Proto-industrialisation In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, merchants from the towns in Europe began moving to the countryside, supplying money to peasants and artisans, persuading them to produce for an international market Merchants could not expand production within towns because here urban crafts and trade guilds were powerful. London in fact came to be known as a finishing centre as rest of the work took place in countryside. Advances offered by merchants. factories came up in 1730 in London but spread by end of 18th century. In India, it came up in bombay in 1854. Raw cotton import from India boomed in late 18 century fed to industry and product exported after being processed . In early 19 century technology improved. Cotton textile industry was leading till 1840s later iron industry led the way. Railways expand from 1840s in england and from 1860s in india James Watt improved the steam engine produced by Newcomen and patented the new engine in 1781. But used massively only after mid 19 century. In Victorian Britain there was no shortage of human labour. Seasonal demand of labourer in many factories. These 2 were one of the reasons why , they were reluctant to use machine. Cost of machine buying and repair. Low wages could be given to workers. Hand made intricate designs were in demand and considered classy in victorian britain Job seekers were more than vacancies so there was huge unemployment. Relations with people having job, gifts to them can get job more easily. The fear of unemployment made workers hostile to the introduction of new technology. When the Spinning Jennywas introduced inthe woollen industry, women who survived on hand spinning beganattacking the new machines Increase in wages in early 19 century. When prices rose sharply during the prolonged Napoleonic War, the real value of what the workers earned fell significantly. After 1840s building work increased which created a lot of jobs. Before the age of machine industries, silk and cotton goods from India dominated the international market in textiles. Coarser cottons were produced in many countries, but the finer varieties often came from India By the 1750s network controlled by Indian merchants of trade through ports via red sea , gulf ,hoogly, masulipatnam and system of advances was breaking down Europeon secured monoply rights and concessions. acquired diwani after 1756. Decline of old ports and rise of new. Before establishing power in 1760-70 in bengal and carnatic. British have difficulty because of competition from others, insecure and costly supply Trade established by establishing power, monopolising market, advances, gomasthas as collector. In many places in Carnatic and Bengal, weavers deserted villages and migrated, setting up looms in other villages where they had some family relation. Others revolted, refusing loans, closing down their workshops and taking to agricultural labour. Cotton weavers in India thus faced two problems at the same time: their export market collapsed, and the local market shrank, being glutted with Manchester imports By 1860s weavers couldnt get sufficient supply and event that at exorbitant rates due decline of cotton import from america due to american revolution. From the late eighteenth century, the British in India began exporting opium to China and took tea from China to England. Many Indians became junior players in this trade, providing finance, procuring supplies, and shipping consignments like dwarkanath tagore of bengal , In Bombay, Parsis like Dinshaw Petit and Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata , Seth Hukumchand (a Marwari ), grandfather and father of G.D.Birla. Industrialists didnt want to compete with british products so they produced products that are not imported from britain. Coarse Yarn which was even exported to china but later it declined as markets of japan and china flooded with chinese products from 1906. Later they shifted to cloth. Cotton piecegoodsproduction in India doubled between1900 and 1912.Yet, till the First World War, industrial growthwas slow. The war created a dramaticallynew situation. With British mills busy withwar production to meet the needs of thearmy, Manchester imports into Indiadeclined. Suddenly, Indian mills had a vasthome market to supply. After the war, Manchester could never recapture its old position inthe Indian market. Unable to modernise and compete with the US,Germany and Japan, the economy of Britain crumbled after thewar. Cotton production collapsed and exports of cotton cloth fromBritain fell dramatically Handicrafts production , handloom actually expandedin the twentieth century as somehandicrafts production actually expandedin the twentieth century. Some produced coarse and some finer cloth. demand of finer was from rich and consistent while demand of coarse is by poor which fluctuates during famine, drought etc. Demand of specialists like weavers of banarsi saari never lowered.Struggle for swaraj

After the WW I, all sections of society were suffering economic hardship. Educated became unemployed & foreign imports worsened the situation, peasants groaned on high taxation and poverty. It was hoped that only self govt can improve the situations.

