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African-Americans in African-Americans in Education through Education through
HistoryHistoryJustin Barnhart, Justin Barnhart, Alysia Martin, Alysia Martin, Amy Bargiel, Amy Bargiel,
Jennifer Bennedict, Jennifer Bennedict, Shannon MurphyShannon Murphy
African American Population as of African American Population as of 2000 Census2000 Census
There are 34,658,190 African There are 34,658,190 African Americans living in the United StatesAmericans living in the United States
African Americans Comprise 12% of African Americans Comprise 12% of the total U.S. Populationthe total U.S. Population
Ohio Total Population 11,353,140 Ohio Total Population 11,353,140 Ohio African American Population Ohio African American Population
1,301,307 1,301,307 11.5% of Ohio’s Population is African 11.5% of Ohio’s Population is African
AmericanAmerican
Where The African American Where The African American Population LivesPopulation Lives
Educational Attainment 25+Educational Attainment 25+
73% African Americans High School 73% African Americans High School Diploma or HigherDiploma or Higher
80% Total U.S. Population High 80% Total U.S. Population High School Diploma or HigherSchool Diploma or Higher
14% African Americans Bachelor’s 14% African Americans Bachelor’s Degree or HigherDegree or Higher
24% Total U.S. Population Bachelor’s 24% Total U.S. Population Bachelor’s Degree or HigherDegree or Higher
Income According to 2000 CensusIncome According to 2000 Census
Median Family Income African Median Family Income African Americans $33,255Americans $33,255
Median Family Income Total U.S. Median Family Income Total U.S. Population $50,046Population $50,046
African Americans Below the Poverty African Americans Below the Poverty Level 54%Level 54%
Total U.S. Population Below the Total U.S. Population Below the Poverty Level 24%Poverty Level 24%
33rdrd Grade Reading Proficiency in Grade Reading Proficiency in Ohio 2007-2008Ohio 2007-2008
Racial Gaps Begin at an Early AgeRacial Gaps Begin at an Early Age African American Children Had The African American Children Had The
Lowest Percentage of Passage on 3Lowest Percentage of Passage on 3rdrd Grade Reading Achievement TestGrade Reading Achievement Test
African American 56.4% Passing Rate African American 56.4% Passing Rate Across OhioAcross Ohio
White Non-Hispanic 82.7% Passage White Non-Hispanic 82.7% Passage on the Same Teston the Same Test
Source: The Ohio Department of Education
You Have to See it to Believe it!You Have to See it to Believe it!
2007-2008 Ohio Achievment Results for Reading by Race
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
100.00%
3rd Grade
Asian or Pacific Islander ProficientPercentage
Black, Non-Hispanic ProficientPercentage
Hispanic Proficient Percentage
American Indian or Alaskan NativeProficient Percentage
Multiracial Proficient Percentage
White, Non-Hispanic ProficientPercentage
1010thth Grade OGT Reading Results in Grade OGT Reading Results in Ohio 2007-2008Ohio 2007-2008
African American Students Still African American Students Still Struggle More Than Any Other Race of Struggle More Than Any Other Race of StudentStudent
Only 68.9% PassedOnly 68.9% Passed Asian Students Were The Highest With Asian Students Were The Highest With
91% Passage 91% Passage White Students Achieved Second White Students Achieved Second
Highest With 88.8% PassageHighest With 88.8% Passage African Americans Lagged Far Behind African Americans Lagged Far Behind
All Other RacesAll Other Races
You Have to See it to Believe it 2!You Have to See it to Believe it 2!
