Ageing and Wellbeing in an International Context

8/14/2019 Ageing and Wellbeing in an International Context

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Ageingand

Well-BeinginanInternationalContextByJonathanClifton

PoliticsofAgeingWorkingPaperno.3

October2009

ippr2009

InstituteforPublicPolicyResearchChallengingideas Changingpolicy

WWW.IPPR.ORG


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ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext2

Aboutippr ............................................................................................................................. 3

Abouttheauthor................................................................................................................... 3

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... 3

1.Introduction....................................................................................................................... 4

2.Relationships ..................................................................................................................... 5

3.Work ................................................................................................................................ 11

4.Learning........................................................................................................................... 18

5.Builtenvironment............................................................................................................ 25

6.Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 31

References ........................................................................................................................... 32

Contents


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TheInstituteforPublicPolicyResearch(ippr)istheUKsleadingprogressivethinktank,producingcutting-edgeresearchandinnovativepolicyideasforajust,democraticand

sustainableworld.Since1988,wehavebeenattheforefrontofprogressivedebateandpolicymakingintheUK.Throughourindependentresearchandanalysiswedefinenewagendasforchangeandprovidepracticalsolutionstochallengesacrossthefullrangeofpublicpolicyissues.

WithofficesinbothLondonandNewcastle,weensureouroutlookisasbroad-basedaspossible,whileourGlobalChangeprogrammeextendsourpartnershipsandinfluencebeyondtheUK,givingusatrulyworld-classreputationforhighqualityresearch.

ippr,30-32SouthamptonStreet,LondonWC2E7RA.Tel:+44(0)2074706100E:[email protected]

www.ippr.org.RegisteredCharityNo.800065

ThispaperwasfirstpublishedinOctober2009.ippr2009

Aboutippr

TheauthorwouldliketothankthelibrariansattheCentreforPolicyonAgeingfortheirhelpwithaccessingmaterials,andthestaffatipprwhocommentedonanearlierversionofthispaper.HewouldalsoliketothankallthosewhoparticipatedinipprsseminarAgeingandwell-beinginaninternationalcontextinSeptember2009,whichhelpedinformthispaper.

ipprwouldliketoacknowledgethegeneroussupportoffundingpartnersinthePoliticsofAgeingproject:CalousteGulbenkianFoundation,IntelHealthandtheNorthernRockFoundation.

Acknowledgements

JonathanCliftonisaresearcherintheCitizens,SocietyandEconomyprogrammeatippr.HecompletedanMAasaCommonwealthScholarattheUniversityofBritishColumbiainVancouverandholdsaBAinGeographyfromDurhamUniversity.

Abouttheauthor


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AgeingofthepopulationisnowarealityintheUnitedKingdom.Therearemorepensionersthantherearechildrenundertheageof16.Oneinfourbabiesborntodaywilllivetobeone

hundred(HMGovernment2009).TheUKisnotaloneinfacingthechallengesofanageingpopulation.WhatusedtobeanissueforEuropehasnowbecomeachallengefornearlyeverycontinentontheplanet.By2050onefifthoftheworldspopulationwillbeagedover60.ThefastestincreaseswillbeseeninAsiaandLatinAmerica,wheretheproportionofthepopulationagedover60willdoubleinlessthan20years.

Thesechangesareacauseforcelebrationtheresultofgainsinhealthcareandeconomicdevelopment.Buttheybringwiththemchallenges,too.Mostobviousaretheincreasingpressuresonhealthcareandpensions,withsomewarningofanunprecedenteddrainonpublicfinances(Nesta2009:3).

Lessobviousisthechallengeofolderpeopleswell-being.WhiletheUKpopulationislivinglonger,itisnotgettinganyhappier.UptoaquarterofolderpeopleintheUKareaffectedbylowlevelsofdepressionandmanymoreareaffectedbylonelinessandisolation(Allen2008,Lee2006).Akeychallengeforthecomingyearswillbetobuildaresponsetopopulationageingthattakesthewell-beingofolderpeopleseriously.Thiswillrequirechangestothewaywedesignourinstitutions,servicesandactionsinallwalksoflifemovingthedebatefarbeyondtheusualfocusonpensions,healthandsocialcare.

Learningfromoverseas

Theexperienceofageingisshapedbythecontextinwhichithappens.InJapan,forexample,lifesatisfactionishighestamongtheover-65s,whereasinHungaryitlowestforthisagegroup(DonovanandHalpern2002).AcrossEurope,ratesofdepressionamong

olderpeoplevaryinAmsterdamtheyarehalfwhattheyareinMunich(Copelandetal2004).AfifthofAmericansintheirseventiesarestillworkingcomparedwithjust1percentinFrance(Harper2009).

Theseinternationalvariationsdemonstratethatdeclineanddisengagementfromsocietyarenotinevitableconsequencesofolderage.Variationsinculture,policy,services,environmentandattitudesmeantheexperienceofageingisdifferentdependingonwhereyoulive.Itisopentochange.

Aboutthispaper

Thisreportopensupthepolicydebatessurroundingpopulationageingbeyondthetraditionalrealmofhealthcareandpensions.Itexploreshowthewell-beingofolderpeople

canbeincorporatedintofourotherareas:relationships,work,learningandthebuiltenvironment.Thesewereallidentifiedinthefirstphaseofipprs PoliticsofAgeingprojectasimportantdriversofwell-being(Allen2008).

Thispaperprovidesexamplesofpoliciesandprogrammesthathavebeensuccessfulinothercountries.TheaimisthatthesecasestudieswillinspirenewresponsestoageingintheUK.

ThisisthethirdworkingpaperinipprsPoliticsofAgeingseries.ItfollowsreportsbyAllen(2008),whichmappedthewell-beingofolderpeopleintheUK,andbyMcCormicketal(2009),whichexploredhowpolicyacrossthefournationsoftheUKhasrespondedtothechallengeofageing.

InthefinalreportwewillheardirectlyfromolderpeopleacrosstheUKaboutthethingsthat

driveandhindertheirwell-being,andthedirectiontheywouldliketoseepolicyandpracticetakeinthisarea.Butfirst,inthispaper,weturnourattentiontothelessonstheUKcanlearnfromoverseasandhowthewell-beingofolderpeoplecanbeincorporatedintoawiderrangeofpolicyareas.

1.Introduction


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Buildingsocialrelationscanbeimportantforwell-beingeveninthepresenceofotherbarrierstoit.Forexample,thosewithserioushealthconditionscanimprovetheirqualityoflifethroughsocialties.Janzetal(2001)showedwomenwithheartdiseasewere4.5timesmorelikelytoimprovetheirqualityoflifeiftheyincreasedtheirsatisfactionwithsocialactivities.InasimilarveinOliverJamesarguesthatqualityoflifeforthosesufferingfromdementiacanbeenhancedorerodedbysocialties(James2008).

Whiletherearemanybenefitstosocialrelationships,therisksshouldalsobetakenintoaccount.Somerelationshipscanbestressfulandabusive,whileothersmayprovidebadadviceorinformation.Qualityisthereforeasimportantasquantityandfrequencywhenitcomestobuildingrelationships.

Relationshipsandsocialexclusion

Tacklingisolationandsocialexclusionshouldbethebedrockofanyattemptstoimproveolderpeopleswell-being.Socialexclusioncanbedefinedasbeingdeniedtheresourcestorealiseoneslife-chancestheopportunitieseachindividualhastoimprovehisorherqualityoflife.Life-chancestendtobeseenasthepreserveofyoungerpeople,butitisimportanttorememberthatolderpeoplealsohavelife-chancesthatneedtobefulfilled.

Policydesignedtotacklesocialexclusionhashistoricallyfocusedonintegratingyoungpeopleandtheunemployedintothelabourmarket.Tacklingtheexclusionofolderpeoplewillrequireawiderfocusonethatincorporatesbuildingrelationshipsandsocialtiesintoeffortstotackleexclusion(Burchardtetal1999,Gordonetal2000,Scharfetal2000).Whileaccesstoworkisimportantfortheyoungerold,enablingolderpeopletorealisetheirlife-chanceswillprimarilyrequireimprovingcontactwithsociety,notthelabourmarket.

Olderpeoplearepronetothreetypesofexclusion(Scharfetal2000):

Participatory. Exclusionfrominvolvementincommunitylife,participatinginactivitiesbeyondthelabourmarketandbuildingsocialcapital.

Spatial.Exclusionfromspacesandplacessuchasareasofthecityorneighbourhood.

Institutional. Exclusionasaresultofwithdrawalofservicesandagencies,forexampleclosure/withdrawaloflocalpostoffices,cinemas,pubs,churches,newspaperdelivery,shops,milkrounds,libraries,parksandcommunityhospitals.Theresultisreducedaccesstoservices,greaterdependencyonothersandtheneedtotravelfurtherforbasicservices.