In order to win popular support for their war effort, the Allied nationsBritain, the United States, France, Italy, and Japanpromised a new era of democracy and national self-determination to all the peoples of Ihe world. In the different peace settlements, all the war-time promises were forgotten and betrayed. The ex-colonies of the defeated powers, Germany and Turkey, in Africa, West Asia, and East Asia were divided among the victorious powers.Russian Revolution also gave lot of encouragement to Indians. On nov 7, 1917 bolshevik party led by V.I.Lenin overthrew czarist regime in russia,declared the formation of 1st socialist state, the soviet union. They(people of Russia)also defended the consequent military intervention against the revolution by Britain, France the United States, and Japan.Nationalism surged forward not only in India but also in Turkey, the Arab Countries of Northern Africa and West Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, Burma, Malaya, Indonesia, Indo-China, the Philippines, China and Korea. Govt playedpolicy of the 'carrot and the stick, i.e of concessions and repression.The Montagu Oblemsford ReformsIn 1918, Edwin Montagu, the Secretary of State, and Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy enacted govt of India act 1919. Acc to it the Provincial Legislative Councils were enlarged and the majority of their members were to be elected. The provincial governments were given more powers like education, public health and local govt. Centre reserved the subjects like finance, law and order. But Governor can overrule its decisions and its has no control over executive .At the centre, there were to be two houses of legislature, the Legislative Assembly, was to have 41 nominated members in a total strength of 144. The upper house, the Council of State, was to have 26 nominated and 34 elected members. Right to vote severly restricted.Nationalists were diappointed. Congress met in a session in bombay in august 1918 under Hasan Imam condeming these reforms but some leaders like Surendranath Banerjee were in its favor ,left congress and formed Indian Libertation Federation and called liberals.ROWLATT Act passed in march 1919, even when every indian memeber of council was against. Jinnah,Madan Mohan Malaviya and Mazhar-ul-Huq resigned their membership of the Council. Suspended Haebus Corpus.Govt arrested several leaders.ARRIVAL OF MAHATMA GANDHI Born on oct 2,1886. After getting law education from Britain went to South Africa law practice. Indian merchants in South Africa were not given right to vote, can live prescribed locations which were unhygienic. Can't go out after 9 pm. He became leader of their struggle in 1893-94. Returrned to India in 1915 , established sabarmati asharam in ahemdabad in 1916 and started champaran movement in 1917 in Bihar plight of peasants to grow opium and sell it on fixed price. This system also prevailed in Bengal in 1859-61. Ahemdababd mill worker's strike in 1918, after 4 day fast mill owners agreed to increase wages of workers by 35% .He also supported peasants of khaira in gujarat in matter of land revenue even failure of crop. Satyagrah against Rowlatt act in Feb 1919 Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre in April 13,1919.Govt was suppressing the agitaions by doing lathi charge in Ahemdabad, Calicut,Delhi etc. Gandhi ji called for mighty hartal in april 6. Martial Law proclaimed after massacre.Khilafat and Non Cooperation 1919-22 .Muslim were cocious about Ottoman (or Turkish) Empire by Britain and its allies who had partitioned it and taken away Thrace from Turkey proper. The British earlier declared that they have no bad intention against Turkey.The Muslims also felt that the position of the Sultan of Turkey, who was also regarded by many as the Caliph should not be undermined. A Khilafat' Committee was soon formed under the leadership of the Ali brothers, Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, and Hasrat Mohani, and a country wide agitation was organised. All India khilafat Conference in 1919 at delhi withdrew cooperation from govt. Muslim league was supporting congress in agitations. In june 1920, all party conference approved boycott programme. Khilafat Committee launched non- cooperation movement on august 31, 1920. Bal Gangadhar Tilak popularly known as Lokmanya Tilak died on aug 1,1920 and place taken by gandhi, Moti lal Nehru, C.R.Das. In Nagpur sessionProvincial Congress Committees were reorganised on the basis of linguistic areas. The Congress was now to be led by a Working Committee(CWC) of 15 members, including the president and the secretaries.Mohammed Ali Jinnah, G.S. Khaparde, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Annie Besant were some of leaders who believed in method of agitation within law and so left congress.In May 1921, the AH-India Khilafat Committee passed a resolution declaring that no Muslim should serve in the British Indian army. Later Ali brothers arrested in sept.All India Congress Committee issued a similar declaration that no Indian should serve a government. Congress was thinking to start disobedince movement by not paying taxes.Govt following policy of repression. By 1921 all leaders except were in jail. Prince of Wales, heir to the British throne, during his tour of India was asked to encourage loyalty among indians.In Punjab, Sikhs leading a movement( Akali movement) to remove corrupt mahanis from the Gurudwaras . Muslims started anti-zamindar movement. Gandhiji said he would start civil disobedience movement on Feb 1,1922 if prisoners not released and press not freed. But violent reaction of peasant pocession on attack of police at Chauua chauri made him suspend the national campaign. CWC at Bardoli passed the resolution. Gandhi arrested on mar,1922. Deposition of Sultan of Turkey by Mustafa kamal pasha in Nov ,1922 C.R.Das and moti lal nehru entered legislative councils while patel, Dr.Ansari and Rajendra Prasad opposed it.In December 1922, they formed the Congress- Khilafat Swaraj Party with Das as president and Motlilal Nehru as one of the secretaries.outvoted the Government in the Central Assembly and in several of the Provincial Councils. In March 1925, they succeeded in electing Vithalbhai J. Patel as(Speaker) of the Central Assembly, But failed to change the policies of the Govt of India and walk out of the Central Assembly in March 1926.Muslim League and the Hindu Mahasabha, founded in Dec 1917 started spreading communal feelings.