Reading Proficiency
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
100.00%
10th Grade
Asian or Pacific Islander ProficientPercentage
Black, Non-Hispanic ProficientPercentage
Hispanic Proficient Percentage
American Indian or Alaskan NativeProficient Percentage
Multiracial Proficient Percentage
White, Non-Hispanic ProficientPercentage
Standardized Testing and African Standardized Testing and African American StudentsAmerican Students
African Americans are Trailing Behind African Americans are Trailing Behind All Other Races in Every Tested All Other Races in Every Tested CategoryCategory
The Most Challenging Subjects are The Most Challenging Subjects are Math and ScienceMath and Science
Both in High School and Elementary Both in High School and Elementary African Americans are Falling BehindAfrican Americans are Falling Behind
Results for the Elementary Grades Results for the Elementary Grades Ohio Achievement TestOhio Achievement Test
Ohio Achievement Results for Elemantary 2007-2008 by Race
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
100.00%
Reading Math ReadingWriting Math Reading Math S.S. Science
3rdGrade
3rdGrade
4thGrade
4thGrade
4thGrade
5thGrade
5thGrade
5thGrade
5thGrade
Asian or Pacific Islander ProficientPercentage
Black, Non-Hispanic ProficientPercentage
Hispanic Proficient Percentage
American Indian or Alaskan NativeProficient Percentage
Multiracial Proficient Percentage
White, Non-Hispanic ProficientPercentage
Ohio OGT Results 2007-2008 by Ohio OGT Results 2007-2008 by RaceRace
2007-2008 Ohio OGT Results by Race
0.00%10.00%20.00%30.00%40.00%50.00%60.00%70.00%80.00%90.00%
100.00%
Reading Writing Mathematics SocialStudies
Science
10th Grade 10th Grade 10th Grade 10th Grade 10th Grade
Asian or Pacific Islander ProficientPercentage
Black, Non-Hispanic ProficientPercentage
Hispanic Proficient Percentage
American Indian or Alaskan NativeProficient Percentage
Multiracial Proficient Percentage
White, Non-Hispanic ProficientPercentage
Minority Students are Responding Minority Students are Responding to Intervention in High Numbersto Intervention in High Numbers
When Looking At The Improvement in When Looking At The Improvement in Passing Rates Minorities are Out Passing Rates Minorities are Out Performing the Dominant CulturePerforming the Dominant Culture
African Americans are Third in African Americans are Third in Improvement at 4.75%Improvement at 4.75%
American Indians Lead the Way at American Indians Lead the Way at 5.55%5.55%
White and Asian Americans Lag White and Asian Americans Lag Behind With Less Than a 2% Growth Behind With Less Than a 2% Growth From the Previous YearFrom the Previous Year
You Have to See it to Believe it 3!You Have to See it to Believe it 3!
2006-2007 Reading Proficiency Response to Intervention
00.10.2
0.30.40.50.60.7
0.80.9
1
Reading Reading Reading
10th Grade 11th Grade Response toIntervention
Asian or Pacific Islander ProficientPercentage
Black, Non-Hispanic ProficientPercentage
Hispanic Proficient Percentage
American Indian or Alaskan NativeProficient Percentage
Multiracial Proficient Percentage
White, Non-Hispanic ProficientPercentage
Why Do You Think Minorities Are Why Do You Think Minorities Are Responding Better to Intervention?Responding Better to Intervention?
http://centralresidentscouncil.com/yahoo_site_admin/assets/images/IMG_0002.191150314_std.JPG
2006-2007 Reading Proficiency Response to Intervention
00.10.2
0.30.40.50.60.7
0.80.9
1
Reading Reading Reading
10th Grade 11th Grade Response toIntervention
Asian or Pacific Islander ProficientPercentage
Black, Non-Hispanic ProficientPercentage
Hispanic Proficient Percentage
American Indian or Alaskan NativeProficient Percentage
Multiracial Proficient Percentage
White, Non-Hispanic ProficientPercentage
Kelly Miller, the first African American to attend John Hopkins
University
““Successful strivings of Negros for enlightenment Successful strivings of Negros for enlightenment under the most adverse circumstances.”under the most adverse circumstances.”
Slaves needed to be taught, but question…Slaves needed to be taught, but question… How far would their education go?How far would their education go?