Newapproachesforpolicy

Afocusontheimportanceofrelationshipswillrequirenewapproachesforpolicy:

Placerelationshipsfirst

Publicserviceshavetendedtofocusonmeetinganindividualsimmediateneed.Theresulthasbeenalargelytop-downmodelofservicesprovidedbythecentralstate.Theassumptionisthatmeetingbasiccareneedscomesfirst,andthatstrongrelationshipsareasecondaryeffectofbeingwellprovidedforinotherareas.Infactitisoftentheotherwayaround.Relationshipsprovidepeoplewithaccesstothebasiccaretheyneed(Leadbeater2009:55).Ifpeoplehavestrongrelationshipsandconnections,accesstomanyoftheresourcesandservicestheyneedwillfollow.

Acknowledgethenewchallenge

Inthelast10yearstheGovernmenthasfacedthechallengesoforganisinghealthcareservicesandreducingpensionerpoverty.Theserequiredcentralisedresponsessuchas

pensionreform,taxcreditsandpublicservicereform(withconsiderablesuccessinmanyareas).Thechallengesofthenext10yearswillincludeanadditionalelementtheneedtopromoteparticipationandrelationships(Leadbeater2009).


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Oancea(2008:1)mapsoutthenewagenda:

Governmentshouldhelpolderpeopletomaintainandfurtherdevelop

socialnetworks,toengageinfulfillingsocialinteractionoutsideand

beyondtheworkplace,andtocontributetosocietyoutsidetheir

immediatefamilysetting.

Createanewtoolkit

Governmentresponsestothechallengeofageingpopulationshavetendedtofocusonwhatthecentralstatecanachieveandhavereliedonincreasedpublicspendingtodoit.Serviceshavebeentargetedatanindividualsneedinisolation,dealingwithonepersonandoneproblematatime(beitaspecifichealthproblem,income,housingormobility).

Buildingandstrengtheningrelationshipswillrequireadifferentapproach.Anewtoolkitforserviceprovidersisrequired.Thereisaneedforeverydayactivitieswhichpeoplecanengagewithoveralongerperiodoftime.Leadbeater(2009:56)callsforanewsocialeconomy,arguingthatthisisachallengeofsocialandeconomicdevelopmentratherthan

justofredesigningservices.Weneedtodevelopnewformsofleisure,working,socialising,learningandcontributingthatdonotexcludeolderpeople.Examplesinclude:

IrelandsFlexibusprogramme,whichprovidesdoor-to-doortransporttolinkisolatedpeople,cinemasandrestaurants

Time-bankschemeswherepeoplegetcreditsforhelpingothersinthecommunity

Newphoneandinternettechnologiestohelplinkpeopletogether

SchemessuchasTheGoodGymwherepeopleincorporatebriefvisitstoisolatedolderpeopleintotheirjoggingandcyclingroutes.

Developinganewtoolkitwillbeabigchallengeforcouncilsandhealthauthorities.Focusing

onrelationshipswillrequireadifferentinfrastructure,skillset,scale,andapproachthantheyaregenerallyusedto(Leadbeater2009).

Targetbothweakandstrongties

Policyshouldtargetbothweakandstrongsocialties.Weakties,suchascontactwithneighboursandserviceproviders,areimportantbecausetheybinddiversegroupstogethertheyactasabridgebetweendifferentgroupsinacommunity.Theycanimproveasenseofcommunity,attachmentandsafetyandmeanpeoplearemorelikelytostepinandhelpothersinsmallways.

Strongtieskeepaclosegroupoffriendsorfamilytogether.Thesearecrucialforolderpeoplessenseofwell-beingastheyaremoreeffectiveatpreventingfeelingsoflonelinessthanweakties.

Ensurerelationshipsaretwo-wayprocesses

Researchhasshownthatelderlypeoplewhocontributemorethanotherstotheirsocialnetworkswillassesstheirhealthmorepositively(SuandFerraro1997).Contributingtothesocialorderisasimportantasreceivinghelp.Infact,formanyolderpeoplereceivingsupportcancreateafeelingofdependenceandmakethemfeeluncomfortable.Forthosewhoaremoredependent,asenseofcontributingtoarelationshipisstillimportant.

Twoconclusionscanbedrawnfromthis.First,providingaservicetomeetaneedisnotenough.Itisimportanttocreateaspaceinwhicholderpeoplecanbuildandcontributetoarelationshipaswell.Givinghelptoanolderpersonisonlyonepartoftheequation.Helpgivenbytheolderpersonisimportanttoo.

Second,thewayinwhichsupportisgiventoolderpeopleisasimportantastheactualsupportbeinggiven.Thesupportshouldenableolderpeopletocontributeandparticipate,


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notcreateafeelingofdependency.Servicescandoalottomasknecessityaschoice.ForexampletheFlexibusserviceinruralIrelandisanessentialserviceforolderpeople,withoutwhichmanyofthemcouldnotliveindependently,butitmarketsitselfasaregularbusservicewhicholderpeoplecanchoosetouse(Roberts2009).Ideally,serviceswillhelpstrengthenrelationshipsinapreventativemanner,beforefailinghealthleadstoacuteorcrisis-basedintervention.

Belowwepresenttwocasestudies,fromJapanandIreland.

Casestudy:HureaiKippu,Japan

Relationshipsandwork

Japanspopulationstructureisoftentalkedaboutincrisistermsgiventhatthecountryhasoneoftheworldsmostrapidlyageingpopulations.Thefactthatitssocialcare

systemisalmostentirelypubliclyfundedmeansageingcouldputaparticularstrainonpublicfinances(OECD2005).ThisproblemismademoreacutebyJapanesereticencetowardsimmigrationsomethingothercountrieshavereliedontobothmitigatetheirageingpopulationsandtoprovideasourceofcheaplabourforcarejobs.

InresponsetothischallengeJapanintroducedahealthcarecurrency,orhureaikippu in1991.Thisiseffectivelyatimebankschemewhichisdedicatedtocaringfortheelderly.Peoplewhovolunteergaincredits,thenumberofwhichdependsonthetimegivenandthetypeoftask,withmoreoneroustasksearningmorecredits.Thecreditsarestoredinthesamewayassavingsthecurrencyissimplyinhoursinsteadofyen(Kent2001).

Theschemeoperatesinthesamewayasabank.Thismeansthatcreditscanbebankedforthefutureasaformofsocialcareinsurance,sowhenapersonneedssupportshecandrawonthecreditsshehasearned.Creditscanalsobetransferredtoothers.Manypeopleprovidehelptoanelderlypersonneartothem,andthentransferthecreditstheyearntoanelderlyrelativelivinginadifferentpartofthecountry.Inthiswaytheycanensuretheirrelativesreceivesupportwithoutactuallymovingtolivenearthem(Aldridgeetal2002).

Theschemehasbeenprovedtoprovideahighstandardofcare.Whatsmore,themajorityofelderlyactuallypreferreceivingsupportunderthehureaikippu schemethanpayingbyyen,becausetheybuildbetterrelationshipswiththeircarers.Theyalsopreferittoservicesprovidedbycharities,whichmakethemfeeldependent(Lietaer2001).

Japanhasthusrespondedtothechallengeofcaringfortheelderlybyfocusingon

everydayrelationships.Ratherthaninnovatingservicesprovidedbythestate,itinnovatedmethodsofexchangeandpayment.Thesehavestrengthenedsocialtiesandencouragedfamiliesandcommunitiestoplaymoreofarole.Evidencesuggestsithashelpedfosterawidercultureofvolunteering,too.


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Casestudy:SummerhillActiveRetirementGroup,Ireland

Relationships

StartedinaruralIrishvillagein1988byMaryNally,anurseunhappywiththelackofsocialservicesavailableforolderpeoplelocally,theSummerhillActiveRetirementGroupnowhasaninternationalreach(Intel2009).

Nallygatheredretiredpeopleintheareatogethertoformtheirowngrouptorespondtothechallengesofbeingolderandlivinginaremotesetting.TheirActiveRetirementGroup(ARG)wasgrantedsomelandandaPortakabinbytheIrishHealthService,andsetaboutorganisingtheirownactivitiesandfundraisingtoenablethemtogrowandemploystaff(Intel2009).

