d

ecre

ase

in D

C (t

= 2.

341;

p

valu

e =

0.03

) and

MC

(t =

3.30

2; p

val

ue =

0.0

04) g

roup

s. M

ean

stre

ss s

core

s de

crea

sed,

on

aver

age,

by

appr

oxim

atel

y 2

and

3 po

ints

in D

C an

d M

C gr

oups

, res

pect

ivel

y, at

95%

Con

fi den

ce

Inte

rval

. The

diff

eren

ce w

as m

ore

evid

ent a

nd s

tatis

tical

ly

sign

ifi ca

nt in

fem

ale

stud

ents

as

com

pare

d to

the

mal

es.

CONC

LUSI

ON

Cons

umpt

ion

of 4

0 g

of D

ark

and

Milk

cho

cola

te d

aily

dur

ing

a pe

riod

of 2

wee

ks a

ppea

r to

be a

n ef

fect

ive

way

to re

duce

pe

rcei

ved

stre

ss in

fem

ales

.

E� e

cts

of c

hoco

late

inta

ke o

n Pe

rcei

ved

Stre

ss;

a Co

ntro

lled

Clin

ical

Stu

dy

12

Soci

al m

edia

usa

ge is

wid

espr

ead

amon

g yo

ung

adul

ts.

A us

er s

tudy

was

con

duct

ed to

inve

stig

ate

whe

ther

usa

ge

of s

ocia

l med

ia b

efor

e be

d tim

e w

ould

resu

lt in

sle

ep

dist

urba

nce

and

dim

inis

hed

slee

p qu

ality

.

Ten

part

icip

ants

wer

e as

ked

to n

ot u

se s

ocia

l med

ia

befo

re b

ed (b

asel

ine)

for o

ne w

eek

and

use

seve

ral

popu

lar a

pplic

atio

ns fo

r thr

ee w

eeks

.

Whi

le th

e ef

fect

s w

ere

not s

tatis

tical

ly s

igni

fi can

t, so

cial

m

edia

usa

ge b

efor

e sl

eep

mig

ht s

till n

egat

ivel

y af

fect

sl

eep

qual

ity.

Inve

stig

atin

g th

e E�

ect

s of

Soc

ial M

edia

Us

age

on S

leep

Qua

lity

13

COND

UCTE

D AT

THE

CEN

TER

FOR

COSM

ETIC

RES

EARC

H O

F CA

THO

LIC

UNIV

ERSI

TY O

F TH

E SA

CRED

HEA

RT IN

RO

ME

Abou

t hal

f of a

ll men

at t

he a

ge o

f 50

suffe

r fro

m h

ered

itary

ha

ir lo

ss. D

ue to

the

gene

tic p

redi

spos

ition

, thi

s nu

mbe

r can

ev

en in

crea

se in

the

futu

re. T

here

fore

, gre

at e

fforts

are

mad

e in

ord

er to

ach

ieve

effe

ctive

pre

vent

ion

agai

nst p

rem

atur

e ha

ir lo

ss. C

affe

ine

is a

par

ticul

arly

inte

rest

ing

subs

tanc

e, s

ince

its

perfo

rman

ce-e

nhan

cing

impa

ct is

alre

ady k

now

n.

From

ex-

vivo

test

s, w

e al

read

y kno

w th

at c

affe

ine

can

achi

eve

grow

th e

ffect

s in

the

hair

root

. How

ever

, the

exa

ct m

echa

nism

is

as

yet u

nkno

wn.

The

kno

wn

effe

ct o

f caf

fein

e in

the

ener

gy

met

abol

ism

may

be

a ke

y in

the

effe

ctive

ness

aga

inst

pre

mat

ure

hair

loss

.

As a

resu

lt, it

was

the

obje

ctive

of t

his

stud

y to

confi

rm th

e cl

inic

al s

igni

fi can

ce o

f caf

fein

e in

a c

affe

ine-

cont

aini

ng liq

uid

in th

e ap

plic

atio

n fo

r her

edita

ry h

air l

oss.