1760-struggles for rights aroused1760-struggles for rights aroused Many could not look past the horrendous acts Many could not look past the horrendous acts
done to slavesdone to slaves Many believed they were at least entitled to Many believed they were at least entitled to
freedom of body.freedom of body. Eventually Baptists and Methodists allowed Eventually Baptists and Methodists allowed
access to the Negro population both bond and access to the Negro population both bond and free.free.
Three advocates for educationThree advocates for education Masters of SlavesMasters of Slaves Sympathetic personsSympathetic persons MissionariesMissionaries
The growth and expansion led to rapid The growth and expansion led to rapid educational development in African educational development in African Americans.Americans.
Masters felt that educated slaves…Masters felt that educated slaves… proved useful and trustworthyproved useful and trustworthy were better laborers and artisanswere better laborers and artisans good at administrative abilitiesgood at administrative abilities
Able to manage the large plantations and Able to manage the large plantations and business establishmentsbusiness establishments
Added to poetry, math, science, and Added to poetry, math, science, and philosophy, especially with the free in philosophy, especially with the free in the Norththe North
Some were employed to teach the white Some were employed to teach the white childrenchildren
Certain educateos advocated to Certain educateos advocated to establish special, “colored schools”.establish special, “colored schools”.
They were not meant to separate, but They were not meant to separate, but rather a movement to meet the needs rather a movement to meet the needs of people just emerging from slavery.of people just emerging from slavery.
Educators saw the need to move Educators saw the need to move beyond just religion.beyond just religion. Courses in industries, literature, mathCourses in industries, literature, math Girls specialized in swing and FrenchGirls specialized in swing and French
Education now radically segregatedEducation now radically segregated It was the law in many places especially It was the law in many places especially
the Souththe South African Americans often lived in the African Americans often lived in the
poorest parts of the communitiespoorest parts of the communities Neighborhood schools suffered inability to raise Neighborhood schools suffered inability to raise
funds to pay teachers salaries and maintenancefunds to pay teachers salaries and maintenance African Americans unrepresented on school African Americans unrepresented on school
boardsboards Unable to push for better school fundingUnable to push for better school funding
Average pupil expenditure: $80Average pupil expenditure: $80
African Americans:$15African Americans:$15
Nationally 25% of all students were Nationally 25% of all students were African American, but they only African American, but they only received 12% of all educational received 12% of all educational revenue and only 3% of funds revenue and only 3% of funds budgets for transportation .budgets for transportation .
Schools defined as “equal”, but the African American Schools defined as “equal”, but the African American schools were far inferior to the white counterparts.schools were far inferior to the white counterparts.
Topeka, Kansas-Linda BrownTopeka, Kansas-Linda Brown NAACP-National Association for the Advancement of NAACP-National Association for the Advancement of
Colored PeopleColored People 1951-NAACP requested injunction that would forbid the 1951-NAACP requested injunction that would forbid the
segregation of Topeka’s public schoolssegregation of Topeka’s public schools
District Court for the District of KansasDistrict Court for the District of Kansas Heard case June 25-26, 1951Heard case June 25-26, 1951 NAACP argued the segregated schools sent the message NAACP argued the segregated schools sent the message
to black children that they were inferior to whites.to black children that they were inferior to whites. Board of Education defense…Board of Education defense… Plessy v. FergusonPlessy v. Ferguson
Appealed to Supreme Court on Oct. 1Appealed to Supreme Court on Oct. 1stst 1951 and heard 1951 and heard December 9, 1952December 9, 1952 1414thth Amendment Amendment Supreme Courts decision…Supreme Courts decision…
18561856-Wilberforce University, the first black -Wilberforce University, the first black school of higher learning owned and operated school of higher learning owned and operated by African Americans, founded by the African by African Americans, founded by the African American Episcopal Church. American Episcopal Church.
18691869 –Howard University’s law school becomes –Howard University’s law school becomes the country's first black law school. the country's first black law school.