Therearecurrently90regularmembersofthegroup,aged55to95.ThePortakabinhasmeetingrooms,alaundry,library,internetcafeandofficesandaimstoprovideawelcomingenvironmentforall.Thegrouporganisesanumberofservicesandactivitiesincludingexerciseclasses,clothescleaning,achoir,regulardaytripsandholidays,

outreachtoresidentsofanursinghome,monthlyvisitsbyachiropodist,visitingspeakers,firstaidcourses,ITclasses,educationalclasses,concerts,dramaandart.Theyarealsopoliticallyactiveonissuesrelatingtoolderpeopleaswellastryingtobreakdownbarrierswithgroupssuchastravellers,asylumseekersandnursinghomeresidents.TheirMillenniumBusprovidesdoor-to-doortransportforthosewhoneedit,ensuringpeoplecanbebroughtintothecommunity(seewww.thirdage-ireland.com).

Withthehelpofasocialentrepreneur,theSummerhillARGhasdevelopedtwonationalorganisations,includingatelephonehotlineforolderpeoplethatissoontoexpandinternationally.Thephonelineisstaffedbyoldervolunteerstoprovidealisteningearfortheisolatedandlonely.

Aswellexperiencingbenefitsfromtheserviceslistedabove,membersofthegroupgainfromasenseofbelongingandaffiliation,sharinginformation,achancetocontribute,havingapoliticalvoice,discountsatvenuesandshopsandachancetomeetothers.

FurtherfeaturesthathavemadeSummerhillsuccessfulincludethefactsthat:

Itgreworganicallyinresponsetoalocalneed

Olderpeopleinitiatedtheprojectandhelprunit,thuscontributingtonotjustconsumingservices

Thefocusisonbuildingrelationshipsandactivities,ratherthandistributingresourcesandservices

Itusesthewidercommunitytoenableageinginplace

Itseeslaterlifeasatimeofactivityandengagement,notdisengagementfromsociety

Itisasocialenterprisecreatingadditionalresourcesbycollaboratingwiththestate,not-for-profitsandcommunities.


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Summary

Targetingrelationshipsandsocialtieswillbecentraltoimprovingolderpeopleswell-being,eveninthepresenceofotherbarrierstotheirqualityoflife.Thiswillrequirethestatetoembraceadifferentphilosophymovingawayfromcentralisedprogrammesthatdelivera

serviceinisolation,towardsenablingandharnessingeverydayrelationships.Thiscanbedonethroughinnovatingmethodsofexchangetoencouragefamiliesandcommunitiestoplaymoreofarole(asinthecaseofhureaikippu).Itcaninvolvethestateprovidinginitialresourcestohelpsocialenterprisesdevelopinresponsetolocalneeds(asinthecaseofSummerhill).Itcaninvolvethere-designofservicestoenableolderpeopletocontributeandparticipate,aswellasreceivehelp(asinthecaseoftheFlexibus).Itcanusetechnologytolinkpeopleintheirlocalcommunitiesandinwidernetworks(suchasthroughdoor-to-doorbusservicesandphonelines).Buildingandsupportingrelationshipsinthiswaywillhelpconnectolderpeopletotheresourcesandservicestheyneed.


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Ageingofthepopulationmostoftenhitstheheadlinesinrelationtoitsimpactonthepublicfinancesandpensionfunds.TheEconomistmagazinerecentlyurgedreaderstostop

thinkingforamomentaboutdeeprecessionandinsteadtocontemplatetheprospectofslowgrowthandlowproductivity,risingpublicspendingandlabourshortagesthatcouldresultfromourageingpopulation(TheEconomist2009).

Acommonresponsetothischallengeistotrytoretainolderworkersinthelabourforce(Oancea2008,OECD2006).Europeancountriesinparticulararenowmakingbigeffortstoensurepeopleworklaterinlife.IntheUK,theGovernmentannounceditisbringingforwardareviewofthedefaultretirementageto2010,andtheConservativePartyhaspromiseditwouldraisethestatepensionageto66in2016.Theproblemisseentobethatwhilelifeexpectancyisincreasing,peopleareretiringearlieronaverage,athirdofouradultlivesisnowspentinretirement.InthecountriesoftheOrganisationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD)lessthan60percentofthoseaged5064areinemployment(OECD

2009).Whilethemainargumentforpeopleworkinglaterinlifehasbeenthatitisasolutiontoaloomingpensionsgapanddecliningproductivity,changingthewayweworkandretirecanalsoimprovehealthandwell-being.Thebroadchallengeaheadistoinnovatenewapproachestothreethings:working,thetransitionfromworktoretirementandretirementitself.Theimpactoftherecessiononretirementisuncertainwithsomepeopleworkinglongertooffsettheirlossesandothersbeingencouragedtoleavethelabourforcetosavecompaniescostsandcreatejobsfortheyoungunemployed.

Workandwell-being

Whileformanyretirementisahappytimeofrelaxation,forothersitisachallengingevent

thatleadstolongperiodsspentaloneorinactive,feelingworthlessandhavingnopurpose(Allen2008:30).

Somefeaturesofretirementthatcannegativelyimpactwell-beinginclude:thelossofsocialengagement,lossofaroleinsociety,lackofidentity,financialinsecurity,inactivity,lesssenseofpurpose,andlessstimulation.Theimpactonwell-beingisespeciallybadifapersonhasnotbeenincontrolofthedecisiontoretireandhowtheygoaboutit.

Workinglaterinlife(whetherfullorparttime)canhelpmitigatemanyoftheseproblems.Takingpartinvoluntaryworkwhenretiredcanalsobeimportantprovidingsomecontinuitytonegatethelossofwork-relatedrolesandengagement(Alpassetal2000).

Thebenefitsofworkinginlaterlifeforwell-beinginclude:

Maintainingmeaningandsenseofpurpose

Engaginginproductiveactivities

Buildingandmaintainingsocialrelationships

Creatingasenseofidentityandvaluedrole

Providingfinancialsecurityandextraincome

Providingaregularactivityandroutine

Challengingsocietysnegativestereotypesofageing.

Aswithmanyvariablesitishardtoprovecausalitybetweenworkandwell-being,anditmay

bethatthosewhoarehappiestdecidetoworklonger.Causalitycanbeproved,however,byusinglongitudinalstudiesthatcontrolforothervariables,andanumberofstudieshavemadeaconvincingcasethatworkcanimprovewell-being.

3.Work


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Workinginlaterlifehasbeenshownto:

Reducetheprobabilityofreportingpoorhealth(Calvo2006)

Improvemoodindicators(ibid)

Improveabilitytoperformactivitiesofdailyliving(washing,shoppingandsoon)(ibid)

Improvecognitiveperformancescores(Schwingeletal2009)

Improvementalwell-beingandlifesatisfaction(ibid)

Reducedepressivesymptoms(ibid)

Buildcognitivereserve(theconnectionsbetweenbraincells),whichinturncandelaytheonsetofdementia(Luptonetal2009).

ThesefactorscontributetoCalvosconclusionthat,thereisacausalrelationshipbetweenworkandwell-beingformostjobsandthatlongerworkingliveswillhelpmostpeople

maintaintheiroverallwell-being(Calvo2006:4).Whileatoughmessageinthemiddleofarecessionwhenyouthunemploymentisapriorityitisclearthattheneedtoemploypeopleintheirfiftiesandsixtiesshouldbetakenseriously.

Whydopeoplenotworklonger?

PotentialreasonsforlowlevelsofemploymentamongolderpeoplearesummarisedinTable3.1.

Table3.1.Barrierstoworkinglaterinlife

Wagecostsofolderworkersmakethemunattractive

Lessincentivetotrainolderworkers(aslesstimetorealisethebenefitoftraining)Perceptionolderworkerscannotadapttochangeinworkplace

Discriminationinhiringandfiringpractices

Fewfacilitiesforphased-retirementandflexibleworking

Financialsecurity(resultofboominghousingmarketandgenerouspensionsofrecent

decades)enablesmorepeopletoretire

Peoplewanttoretire(resultofpushfactorstoescapeworkplaceandpullfactorsto

enjoyretirement)

Attitudethatthereisarighttoretire/shouldretireatcertainage

Poorhealthpreventswork

Careresponsibilitieswhichcannoteasilybecombinedwithemployment

Notmotivatedtore-train

Natureofworkmakesitunappealing(stressful,longhours,physical)

Employmentservicestohelpolderpeoplefindworkarelimited

Employmentpoliciesfocusonyoungworkers,especiallyduringrecession.

Pensionsandwelfarepolicieshaveencouragedearlierretirement(oratleastdonot

supportworkinglonger)

Default,orforcedretirementage

Fewfacilitiesforphasedretirement

Limitedprovision(ortake-up)ofopportunitiestodeferstatepensionandincreaseits

value.