THE SECOND NON -COOPERATION MOVEMENTIn nov 1927 govt appointed a statutory Indian commisssion(Simon commission). Congress in its madras session decided to boycott it asnd get support of muslim leaguea nd Hindu mahasabha. League agreed to have joint electorates with reservation. All Party conference convened at poona ,its committee submited Nehru report(federation,provincial autonomy, joint electorates with reservation and legislative control over executive ) on drawing of constitution on aug 1928 but didn't pass by conference due communal leaders. Jinnah put 14 point demand. Communal feelings. commission was welcomed with black flags on feb 3.PURNA SWARAJIn calcutta session in dec,1928 gandhi came back to active politics. Jawahrlal Nehru was made president of congress in Lahore session and declared purna swaraj in 1929, his father was president in 1928 . 26 jan 1930 was fixed as independance day.

The Second Civil Disobedience MovementThe Second Civil Disobedience Movement was started by Gandhi on 12 March 1930 with his famous Dandi March. Together with 78 chosen followers from sabarmati ashram to dandi and broke salt law. Passive resistance offered by people.Under the leadership of Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan known as the Frontier Gandhi, the Pathans organised the society of Khudai Khidmatgars , known as Red Shirts and pledged to non-violence and freedom struggle. In peshawar garhwali soldiers refused to fire on demonstration. Manipuri and Nagaland( 13 yr old girl RaniGaidinliu arrested on 1932 and freed after independance 1947) people supported. In 1930, govt summoned discussion of simon report in 1st round table conference in London but congress boycotted it. Lord Irwin negotiated with Gandhi in mar 1931 that govt will commute punishment of bhagat singh to life imprisonment, release leaders and gandhi will suspend movement but govt didn't played its part. Gandhi ji in Karachi session prevailed suspension andresolution on Fundamental Rights and the National Economic Programme.Hewent to England in Sept 1931 for Second Rojind Table Conference but govt didn't accepted demands. Firings and arrests occured in India .He was arrested afterwards in India. Congress suspended movement in may 1933. Gandhi left active politics. GOVT OF INDIA ACT 1935 (bicameral federal legilature ,representatives of the States appointed by rulers. Only 14 % hve right to vote) passed in 3rd round table conference . Congress contested elections & win in 7/11 provincesin 1937.In 1929 during depression all countries suffered a lot except Russia which follow socialism. 1stall-India peasant organisation, the All-India Kisan Sabha was formed in 1936. More unions came up.Jawahar Lal Nehru and Bose toured india to spread socialism.Jawaharlal Nehru as president for 1936 and 1937 and of Subhash Chandra Bose for 1938 and 1939Youth federations became active. Some turned to communalism and make party in 1925. M.N.Roy was its 1st elected Indain leader. Strikes of peasants, workers in 1928.All India Conference the Hindustan Republican Association was founded in October 1924 to organise an armed revolution.Govt started arresting them.Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt threw a bomb(not harmful) in the Central Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929. They wanted to protest against the passage of the Public Safety Bill(reduction in civil rights) and fasted in prison against the conditions in prisons. Similar activities in Bengal under Surya Sen , arrested in feb 1933.