18761876-Meharry Medical College, the first black -Meharry Medical College, the first black medical school.medical school.
18811881-Spelman College, the first college for black -Spelman College, the first college for black women.women.
19441944-Frederick Douglass Patterson establishes -Frederick Douglass Patterson establishes the United Negro College Fund to help support the United Negro College Fund to help support black colleges and black students. black colleges and black students.
1954-Brown vs. Board of Education1954-Brown vs. Board of Education
19571957 President Dwight D. Eisenhower sends President Dwight D. Eisenhower sends federal troops to ensure integration of the all-federal troops to ensure integration of the all-white Central High School in Little Rock, Ark. The white Central High School in Little Rock, Ark. The Little Rock Nine were the first black students to Little Rock Nine were the first black students to attend the school.attend the school.
19681968-San Francisco State University becomes -San Francisco State University becomes the first four-year college to establish a black the first four-year college to establish a black studies department. studies department.
20032003-In -In GrutterGrutter v. v. BollingerBollinger, the Supreme Court , the Supreme Court (5-4) upholds the University of Michigan Law (5-4) upholds the University of Michigan Law School's affirmative action policy, ruling that race School's affirmative action policy, ruling that race can be one of many factors considered by can be one of many factors considered by colleges when selecting their students because it colleges when selecting their students because it furthers “a compelling interest in obtaining the furthers “a compelling interest in obtaining the educational benefits that flow from a diverse educational benefits that flow from a diverse student body.” student body.”
Does affirmative action policies Does affirmative action policies still force that segregation in still force that segregation in
the minds of decision makers?the minds of decision makers?
Legal Decisions for Legal Decisions for African-Americans in African-Americans in
EducationEducation
1849: 1849: Robert vs. City of BostonRobert vs. City of Boston
1896: 1896: Plessy v. Ferguson Plessy v. Ferguson
““separate but equal”separate but equal”
1908: 1908: Private schools required to be Private schools required to be segregatedsegregated
Early CasesEarly Cases
Cumming v. Richmond (GA) Cumming v. Richmond (GA) County Board of EducationCounty Board of Education
18991899 The Supreme Court allows a state to The Supreme Court allows a state to
levy taxes on black and white levy taxes on black and white citizens alike while providing a public citizens alike while providing a public school for white children only. school for white children only.
1952-1954: 1952-1954: Brown v. Board of Brown v. Board of EducationEducation
1955-1960: 1955-1960: Federal judges hold Federal judges hold more than 200 desegregation more than 200 desegregation hearingshearings
DesegregationDesegregation
1940: 1940: Equal pay for African-Equal pay for African-American and American and white teacherswhite teachers
1964: 1964: Civil Rights Act of 1964Civil Rights Act of 1964
The Right DirectionThe Right Direction
Enforcing BrownEnforcing Brown
1968: 1968: Court orders to dismantle Court orders to dismantle segregated school systemssegregated school systems
1969: 1969: “All deliberate speed” no “All deliberate speed” no longer longer constitutionalconstitutional
1971: 1971: Court allows busing, magnet Court allows busing, magnet schools, compensatory education schools, compensatory education
1972: 1972: “Splinter districts” refused“Splinter districts” refused
Keyes v. Denver School District No. Keyes v. Denver School District No. 1 1
De jure: state mandated segregation De jure: state mandated segregation (unconstitutional)(unconstitutional)
De facto: segregation that is the De facto: segregation that is the result of private choices (not result of private choices (not unconstitutional)unconstitutional)
Still Finding the Right DirectionStill Finding the Right Direction 1982:1982: Court rejects tax exemptions for Court rejects tax exemptions for
private schools that discriminateprivate schools that discriminate
1986:1986: Once a school reaches the Green Once a school reaches the Green factors, it can return to local controlfactors, it can return to local control
1992:1992: Court rules that schools can meet Court rules that schools can meet these factors in an incremental fashionthese factors in an incremental fashion
More Recent DevelopmentsMore Recent Developments
““A report from Harvard's Civil Rights A report from Harvard's Civil Rights Project concludes that America's Project concludes that America's schools are resegregating.” schools are resegregating.” 20022002
““A study by Harvard's Civil Rights A study by Harvard's Civil Rights Project finds that schools were more Project finds that schools were more segregated in 2000 than in 1970 when segregated in 2000 than in 1970 when busing for desegregation began.” busing for desegregation began.” 2003 2003
Question:Question:
Why do you think schools are Why do you think schools are more segregated now than they more segregated now than they
were in 1970?were in 1970?