Barriersrelatedto

employer

Barriersrelatedtothe

individualworker

Barriersrelatedto

governmentpolicies


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Therearethereforedisincentivesandbarriersfacingolderemployeeswhocouldworklaterinlife,aswellasanumberofincentivesandattractionstoretireearly.Governmentrhetoricexhortingpeopletoworklongerhasnotbeenmatchedwiththepoliciestoensuretherearejobsavailableforolderworkers.ThisleadstowhatSchuller(2009)termstheagetrap,wherepeoplearetoldtoworkforlongerbutjobsforolderpeopledonotappear.IntheUKonlyhalfofretiredpeoplesaytheywantedtostopworkingandathirdfeelforcedtoretireorcastaside(Lee2006).Thereisthereforeaneedtoincreaseboththesupplyofolderpeopleableandwillingtowork,andthedemandforsuchworkers.Tacklingonesideoftheequationwithouttheotherwillsimplyleadtoimbalance.

Therearesignificantdifferencesinthenumbersofolderpeoplewhocontinueworkinglaterinlifeaccordingtonationalityandthesortofworkpeopledo.InFranceforexample,only1percentofpeopleintheirseventiesareemployedwhereasintheUnitedStatesitisnearly20percent(Harper2009).Thisreflectsdifferentpoliciesrelatedtoearlyretirement,differentsortsoflabourmarket,differentlevelsofhealthaswellasculturalattitudestowardsworkandretirementallfactorsthatareopentochange.

Enablingolderpeopletowork

Thebarrierstoworkinglaterinlife,coupledwiththeattitudethatlifeafter60or65shouldbeoneofleisure,willbetoughtoovercome.Ultimately,hardeconomicstalks,anditmaynotbeuntillabourshortageshitfirmsthattheytaketheissueofretainingolderworkersseriously.Similarly,untilpensionpotsaredenteditwillbehardertoconvincepeopleofthebenefitsofworkinglonger.Earlyindicatorssuggestthatthefinancialcrisisandcollapseofthestockmarkethavealreadyledpeopletodefertheirretirementastheydrawonpensionincomewhilestillworking(FinancialTimes2009a,2009b)and60percentofolderworkerssaytheywillhavetoworklongerthanoriginallyplannedbecauseofthefinancialcrisis(AgeConcernandHelptheAged2009).

Whilethesehardeconomicfactorsmightforcepeopletoworklonger,therearearangeofactionsthatcouldenableolderpeopletodosoonmorepositivetermsratherthaninreactiontoacrisis.Olderpeoplearepreventedfromstayingonatworkforarangeoffactors,andthereforepensionreformalonewillnotbesufficienttopromoteemploymentopportunitiesofolderworkers(OECD2006:11).

Actionsareneededinanumberofareasandinclude:

Adaptingtheworkplace

Appreciatetheworkthatolderpeoplearebettersuitedtoandadjustworkschedulesaccordingly.

Providebettertrainingopportunitiesforolderpeoplesotheyarenotata

disadvantageintheworkplacetoyoungeremployeeswhoreceivemoretraining.Putmoreemphasisonvocational,lifelongtraining.

Allowflexibleworkingtoenableolderpeopletofitworkaroundothertasks,suchascaringforloved-onesandseeingtotheirownhealthcareneeds.

Makethephysicalenvironmentoftheworkplacebettersuitedtoolderpeopleforexamplebygivingthemmorecontroloverheating,lightingandusingbetterdesignedfurnitureandfittings.

Returningtoworkinlaterlife

Providebetteremploymentassistanceandhelpolderpeoplelookforjobs.

Targetretiredpeopletocomebackintotheworkforceforexamplebyprovidingsilverstart-upfundsforolderentrepreneurstostartabusiness.


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Rethinkingretirement

Removemandatoryretirementandbaseretirementmoreonabilitythananarbitraryagecut-off.

Provideopportunitiestophaseoutofworkintoretirementsoratherthanretiringfarinadvanceofthestatepensionage,peoplecancontinueworkinginareducedcapacity.

Discouragepeoplefromleavingworkearly,eitherbyraisingtheentitlementageforpensionsorprovidingafinancialincentivetoretirelater.

Educatepeopleaboutthebenefits,especiallytowell-being,ofworkinglongerandphasingoutofwork.

Providebetterpre-retirementplanningandmodelsofalternativewaystoretire.Thoseintheirfortiesandfiftiesneednewmodelstoaspireto,otherwiseattitudestowardsretirementwillnotshift.

VoluntaryworkProvidemoreopportunitiesforvoluntaryworkforretiredpeople,withproperstipends,

conditionsandrecognitionoftheworkbeingdone.

Improveinformationaboutthevolunteeringopportunitiesthatareavailable,forexampleacentralclearinghouseorone-stop-shopforopportunitiesthatareavailable.WhereVolunteerCentresalreadyexisttheyneedtobebetterpromoted.

Activelyaskpeopletovolunteer.Thevolunteeringrateisthreetimeshigherforthosewhoareaskedtoparticipatethanthosewhoarenot(ExperienceCorps2005).

Peoplearemorelikelytovolunteerinretirementiftheyvolunteeredinmid-life.Itisthereforeimportanttoencouragevolunteeringforthoseinwork(forexampleby

givingpaidleavetovolunteer),astheyarelikelytocontinuethisinretirement.Asthislistofactionssuggests,thetaskisnotjustoneforgovernment.Seizingtheopportunityformorerewardingyearsinworkandretirementwillrequiretheco-operationofgovernment,employers,tradeunionsandcivilsocietytoadoptandimplementanewagendaofage-friendlyemploymentpoliciesandpractices(OECD2006:14).Thecurrentchallengeistogenerateinnovativeprogrammesthatwillenable,ratherthanforce,peopletostayinworkandtodothisinawaythatplacesolderpeopleswell-beingattheheartoftheretirementagenda.Thefollowingcasestudiesdemonstratehowothercountrieshaverespondedtothischallenge,intherealmsofformalandvoluntarywork.

Case-study:ExperienceCorps,UnitedStatesWorkandrelationships

Workingin23cities,ExperienceCorpsisoneofthelargestsocialenterprisesforolderpeopleintheUS.Itengagespeopletypicallyovertheageof55tovolunteerastutorsandclassroomassistantsinprimaryschools.

ExperienceCorpsisbuiltonamodelofintensivevolunteering.Memberscommitto1015hoursofworkaweekforawholeschoolyear.However,thereisflexibilityintimetabling.Volunteersareprovidedwithtrainingandsupportandreceiveastipendofaround$100300amonth.Despitethehighworkload,nearlythreequarterswhostarttheprogrammecompleteit(seewww.experiencecorps.org).

Volunteersareoverwhelminglyfemale,reflectingthewiderproblemofattractingmenbothtovolunteerandtoworkinprimaryschools.Threequartersofthevolunteersare

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Casestudy:Phasedretirement,Norway

Work

Norwaystrugglestoretainworkersintheirsixtiesandexpenditureonpensionsisforecasttomorethandoubleby2050(RiskuandVidlund2008).Somepeopleleavetheworkforceearly,someareforcedtoleaveworkataparticularageandmanyleaveworksuddenly.

Norwayhasintroducedaseriesofreformstothepensionsystemthataredesignedtopromotelongerworkinglivesandphasedretirement.Thereformsareduetocomeintoeffectfrom2010,asfollows:

Occupationalpensionswillbemandatory

Theminimumretirementagewillremainat62buttherewillbesignificantfinancialincentivestoworklater.Byremainingintheworkforceforlongerapersonsstatepensionwillincrease,andviceversa.Theannualpensionwillincreasebyabout7.5percentforeachadditionalyearspentinthelabourforcewithoutdrawinga

pension.

Peoplewillbeabletodrawontheirpensionwhilestillworking,withoutthepensionbeingreduced.

Therewillbenoupperlimitonpensionage.

Pensionswilladjustwithlifeexpectancy,creatinganactuarialsystem.Thismeansiflifeexpectancyincreasesbyoneyearanindividualwillhavetoworkanadditionaleightmonthsinordertoreceivethesamepensionentitlement.Someonebornin1983,forexample,willhavetoretireatage71iftheywanttoreceivethesamelevelofpensionassomeonewhoretiresaged67today.

Pensionentitlementswillbeaccruedforunpaidcarework.Therewillbeastrongerlinkbetweenlifetimeearningsandpensionbenefits.

(RiskuandVidlund2008,HolmoyandStensnes2008)

SimilarchangeshavealsobeenintroducedinSwedenandFinland(seeforexampleRaisanen2009)andtosomeextentintheUKwhichnowallowspeopletodefertheirstatepensioninreturnforincreasingitsvalueandisopeningupoptionsforpeopletodrawontheirpensionwhileworking.