E� e

ctiv

enes

s of

a c

a� e

ine-

cont

aini

ng li

quid

aga

inst

pr

emat

ure

here

dita

ry h

air l

oss

in m

en

14

CHO

COHO

LICS

REJ

OIC

E! E

ATIN

G D

ARK

CHO

COLA

TE R

EDUC

ES

STRE

SS L

EVEL

S AN

D IM

PRO

VES

YOUR

MEM

ORY

, STU

DY R

EVEA

LSJU

ST O

NE H

OUR

OF

SOCI

AL M

EDIA

A D

AY C

AN R

UIN

YOUR

SLE

EP

EATI

NG C

HOCO

LATE

CAN

RED

UCE

STRE

SS, S

TUDY

SAY

S

HOW

A B

AR O

F DA

RK C

HOCO

LATE

A D

AY

COUL

D CU

T YO

UR S

TRES

S LE

VELS

JUST

ONE

HO

UR O

F SO

CIAL

MED

IA A

DAY

IS E

NOUG

H TO

RUI

N YO

UR S

LEEP

ING

PAT

TERN

, STU

DY W

ARNS

USIN

G S

OCI

AL M

EDIA

FO

R JU

ST O

NE H

OUR

A D

AY IS

ENO

UGH

TO

DISR

UPT

YOUR

SLE

EPIN

G P

ATTE

RN, N

EW S

TUDY

SUG

GES

TS

1516

CHO

COHO

LICS

REJ

OIC

E! E

ATIN

G D

ARK

CHO

COLA

TE R

EDUC

ES

STRE

SS L

EVEL

S AN

D IM

PRO

VES

YOUR

MEM

ORY

, STU

DY R

EVEA

LSJU

ST O

NE H

OUR

OF

SOCI

AL M

EDIA

A D

AY C

AN R

UIN

YOUR

SLE

EP

EATI

NG C

HOCO

LATE

CAN

RED

UCE

STRE

SS, S

TUDY

SAY

S

HOW

A B

AR O

F DA

RK C

HOCO

LATE

A D

AY

COUL

D CU

T YO

UR S

TRES

S LE

VELS

JUST

ONE

HO

UR O

F SO

CIAL

MED

IA A

DAY

IS E

NOUG

H TO

RUI

N YO

UR S

LEEP

ING

PAT

TERN

, STU

DY W

ARNS

USIN

G S

OCI

AL M

EDIA

FO

R JU

ST O

NE H

OUR

A D

AY IS

ENO

UGH

TO

DISR

UPT

YOUR

SLE

EPIN

G P

ATTE

RN, N

EW S

TUDY

SUG

GES

TS

1516

Rese

arch

ers

conc

lude

that

bei

ng k

ind

to o

ther

s ca

uses

a

smal

l but

sig

nifi c

ant i

mpr

ovem

ent i

n su

bjec

tive

wel

l-bei

ng.

The

revi

ew fo

und

that

the

effe

ct is

low

er th

an s

ome

pop-

psyc

holo

gy a

rtic

les

have

cla

imed

, but

als

o co

nclu

ded

that

fu

ture

rese

arch

mig

ht h

elp

iden

tify

whi

ch k

ind

acts

are

mos

t ef

fect

ive

at b

oost

ing

happ

ines

s.

The

clai

m th

at ‘h

elpi

ng m

akes

you

hap

py’ h

as b

ecom

e a

stap

le o

f pop

psy

chol

ogy

and

self-

help

man

uals

. Per

form

ing

‘rand

om a

cts

of k

indn

ess’

has

bee

n to

uted

as

a su

re-fi

re w

ay

of b

oost

ing

your

moo

d —

doi

ng g

ood

mak

es y

ou fe

el g

ood,

as

wel

l as

bene

fi tin

g ot

hers

. But

do

thes

e cl

aim

s st

ack

up, o

r ar

e th

ey ‘t

oo g

ood

to b

e tr

ue’?

In o

rder

to fi

nd o

ut, a

team

from

the

univ

ersi

ties

of O

xfor

d an

d Bo

urne

mou

th c

arrie

d ou

t a s

yste

mat

ic re

view

of t

he

scie

ntifi

c lit

erat

ure.

The

y an

alys

ed o

ver 4

00 p

ublis

hed

pape

rs

that

had

inve

stig

ated

the

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

kind

ness

an

d ha

ppin

ess,

and

iden

tifi e

d 21

stu

dies

that

had

exp

licitl

y pu

t the

cla

im to

the

test

– th

at b

eing

kin

d to

oth

ers

mak

es

us h

appi

er. T

hey

then

con

duct

ed a

‘met

a-an

alys

is’, w

hich

st

atis

tical

ly c

ombi

nes

the

resu

lts o

f the

se p

revi

ous

stud

ies.

Bein

g ki

nd to

oth

ers

does

mak

e yo

u ha

ppy,

conc

lude

s la

rge-

scal

e re

view

of e

vide

nce

17

OBJ

ECTI

VE

To c

ondu

ct a

sys

tem

atic

revi

ew a

nd m

eta-

anal

ysis

to e

xam

ine

whe

ther

ther

e is

an

asso

ciat

ion

betw

een

porta

ble

scre

en-b

ased

m

edia

dev

ice

(eg,

cell p

hone

s an

d ta

blet

dev

ices

) acc

ess

or u

se in

th

e sl

eep

envi

ronm

ent a

nd s

leep

out

com

es.

DATA

EXT

RACT

ION

AND

SYNT

HESI

S

Of 4

67 s

tudi

es id

entifi

ed,

20

cros

s-se

ctio

nal s

tudi

es w

ere

asse

ssed

for m

etho

dolo

gica

l qua

lity.

Thes

e st

udie

s in

volve

d 12

5,19

8 ch

ildre

n. T

wo

revi

ewer

s in

depe

nden

tly e

xtra

cted

dat

a.

CONC

LUSI

ONS

AND

REL

EVAN

CE

To d

ate,

this

stu

dy is

the

fi rst

sys

tem

atic

revi

ew a

nd m

eta-

anal

ysis

of t

he a

ssoc

iatio

n of

acc

ess

to a

nd th

e us

e of

m

edia

dev

ices

with

sle

ep o

utco

mes

. Bed

time

acce

ss to

and

us

e of

a m

edia

dev

ice

wer

e si

gnifi

cant

ly a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith

the

follo

win

g: in

adeq

uate

sle

ep q

uant

ity, p

oor s

leep

qua

lity,

and

exce

ssiv

e da

ytim

e sl

eepi

ness

. An

inte

grat

ed a

ppro

ach

amon

g te

ache

rs, h

ealth

car

e pr

ofes

sion

als,

and

par

ents

is

requ

ired

to m

inim

ize

devi

ce a

cces

s at

bed

time,

and

futu

re

rese

arch

is n

eede

d to

eva

luat

e th

e in

fl uen

ce o

f the

dev

ices

on

sle

ep h

ygie

ne a

nd o

utco

mes

.

Asso

ciat

ion

Betw

een

Port

able

Scr

een-

Base

d M

edia

Dev

ice

Use

and

Slee

p O

utco

mes

: A S

yste

mat

ic R

evie

w an

d M

eta-

anal

ysis

18

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