Comparing and Contrasting the Comparing and Contrasting the Education of African Education of African
Americans With the education Americans With the education of the dominant Groupof the dominant Group
Education from Slavery to Present DayEducation from Slavery to Present Day
Slavery was made a lifelong system.Slavery was made a lifelong system. There were “massive hegemonic There were “massive hegemonic
structures operating at all levels.”structures operating at all levels.” These structures included These structures included
“philosophical abstractions claiming “philosophical abstractions claiming racial and intellectual superiority of racial and intellectual superiority of whites; through legal controls, work whites; through legal controls, work scheduling, and resident patterns; down scheduling, and resident patterns; down to micro level policies of interactions to micro level policies of interactions between whites and blacks.”between whites and blacks.”
It was believed by white Southerners It was believed by white Southerners that everyone should have access to that everyone should have access to the Christian Bible.the Christian Bible.
Planters would educate the slaves Planters would educate the slaves from revised Bible passages that from revised Bible passages that supported “capture and involuntary supported “capture and involuntary servitude.”servitude.”
Enslaved children learned from their Enslaved children learned from their parents and they learned numbers, parents and they learned numbers, counting, the alphabet and spelling counting, the alphabet and spelling from white children while playing from white children while playing school.school.
““Education of white children was Education of white children was largely in the hands of private largely in the hands of private groups.” While, “education of groups.” While, “education of Negroes was almost non existent.”Negroes was almost non existent.”
The education of African Americans The education of African Americans was even forbidden in some states.was even forbidden in some states.
The segregation in education was The segregation in education was viewed as resulting in, “the Negro viewed as resulting in, “the Negro children, as a class, receiving children, as a class, receiving educational opportunities which are educational opportunities which are substantially inferior to those available substantially inferior to those available to white children otherwise similarly to white children otherwise similarly situated.”situated.”
This led to the view of “separate but This led to the view of “separate but not equal” regarding conditions of not equal” regarding conditions of education and schools of African education and schools of African Americans to the schools of white Americans to the schools of white children.children.
Today there are still messages in Today there are still messages in education that reinforce “white education that reinforce “white supremacy.”supremacy.”
““Acting white” is term used in the Acting white” is term used in the African American community. This is African American community. This is used to define African Americans who used to define African Americans who act out the “norms that are generated, act out the “norms that are generated, imposed, and maintained by the larger, imposed, and maintained by the larger, dominant community.”dominant community.”
Early on, students are taught Early on, students are taught hegemonic values of white supremacy hegemonic values of white supremacy by the way we teach.by the way we teach.
Unfortunately, stories and texts fail to Unfortunately, stories and texts fail to “publicly acknowledge a multiplicity of “publicly acknowledge a multiplicity of voices” and this “negates the idea of a voices” and this “negates the idea of a multiple ethic that includes the black multiple ethic that includes the black self.”self.”