Asthesystemdoesnotcomeintoeffectuntil2010itssuccessisyettobeproven.Detailedprojectionsexpectittohaveasignificantimpactontheageatwhichpeopleretireandthestateofthegovernmentfinances,butthatthiswillcomeatthecostofan

increaseinincomeinequalityamongold-agepensioners(HolmoyandStensnes2008).Theuseofthepensionssystemisahardincentivethatgovernmentscanusetotrytoencouragepeopletoworklongerandasaresultcanbeveryeffectiveatchanginghowpeopleretire.Itcanworkincombinationwithsofteroptionsthattrytomakeworkmoreattractive,suchasimprovingtheworkplaceandthetaskspeoplearegiven.

Theaimistocreateasystemwherepeoplehavemorechoiceoverwhenandhowtheyretire,butthatencouragesthemtoworklaterinlife.Itbreaksawayfromthenotionthatretirementisasingle-stageeventatafixedage,reshapingitassomethingthatcanbephasedinovertime.


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Summary

Longerworkinglivescanhelpolderpeoplemaintaintheirwell-being.Increasingthepensionagewillnotbeenoughtoensurepeopleworklaterinlifeandonitsowncanberegressiveasitreducesthecontrolpeoplehaveovertheirlives.Thechallengeistoinnovatenew

approachestoworking,thetransitiontoretirement,andwhatretirementitselfconsistsof.TheexampleinNorwaydemonstrateshowthecentralstatecanadjustpensionsinamoreradicalwaythansimplyraisingtheretirementagebygivingpeoplemorecontrolovertheretirementprocesswithincentivestoworklaterandtheabilitytophaseoutofworkgradually.Thismeanstheycanfitworkaroundothercommitmentsandpreventsasuddencut-offfromthelabourforce.

ThecaseofExperienceCorpsintheUSdemonstrateshowanot-for-profitorganisationisreshapingretirementbyencouragingolderpeopletovolunteer.Theevidencesuggestsifpeopleareactivelyaskedtovolunteer,theirworkisproperlymanagedandflexible,andthattheyreceiveastipendandrecognitionoftheircontribution,thentheirexperiencecanbeharnessedandtheirwell-beingconsiderablyimproved.


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Thischapterexaminesthebenefitsoflearninginlaterlifeandsomeofthechallengesandbarrierstodoingso.

Whileeducationhastraditionallybeenthepreserveoftheyoung,thereisagrowingmovementtowardsamodeloflifelonglearning.Ratherthanseeingdifferentstagesoflifedominatedbyakeyactivity withyoungeryearsspentineducation,middleyearsinworkandolderyearsinretirementandleisure weneedtoadapttoamoreintegratedmodelwithelementsofeducation,workandleisurealltakingplacethroughoutthelifecourse.

Learningcanconsiderablyimproveolderpeopleswell-being.However,stereotypesofageingasaprocessofcognitivedeclinemeanolderpeopleareoverlookedinthelearningagenda.Adulteducationisskewedtowardstrainingforthelabourmarket.Asaresult,aminorityofolderpeopleintheUKtakepartinformallearning(Jamieson2007).Thoseolderpeoplethatareinvolvedinlearningtendtobemiddleclasswithpreviousexperienceoffurthereducation.Thereisthereforescopetoreduceinequalitiesinaccesstoadultlearning.

Thebenefitsoflearninginlaterlife

Theindependenttwo-yearInquiryintoLifelongLearningfoundthattheevidencethatlearningpromoteswell-beingisoverwhelming(Field2009:5).Andarecentlycompiledlistoffivekeythingsthatpeopleshoulddotopromotementalhealthincludedkeeplearning(nef2009).

Thebenefitsoflearningcanbedirect(forexampleimprovedconfidence)orindirect(forexamplegainingaskillthatimprovesemployability).Theyinclude:

Increasedsocialinteractionandthecreationofsupportnetworks

Buildingself-esteem

Buildingcompetencies

Feelingsofachievement

Beingandfeelingpreparedtomeetchallenges

Asenseofagencyandautonomy

Improvementsinemployabilityandearnings

Adaptiontonewtechnologies,socialchangeandchangesintheworkplace

Civicengagement

Improvementsincognitionandmentalagility

Anopportunitytostimulatenewinterests

Learningnewlifestylesandbehaviours,suchashealthierliving.

Directbenefitsoflearning

Theevidenceforthedirectimpactoflearningonwell-beingcomeslargelyfromsurveysandsomequalitativeresearch.OnestudycarriedoutintheUKcompileddatafromtheNationalAdultLearningSurveyandface-to-faceinterviewsandfoundthat80percentoflearnersreportedapositiveimpactoflearningonatleastoneofthefollowingareas:theirenjoymentoflife;theirself-confidence;howtheyfeltaboutthemselves;satisfactionwithotherareasoflife;andtheirabilitytocope.Fourinten(42percent)reportedanimprovementintheir

abilitytostandupandbeheardand/ortheirwillingnesstotakeresponsibilityandoveraquarter(28percent)reportedanincreasedinvolvementinsocial,communityand/orvoluntaryactivitiesasaresultoflearning(DenchandRegan2000).

4.Learning


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AnarrowerstudyofolderlearnersatBirkbeckCollegeandtheOpenUniversityfoundovertwo-thirdsreportingtheyfelthappier(Jamieson2007).Otherstudieshavefocusedonthecognitivebenefitsofadultlearninganditsabilitytoguardagainstdepression(Hatch etal2007,Schulleretal 2002)andlessentheimpactofAlzheimersdisease(Perneczky etal2009).

Indirectbenefitsoflearning

Thereisalargervolumeofevidenceofthe indirect impactthatlearninginlaterlifecanhaveonwell-being.

Adultlearninghasbeenshowntoberemarkablygoodatchangingattitudesandbehaviourwithlearnersmorelikelythannon-learnerstostopsmoking,takeupexercise,increasemembershipoforganisationsandimprovetolerancetootherraces(Feinsteinetal 2003).

Educationhasalsobeenshowntoimprovepeoplesabilitytomanagetheirlives,forexamplethroughtakingbettercareoftheirfinancesandincreasingtheiruseofpublic

services,factorsthatarelikelytoleadtoimprovedwell-being(HammondandFeinstein2006).Thiswillbeincreasinglyimportantaslabourmarketsbecomemoreflexibleandserviceprovisionmorepersonalisedmeaningthatpeopleneedtohavetheskillstomanagemorecomplexlivesandreapthebenefitsofthesechanges.

Learningandtrainingcanimproveemployabilityandhelpolderworkersadapttochangesintheworkplace.Thisinturncanimproveresilienceandhelppreventunemploymentinlaterlifesomethingcloselylinkedtomentalill-health(Jenkins etal 2003,Field2009).

Studycanbeimportantformeetingnewpeopleanddevelopingsocialnetworks.InasurveyconductedonolderlearnersinBirkbeckCollege,London,meetingnewpeoplewasnotregardedasanimportantreasonforenrollingonacoursebutafterwardswasviewedasoneofthebiggestbenefits,with89percentofwomenand67percentofmenlisting

meetingnewpeopleasapersonalbenefit(Jamieson2007).Theimprovementtosocialcapitalthatresultsfromlearningisoneofthemostcitedbenefits,asithelpsprovideplacestoexchangeinformationandfindsupport(Mehrotra2003,Jarvis2004,Schuller etal2004).

Educationcanalsobeanimportantopportunityforintergenerationalpractice.Manyschemeshavebeendevelopedthatlinkadultsandchildrenthroughlearning.Increasedcontactbetweenthegenerationshasbeenshowntoimprovewell-beingforolderpeople,especiallyinastructuredsetting(Hatton-Yeo2006).

Risksassociatedwithlearninginlaterlife

Whilethebenefitsoflearninginlaterlifeareclear,itisimportanttorememberthatthere

arerisksinvolvedaswell.Therearerisksthat:

Assessmentaddspressureandstress

Poorcurriculumorsupportforthelearnerleadstodissatisfaction

Familyandpersonallifecanbedisrupted

Earliernegativeexperiencesofeducationmaybeevoked

Somepeoplemayhavetheirexpectationsraisedandbecomeunsatisfiedandunhappywiththeircurrentsituationinlife

Enteringanunfamiliarcultureandenvironmentcanchallengeidentity.

(Field2009.Seealsowww.learninglives.org)Itisimportanttominimisetheseriskswhendesigningprogrammesforadultlearning,forexamplebydesigningcoursesthatallowlearnerstodeveloptheirowncurriculum,havelimitedorflexibleassessment,areavailableatconvenientlocationsandthatprovidesufficientsupportfromteachersandpeergroups.