Congress and World AffairsIn February 1927, Jawaharlal Nehru on behalf of the National Congress attended the Congress of oppressed nationalities at Brussels organised by political exiles and revolutionaries from the countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.Nehru was elected to the Executive Council.In 1937, when Japan launched an attack on China, the National Congress passed a resolution calling upon the Indian people "to refrain from the use of Japanese goods andin 1938, it sent a medical mission, to work with the Chinese armed forces.

People of states struggled due to their miserable condtion but princes supported british.In 1938, when the Congress defined its goal of independence it included the independence of the princely states.Jawaharlal Nehru became the President of the All India States Peoples Conference in 1939. Elections for the legislative assemblies led to growth of communalism. The communal groupsHindu as well as Muslima did not hesitate to join hands against the Congress.In 1940 the Muslim League passed a resolution demanding partition of the country.The World War II broke out in Sept 1939.In Oct 1940, Gandhi gave the call for a limited satyagraha. Govt appointed a mission in 1942 by stanford cripps to convince indians. Japenese reached burma and dangering india. The Cripps Mission failed. Congress launched quit India movement in aug 1942. Leaders were arrested. There were strikes everywhere destroying symbols of british authority. Govt repressed them. Famine in Bengal in 1943. Bose went to soviet in 1941 then to japan in 1943 for help. Indian and japanese soldiers marched but defeated.

After war, govt tried to sentence army generals in red fort but masses came to demand their release. Now Soviet and USA are super powers and they support india. Change of govt of Britain, Labour party replaced conservatives and govt can't rely on indian forces. Widespread strikes everywhere even airforce and naval strikes in 1946. The Biitish Government sent in March 1946 a Cabinet Mission to India to negotiate with the Indian leaders the terms for the transfer of power to Indians.Both the National Congress and the Muslim League accepted this plan. But the two could not agree on the plan for an interim government which would convene a constituent assembly to frame a constitution for the free, federal IndiaIn September 1946, at. Interim Cabinet, headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, was formed by tbe Congress. The Muslim League joined the Cabinet in October but boycotted constituent assembly.On 20 February 1947, Clement Attlee, British Premier, declared that the British would quit India by June 1948. Large scalecommunal riots during and after August 1946.Finally, Lord Louis Mountbatten, who had come to India as Viceroy in March 1947. Congressdid not agree to hand over one-third of the country to the Muslim League as the latter wanted and as the proportion of the Muslims in Indian population would have indicated. They agreed to the separation of only those areas where the influence of the Muslim League was predominant.The announcement that India and Pakistan would be free was made on 3 June 1947. The princely states were given the choice of joining either of the new states.