Educational ConcernsEducational Concernsand Controversiesand Controversies
African Americans tend to be African Americans tend to be over-represented in:over-represented in:
Special Education ProgramsSpecial Education Programs Juvenile Justice system as offendersJuvenile Justice system as offenders Incarceration ratesIncarceration rates Poverty ratesPoverty rates Unemployment Unemployment Discipline referrals resulting in Discipline referrals resulting in
suspension or expulsionsuspension or expulsion
African Americans tend to be African Americans tend to be under-represented in:under-represented in:
Programs for the Gifted and other Programs for the Gifted and other advanced coursesadvanced courses
School activities other than sportsSchool activities other than sports Teaching; counselors, administratorsTeaching; counselors, administrators Graduation ratesGraduation rates Science and Technology classesScience and Technology classes Higher level MathematicsHigher level Mathematics
African American students are African American students are getting left behindgetting left behind
In 1997 Washington State gave the In 1997 Washington State gave the first Washington Assessment of first Washington Assessment of Student Learning to students.Student Learning to students. 73% of African American students did 73% of African American students did
not meet the standard in Reading.not meet the standard in Reading. 95% did not meet the standard in Math.95% did not meet the standard in Math. 69% did not meet the standard in Writing69% did not meet the standard in Writing 55% did not meet the standard in 55% did not meet the standard in
ListeningListening
Years later, African American Years later, African American students still strugglestudents still struggle
In 2004-2005 only 37.7% of 4In 2004-2005 only 37.7% of 4thth grade grade African American students met the African American students met the standard in Math; leaving more than 63% standard in Math; leaving more than 63% who did not.who did not.
23.5% of723.5% of7thth grade students met the grade students met the standard in Math, 74.7% did notstandard in Math, 74.7% did not
Only 14% of 8Only 14% of 8thth graders met the standard graders met the standard in science, 86% did not.in science, 86% did not.
53.3% of 1053.3% of 10thth graders met the standard in graders met the standard in reading. reading.
Achievement GapsAchievement Gaps
Before children even enter Before children even enter Kindergarten, there is an achievement Kindergarten, there is an achievement gap between African Americans and gap between African Americans and Caucasians. This achievement gap Caucasians. This achievement gap continues through adulthood.continues through adulthood.
Research shows that when African Research shows that when African Americans and Caucasians attend Americans and Caucasians attend schools together, African Americans schools together, African Americans typically achieve lower gradestypically achieve lower grades
A Slight DecreaseA Slight Decrease
Between 1970 and 1990 the Between 1970 and 1990 the Achievement Gap decreased by about Achievement Gap decreased by about 40% and then stopped.40% and then stopped.
Possible reasons for this sudden stop:Possible reasons for this sudden stop: Biased testingBiased testing DiscriminationDiscrimination Anxiety Anxiety Disparities in income and family structureDisparities in income and family structure Cultural differencesCultural differences
The Later Years of the The Later Years of the Achievement GapAchievement Gap
A Recent study of upper-middle class A Recent study of upper-middle class community Shaker Heights, Ohio community Shaker Heights, Ohio found that about 80% of white found that about 80% of white students and fewer than 3% of students and fewer than 3% of African American students pass with African American students pass with honors (3.0 GPA or above)honors (3.0 GPA or above)
Also known asAlso known as
EbonicsEbonics
or Black Englishor Black English
African American African American Vernacular EnglishVernacular English
Deficient TheoryDeficient Theory
This theory proposes that the minds This theory proposes that the minds of minority children are lacking a of minority children are lacking a quality that makes them unable to quality that makes them unable to speak Standard English.speak Standard English.
Standard English would be Standard English would be considered English that is commonly considered English that is commonly accepted among a society.accepted among a society.
Black EnglishBlack English
Black English was supposedly Black English was supposedly considered the attempt of African considered the attempt of African Americans to speak Standard Americans to speak Standard English.English.
It was considered an inferior dialect.It was considered an inferior dialect. However, African Americans were not However, African Americans were not
the only ones to use this dialect.the only ones to use this dialect.
Amended Resolution of the Amended Resolution of the Oakland School Board on EbonicsOakland School Board on Ebonics
The original Resolution was written in The original Resolution was written in December of 1996. The amended December of 1996. The amended version was written a month later in version was written a month later in January of 1997.January of 1997.