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Pressureforlifelonglearning

Whilestateeducationpolicyhasremainedresolutelyfocusedontrainingyoungerpeoplewithskillsthatwillbeusefulfortheworkforce,thelast30yearshavewitnessedgrowingpressurefromotherbodiestoimprovetheprovisionoflearningopportunitiesforolder

people.ThecreationoftheUniversityoftheThirdAgeinFrancein1973wasoneoftheearliestformallinksbetweenuniversitiesandretiredstudentsandhassincegrowninternationally,includingintheUK.Thegrowthofdistancelearning,throughinstitutionssuchastheOpenUniversity,hasalsobenefitedthoseolderpeoplewiththeresourcestoparticipate.TheEuropeanUniondesignated1996theYearofLifelongLearningandinMaythisyearUNESCO(theUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganisation)hosteditssixthWorldConferenceonAdultEducation.

Whatstopspeoplefromparticipatinginlifelonglearning?

Itisessentialtounderstandwhatbarriersexisttopreventpeopletakingpartineducation.Thelackofparticipationinlater-lifelearningisoftenassumedtoreflectcognitivedeclineanddecreasedmotivationamongolderpeople.Suchanapproachignoresthelived

experiencesofpeopleslives(Findsen2005).Therearemanymaterialbarriersthatcanpreventolderpeoplefromengagingineducationalprogrammes,fromlackofinformationaboutcoursestoprohibitivecosts.Table4.1summarisessomeofthekeybarriers.

Thetwoguidingrealitiesofadulteducationarethatonlyaminorityareinvolvedinitandthatthosewhoareinvolvedtendtocomefrommiddleclassbackgroundsandhavealreadybenefitedfromtheeducationsystemearlierintheirlives.Thereisthereforeastrongpossibilitythateducationforolderpeoplecanreinforceexistingsocialdivides(Benseman1996).Thestructuralconstraintstolearningshouldbetakenseriously.

Threecasestudiesfollow.

Table4.1.Keybarrierstoadulteducationforolderpeople

Attitudethattheoldshouldnotlearn,learningisforyoungerpeople

Notpreparedtoinvestinlearning

Lowperceptionofself-worthandability

Lackofrolemodels

Previouslyhadabadexperienceofeducation

ToobusytoenrolonacourseEmployment/retirementandwelfarepoliciespreventpeoplefrom

enrollingoncourses

Weakpoliticalvoicetolobbyformoreprovision

Lackofprovision

Coursecontentisinappropriateoratwronglevel

Practicalitiesofcost,timingsandsoon

Policyandfundingprivilegeyoungpeopleandlearningforproductive

workforce

Poortransportconnections

Uncomfortablefacilities

LackofinformationaboutopportunitiesavailableAgediscriminationoncertaincourses

Demand-side

barriers

Supply-side

barriers


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CaseStudy:SeniorNet,UnitedStatesandworldwide

Learningandrelationships

Therevolutionininformationandcommunicationtechnologies(ICT)hashugepotentialtoimprovethelivesofolderpeoplearoundtheglobe,throughnewwaysofshopping,working,communicating,learningandsharinginformation(Timmerman1998).Yetolderpeopletoooftenmissoutastheresultofadigitaldivide.

Inresponsetothis,SeniorNetwasestablishedtoprovideolderadultswithaccesstocomputertechnologies.Sinceitsfoundingin1976ithasgrownenormouslyandnowteaches20,000studentsinlearningcentreseachyear,has100,000participantsusingitswebsiteeachmonthandreliesonthehelpof4,000volunteers(SeniorNet2006).FundingcomesfrommemberfeesandsponsorshipfromorganisationssuchasIBM,Microsoft,GoogleandtheUSDepartmentoftheInterior.ItisincreasinglyinternationalinscopewithlearningcentresincountriesincludingMalaysiaandSweden.

SeniorNethasestablishedlearningcentresinavarietyoflocations(suchaslibraries,

collegesandcommunitycentres).Theyprovideover30coursesdeliveredbyvolunteerinstructorsandmentors,whoarethemselvesolderpeople.Coursesrangefromsimplecomputerfundamentalsandusinginternetandemail,tomoreadvancedcoursesondigitalphotographyandbuyingandsellingoneBay.Theemphasisisoncreatingalow-pressureenvironmentandprovidingtheopportunitytopractice.

TheSeniorNetwebsitehostsonlinecoursesanddistancelearningforthosewhoareunabletoattendlearningcentresandisaplacetoshareinformationinchatroomsandfindemailpen-pals.Itprovidesinformationonarangeoftopicsincludinghealth,money,volunteeringopportunitiesandrecreation.

AnexampleofoneofitsservicesistheBooksandCultureareaofthewebsite,whichhostsaninternationalbookclubadministeredby27volunteersfromaroundtheworld.ThisprojectalsosparkedSeniorNetsPrisonLibraryProject,whichisrunbyvolunteerstocollectneworusedbookstodonatetoprisonlibraries,creatingaspill-overofbenefitsasaresultofempoweringmemberswithtechnologyandlinkingthemwithlike-mindedindividuals(SeniorNet2006).

Strengthsoftheprogramme

TheSeniorNetprogrammehasbeenwidelyrecognisedwithawardsandpositivereviewsinthemedia(seeforexampleNewYorkTimes 2007).Itskeystrengthsareasfollows:

Thefocusisonempoweringolderpeoplethroughtechnology,notapaternalisticfocusonteachingandimpartingknowledge

Thecoursesseektobringpeopletogetherintoacommunityratherthanindividuallearning

Themethodologyofseniorsteachingseniorshasprovedveryeffective,asthetutorshaveagoodunderstandingofolderlearnersneedsandfears

Learnerparticipationindesigningandrequestingcoursesensurestheclassesarerelevant,meetlearnersneedsandareinteractive

Thestrongfocusonusingvolunteersenablesskillstobeharnessedandolderpeopletomakeacontribution,andkeepscostsdown

Classesarededicatedtoolderpeoplemeaningtheycanbedevelopedwithspecificneedsinmind,forexample,creatingalesspressuredenvironmentandarelaxedpace

Amaximumof16participantsonacoursewiththreetofourinstructorsensurespersonalattention

Locally-basedcentrescantapintolocalnetworksofvolunteers,sponsors,studentsandsoonwhilegettingsupportfromnationalheadoffice.


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CaseStudy:EnglishLanguagePartners,NewZealand

Learning,workandrelationships

EnglishLanguagePartnersisNewZealandslargestsettlementagencyformigrantsandrefugees.Itisanot-for-profitorganisationthatdeliversEnglishlanguagetuitionandsettlementservices.Itreliesheavilyonvolunteers,abouthalfofwhomareover55,tobehometutors(ESOLHomeTutors2008).

Theorganisationgreworganicallywithinindividualcommunitiesthatnoticedaneedforhometutoringamongmigrantswhocouldnotattendformalclasses.Thenumberoftutorshadgrownfrom835volunteersin1982to3,500by2005,andtheorganisationnowreceivesgovernmentfunding(ESOLHomeTutors2006).

TheworkofEnglishLanguagePartnersisbuiltonaphilosophyoflifelonglearning.ThosereceivingtuitionaregenerallyadultssomeofwhomareoldermigrantswhohavecometojointheirchildreninNewZealand.Thebenefitsforthetuteesincludeacquiringlanguageskills,buildingsocialcontacts,asenseofpurposeandasenseofachievement.

A95-year-oldRussianenrolledintheprogrammeexplained:thisislikemyfamily,Ilookforwardtocominghereeveryday(Joshua2009).

Learningisalsocentraltothetutors.Thevolunteersreceive20hoursofteachertrainingandareawardedaqualificationrecognisedbytheNewZealandQualificationsAuthority.Learningcontinuesasvolunteersgointopeopleshomesandlearnaboutnewcultures,dealingwithotherpeopleandputtingtheirteachingtechniquesintopractice.

ThesuccessofEnglishLanguagePartnerscanbeputdowntoanumberoffactors:

Theuseofvolunteerstodeliverlanguageservices.Anindependentreportcalculatedthevalueofworkdonebyvolunteerswasthreeorfourtimesasmuchasitcosttoruntheorganisation(ESOLHomeTutors2006).

Theservicedoesnotstopatlanguagetuition,butbuildscommunities,socialnetworksandcapabilitiesacrossdifferentagegroupsandethnicgroups.

Aphilosophybasedonlearnerparticipationandsmallone-to-onetuitionmeansthelearnersneedsareattheheartoftheorganisation.

Thelessonsareseenasasocialandculturalexchangebetweentutorandtuteeratherthanonepersonimpartingknowledgetoanother.

Theorganisationhasinvestedheavilyinmonitoringandevaluatingitsprogrammes,recentlyrunning20pilotschemestryingtoimprovelearnerfeedbackandassessmentmechanisms.

Comprehensivetrainingforthevoluntarystaffisflexibleandbasedinconvenientlocations.Follow-upseminarsandanannualconferenceprovideconstantsupportandprofessionaldevelopment.

EnglishLanguagePartnershasthehallmarksofasuccessfulsocialenterpriseinthewaythatit:

Harnessessocialcapital

Buildsrelationshipsbetweenpeople

Buildsindividualscapabilitiestoliveindependently

Useseffectivemonitoringandimprovementmechanisms

Respondstoalocalneed Enablestheparticipationofthepeopletheyareserving

Underpinstheworkofboththetutorsandtuteesinlifelonglearning.


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Casestudy:UniversityoftheElderlyandCommunityEducation,China

Learning

LifelonglearningisnotanewconcepttotheChinese,whohavealonghistoryofeducationthroughoutthelife-course(Kai-Mingetal1999).ThisculturalandpoliticalattitudetowardsadulteducationhaspermeatedChinasresponsetoitsageingpopulation.

ChinahasintroducedasystemofUniversitiesfortheElderlyandCommunityEducationdesignedspecificallyforretiredpeople.The2006WhitePaperDevelopmentofChinasUndertakingsfortheAgedboastedthatChinahad26,000institutionsofhigherlearningforolderpeople,withatotalenrolmentof2.3millionstudents.Itwentontopromisethat10,000moreseniorcitizensuniversitiesandschoolswouldbeestablishedacrossthecountry(ChinaDaily2006).Thisispartofawiderefforttoprovideculturalservicesforolderpeople.

Theseinstitutionsreceivegovernmentsubsidiesaswellascommunityandprivate

sponsorship.Theeducationsystemforolderpeopleviewslearningopportunitiesaswelfareaswellaseducationtheoverallobjectiveistomakelivesafterretirementmeaningful(Kai-Mingetal1999:128).

Since2000ChinahasalsodevelopedaprogrammeofCommunityEducation.Regulationsreleasedin2004outlinethepurposeofthisprogramme:

Communityeducationshouldsafeguardlearnersbasicrightfor

learning,satisfytheneedoflifelonglearningandprovidethe

chanceoflearning,trainingandeducationtoallthosepeoplewho

arewillingtobeeducatedandtrainedregardlessofthelimitation

ofageandacademicschoolingrecord. (ChineseNationalCommissionforUNESCO[CNCU]2008:45)

Communityeducationworksbyopeningupcommunityresourcessuchaslibraries,museumsandsportsclubsintoanintegratedlocalnetworklinkedtocentralcollegesandschoolsforsupport.Branchesarerunbylocalcommunitiesandbyamixtureofpaidteachersandvoluntarystaff.Classesrangefromartandcalligraphytohealthandforeignlanguages.

UnderlyingChinasdevelopmentsineducationisarhetoricoflearningthroughoutthelifecourse.Thereisastrongfocusonlifelonglearning,equalityofprovisionforallcitizensandsatisfyingculturalnotjustlabourmarketneeds.Forexample,theConstitutionofthePeoplesRepublicofChinaemphasisesthatallcitizenshavetherighttoreceiveeducationandthe2004ActionProgrammeforVitalisingEducationtalkedof

buildingasystemoflifelongeducation(CNCU2008:9-11).ConclusionsfromtheChineseexample

Chinaisrespondingtoasetofuniquechallengesrelatedtorapideconomicandsocialdevelopment,notleastthechallengeofhavingalargenumberofelderlypeoplewhodidnothaveaccesstoeducationintheiryouth.However,itsresponsetotheissueofageingandlearningisstillinstructivetoothercountriesforanumberofreasons:

Itdemonstrateshowaculturalattitudesupportiveoflearningacrossthelife-coursecaninfluencepolicyandthedesignoftheeducationsystem.

Itprovidesanexampleofaninstitutionalresponsetothechallengeoflearninginlaterlifebuildinganentireeducationsystemofschoolsandcollegesforolderpeople.

Theaimsoftheeducationsystemgobeyondsimplytrainingyoungpeopleforthelabourmarket.Thereisalsoanemphasisonequalaccessforallcitizenstoeducationopportunitiesandonthebenefitsoflearningtoculture,societyandwellbeing.


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Summary

Learningcanbeanimportantdriverofwell-beinginlaterlife,thoughpublicattitudesandmaterialbarriersmeanlearningisoftenthepreserveoftheyoung.Thecasestudiespresentedheredemonstratequitedifferentresponsestothisproblem.

InthecaseofSeniorNetandEnglishLanguagePartners,opportunitiesforlearninggreworganicallyinresponsetolocalneeds.Theyinvolvedthecollaborationofolderpeoplethemselves,tappingintolocalneedsandinterests.TheskillsgainedwerepracticallanguageteachingandITandhelpedtoempowerolderpeopleinotherwalksoflife.

TheChinesecaseshowshoweducationinstitutionscanbebuiltandadjustedtoencouragelearninginolderage,shiftingtheirphilosophytoassumethatolderpeoplearepartoftheirtargetaudience.

Behindallthecasestudiesisabeliefthateducationisaboutmorethanpreparingforthelabourmarket,anattempttotiepeopleintowidernetworks(betheyintheirlocalcommunitiesoronline),andafocusonlearninginalesspressuredenvironmentfora

qualification.


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Thedesignofhomesandcitieshasnotkeptpacewiththerealityofhowpeoplelivetheirlives.Housebuildingandplanningagreementshavebeenbasedonamodelofnuclear

families,theable-bodied,workingresidentsandpeoplepreparedtotraveltoaccessservices.Yetitisolderpeoplewhowillaccountforhalfoftheincreaseinhouseholdsbetweennowand2026,meaningtherewillbe2.4millionmoreolderhouseholdsintheUKthantherearetoday(CommunitiesandLocalGovernment2008).Thewaywebuildhomesandcommunitiesmustreflecttherealitythatmanyolderresidentsliveontheirown,arenotworkingandarenotverymobile.

Despiteongoingeffortstoimprovethehousingstock,olderpeoplearedisproportionatelyaffectedbypoorhousing.IntheUKathirdofolderpeoplelivingontheirownliveinhomesclassedasnon-decentand13percentofolderpeopleliveinhomesthatareinseriousdisrepair(Allen2008,OfficeforNationalStatistics2008).Improvinghomesisthereforeessential.Sotooisenablingolderpeopletogetoutoftheirhomesmorethan1million

olderpeoplereportfeelingtrappedintheirownhomeand20percentfindaccessingtheirlocalhospitaldifficult(Nesta2009).

Thebuiltenvironmentandwell-being

Thereisagrowingappreciationinplanningandarchitectureoftherelationbetweenhumansandtheirenvironment.Whilethishastendedtofocusonpeoplesphysicalneeds,muchcanalsobedoneheretofacilitategoodmentalhealth.

Moreeffortneedstobeputintoincludingolderpeopleinthedesignprocess(Summer2002).Designandplanningshouldbegroundedinabetterunderstandingofageing,behaviourandolderpeoplesrelationshipwiththeirsurroundings,focusingontheirbroaderwell-beingaswellastheirphysicalmobility.

Thelinksbetweenthebuiltenvironmentandwell-beingcanbedirect(forexampleviewsofgreenspacereducelevelsofdepressionandnoisecancauseanxiety)andindirect(forexamplestairsandlongwalkingdistancescanpreventpeoplefromleavingtheirhomestosocialise,inturncreatingisolationandloneliness).

Thebuiltenvironmentcansupportolderpeopleswell-beinginthefollowingways:

Reducingfearandanxiety

Thequalityofolderpeopleshousingandthelocalenvironmentthingssuchastraffic,litter,crime,noise,andhousingqualitycanhaveadirectimpactonresidentswell-being.Poorlymaintainedphysicalenvironmentscandirectlyunderminewell-beingandcontributetoisolation.

Adetailedlookatsurveydatarevealsthatsomefactorsaremoreimportantthanothersininfluencingolderpeoplesstressandanxiety.Perhapssurprisingly,litterandtrafficaremoreimportantforolderpeoplethanfearofcrimeandyoungpeopleinpublicspaces.Infact,middle-agedgroupsaremoreconcernedwithcrime,drugs,vandalismandteenagershangingaroundthestreetthanolderagegroups(ONS2008).

AnotherstudyfoundthebiggestsourceofstressandanxietyforolderpeoplelivingindeprivedwardsinEnglandwasdeteriorationinthephysicalfabricofpublicspacesandbuildingsandenvironmentalproblemssuchaspollution,noiseandtraffic(Scharfetal2002citedinAllen2008).

Specificfactorsrelatedtothebuiltenvironmentcanthereforebetargetedtoreduceolder

peoplesfeelingsofstressandanxiety.Trafficcalmingmeasures,littercollection,moretimetocrossatpelicancrossingsandurbandesigntoreducenoisemightbemoresignificantthanpreventingteenagersfromhangingaroundordiscouragingvandalism.