Amended Resolution of the Amended Resolution of the Oakland School Board on EbonicsOakland School Board on Ebonics
States that it is based on studies that States that it is based on studies that believed that African Americans possessed believed that African Americans possessed and utilized their own languageand utilized their own language
Recognized that some African American Recognized that some African American students used Ebonics as their primary students used Ebonics as their primary speech, and therefore qualified for ESL.speech, and therefore qualified for ESL.
Wanted to remedy the low stat and national Wanted to remedy the low stat and national norms by creating a program featuring norms by creating a program featuring African American Language Systems to move African American Language Systems to move them from their initial language to traditional them from their initial language to traditional EnglishEnglish
Amended Resolution of the Amended Resolution of the Oakland School Board on EbonicsOakland School Board on Ebonics
Wanted to create a program for teachers and Wanted to create a program for teachers and instructional assistants to certify them in a instructional assistants to certify them in a methodology of African Language Systems to methodology of African Language Systems to help students move onto English.help students move onto English.
Wanted to implement the best possible Wanted to implement the best possible program for combined purpose of acquisition program for combined purpose of acquisition and mastery of English skills while respecting and mastery of English skills while respecting and embracing the legitimacy and richness of and embracing the legitimacy and richness of the language patterns of Ebonics or African the language patterns of Ebonics or African Language Systems.Language Systems.
Teaching Techniques that will Teaching Techniques that will benefit African American students benefit African American students
as well as your other studentsas well as your other students Link Classroom Content with the Link Classroom Content with the
students’ past experiences.students’ past experiences. Focus on the whole child rather Focus on the whole child rather
than just cognitive growththan just cognitive growth Use and get to know your Use and get to know your
students cultural norms and students cultural norms and patterns.patterns.
Use cultural relevant teaching.Use cultural relevant teaching.
Have high expectations to help form self-Have high expectations to help form self-efficacy.efficacy.
Stretch the borders of the classroom. Stretch the borders of the classroom. (Reach out to the community)(Reach out to the community)
““Pedagogy must provide a way for students to Pedagogy must provide a way for students to maintain their cultural integrity while maintain their cultural integrity while succeeding academically.”succeeding academically.”
ReferencesReferences Gundanker, Grey (2007). Hidden education among Gundanker, Grey (2007). Hidden education among
African Americans during slavery. African Americans during slavery. Teachers College Teachers College Record, Vol.109 Issue 7, Record, Vol.109 Issue 7, 1591-612. Retrieved 1591-612. Retrieved Academic Search Premier.Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Bowling Green EBSCO. Bowling Green St. Univ. Lib., OH. 23 October 2008 <http://0-St. Univ. Lib., OH. 23 October 2008 <http://0-web.ebscohost.com. maurice.bgsu.edu/ehost>.web.ebscohost.com. maurice.bgsu.edu/ehost>.
(1997). (1997). Brown et al. v. Board of Education Topeka Brown et al. v. Board of Education Topeka et al., Vol.1 Issue 1,et al., Vol.1 Issue 1, 1-10. Retrieved 1-10. Retrieved Academic Academic Search Premier.Search Premier. EBSCO. Bowling Green St. Univ. EBSCO. Bowling Green St. Univ. Lib., OH. 23 October 2008 <http://0-Lib., OH. 23 October 2008 <http://0-web.ebscohost.com. maurice.bgsu.edu/ehost>.web.ebscohost.com. maurice.bgsu.edu/ehost>.
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http://www.watson.org/~lisa/blackhistory/early-http://www.watson.org/~lisa/blackhistory/early-civilrights/brown.htmlcivilrights/brown.html
Ohio Department of Education. Retrieved October Ohio Department of Education. Retrieved October 24, 2008, from 24, 2008, from http://www.ode.ohio.gov
The United States Census Bureau. “Fact Finder” Retrieved October 24, 2008 http://www.census.gov
Amended Resolution of the Oakland School Board on Ebonics. Retrieved October 15, 2008 fromhttp://www.linguistlist.org/topics/ebonics-res2.html
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