5.Builtenvironment


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Increasingphysicalactivity

Physicalactivityhasbeenshowntobecrucialforimprovingwell-beinginolderpeople:

Itimprovescognitiveperformanceandmemory(Yaffeetal2001,Weuveetal2004)

Itprotectsagainstdepression(Strawbridgeetal

2002)Itincreaseslifesatisfaction(SilversteinandParker2002)

Itcreatesopportunitiesforsocialising,fun,competition,makingnewrelationships(OBrienetal1991)

Itreducesstressthroughmusclerelaxation,moodimprovement,andselfconfidence(ibid)

Itpreventsordelaysphysiologicalchanges

Itpreventsordelayschronicdiseasessuchascardiovasculardisease,diabetes,arthritis(Singh2002)

Itimprovesfunctionalcapabilitysuchasmusclestrength,balanceandflexibility(KeysorandJette2001)

Itreducesthechanceoffalls(Skelton2001)

Itimprovesmobilityandenablesindependentlifestyles.

Thephysicalenvironmentcanbecrucialtoenablingandpromotingphysicalactivity,forexamplethroughthedesignoftownstoencouragewalking;theprovisionofplacestoexercisebothoutdoorsandindedicatedcentres;enablingparticipationinactivities;andremovingbarrierstophysicalactivitysuchastrafficandpoorlydesignedfacilities.

Contactwithnaturalenvironment

Exposuretonaturalenvironmentscanimprovewell-beingandlifesatisfaction,reducestressandhavearestorativeeffect.Researchhasshown:

Visualcontactwithnaturalelementsimprovespeoplessatisfactionandwell-being(Kaplan2001).

Exposuretonaturaldaylight(andvitaminD)hasconsiderablehealthbenefits,forexample,improvedimmunesystem,bonestrength,moodandqualityofsleep(AlvesandSugiyama2006).

Exposuretonaturereducesriskofdevelopingstress-relatedillness,increasespositiveaffectandleadstohigherattentionlevels(Hartigetal2003).

Livingnearwalkablegreenspacesisassociatedwithincreasedlifeexpectancyandimprovedhealth(Takano etal2002,deVriesetal2003).

Designingtownsthatenableolderpeopletobeoutdoorsandtoaccessgreenspaceisthereforeimportant.Thiscaninvolvestructuralchangessuchascreatingmoreparksandplantingtrees,designinghomesinnewwaystoensurewindowsandgardensoverlookgreenspaceandallowinnaturallight,makingsmallfacilitatingchangessuchasprovidingbenchesandcoveredseatingareasinparksandpublictoilets,andchangestoservicessuchasprovidingdoor-to-doortransporttoparksandactivitiestakingplaceoutdoors.Increasingly,horticulturalprogrammesandgardeninghavebeenusedasaformoftherapy,withparticipationleadingtoincreasedpsychologicalwell-beingandsenseofachievement(BarnicleandMidden2003,Milliganetal2004).Thebenefitsoftheseprogrammescouldbemainstreamedintourbanplanningandservicedeliverytargetedatolderpeople.


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Increasesocialinteraction

Asenseofcommunityandcontactwithotherpeopleisoneofthemostimportantdefencesagainstdepression.Thebuiltenvironmenthasaconsiderableimpactonthequantityandqualityofsocialinteraction:

Publicspaces,fromshoppingmallstopublicparks,arespaceswherepeopleinteract.Evenshallowcontact,suchaswithashopassistantorbusdriver,canbemeaningful.Publicspacesmustenableusebyallages(AlvesandSugiyama2006).

Spacesthatencouragepedestrianwalkingabovecarusefosterinteractionandcontainpeoplewhoaremorelikelytoknowtheirneighboursandengageinsocialactivities(Leyden2003).

Socialengagementwithneighboursreducesfearofcrimeamongolderpeople(Kweonetal1998).

Locally-basedcontactisespeciallyimportantforolderpeoplewhobecomelessmobile(AlvesandSugiyama2006).Environmentscanbedesignedtoenableneighboursto

meeteachotherandsharespaces.

Ifpoorlydesigned,outdoorspacescanbeabarriertophysicalexerciseandparticipationinactivitieswithothers(Bertera2003).

Outdoorspacesprovideacontexttomaintainfriendshipsforexamplebyallowingfriendstomeetinapark,goshoppingtogether,gooutforameal.

Thebuiltenvironmentcanthereforebedesignedtofostersocialcontactbetweenpeopleandthisiscrucialforcounteringtheisolationandlonelinessthatmanyolderpeopleface.

Enableindependentliving

Maintainingindependenceisoftencitedasoneofthemostimportantfactorsforwell-being.

Thereisagrowingemphasisonageinginplaceenablingpeopletoageintheirhomesandneighbourhoods.Thisispartlydrivenbytheneedtokeepcarecostslow(byreducingtheneedforpeopletoenterresidentialornursingcare),butalsobytherealisationthatpeoplewanttoageintheirownhomesandthatthiscanbegoodfortheirwell-being.

Homesareimportantforolderpeoplebecause:

Theycontainmemories,objectsofsignificance,asenseofidentity

Theyprovideemotionalandphysicalsecurity

Theyallowindependenceandareapracticaldemonstrationofindependence

Theyallowcontinuitywiththepastandmaintenanceofexistingrelationships

Peopleoftenhaveinformalnetworksofsupportneartheirhome.(Intel2009)

Anthropologistshaveshownhowhomescanbedesignedtoimprovehappinessbyenablingindependentliving.Examplesinclude:socketsbeinglocatedhigheronwalls,walk-inshowers,largerbuttonsonremotecontrols,replacinglawnswithpatioswithraisedbeds,addinginteriorplantsandmoreevenpavingstones.Thereisconsiderablescopefornewtechnologyandproductstoenableolderpeopletobeindependent,includingexamplessuchastelecareandcommunityalertsystems.However,thesameresearchfoundthathomescanbecomefossilisedaroundthepastandservetoremindpeopleoftheirageinganddecliningmobility.Itmadethecaseforadaptinghomestobemorefocusedonthefutureandasenseofability(Intel2009).

Whileadaptingpeopleshomesisimportant,peoplecanonlyliveindependentlyiftheyarealsomobileoutsideofthehome(Intel2009).Beingmobilelinkspeopletoplaces,resourcesandservices.Itcanprovideaccesstohealthcareservices,shops,information,socialcontact,theoutdoorsandphysicalactivities.


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Afocusonmobilityoutsideofthehomeforcesustorethinkhowwedesigntownsandprovideservices.Examplesofpositivemeasuresincludeprovidingdoor-to-doortransportsothatpeopledonothavetowalkamiletogetabus,makingsuretransportgoestotherightplacesattherighttimesnotjusttakingpeopletowork,changingcartechnologytoenablepeopletodriveuntillaterinlife,makingtownsmorenavigablefortheelderlyanddevelopingdevicestoassistpeopleoutsideofthehome.

Paradoxically,livingindependentlycanrequiresupport,especiallyforfrailerolderpeople.Withoutthesesupports,individualsareleftunabletooperateindependentlyandaremorelikelytogointocarehomes.

Casestudy:University-LinkedRetirementCommunities(ULRCs),UnitedStates

Builtenvironment,learningandrelationships

Ona10-acresiteneartotheUniversityofCaliforniainDavis,anot-for-profitorganisationhasbuiltaUniversityRetirementCommunity.Itcontainsarangeofliving

optionsincludingindependentcottagesandapartments,assistedlivingunitsanda51-bedskillednursingcentrewitha14-bedAlzheimerswing.Theunitsrangeinsizeandresidentsareabletocustomiseanddecoratethemhowtheywish.

Therearemanyamenitiesspecificallyfortheretirementcommunity,includingmeetinganddiningrooms,cafes,alibrary,fitnesscentreandparking.Butbeingsoclosetotheuniversitycampus,residentshaveaccesstomuchmore.Theycanusetheuniversityhospital,watchuniversitysportingmatchesandattendculturalevents.Lecturerscometogivetalks,andthereareopportunitiestoparticipateinclassesandmentorstudents.

Theresidentsareassuredoffrequentintergenerationalcontactbecausemanyyoungerstudentsfromthecampushavepart-timejobsintheretirementcommunity,servicingtheshopsandcafes(HarrisonandTsao2006).

ThisexampleispartofagrowingtrendforretirementcommunitiestobebuiltonuniversitycampusesintheUS.About60suchUniversity-LinkedRetirementCommunities(ULRCs)exist.Retirementcommunitieshavebeensetupbyprivatedevelopers,not-for-profitorganisationsanduniversitiesthemselves(Halligan2004).

ULRCsarebuiltonfourprinciplesthataredesignedtocounterlowexpectationsofretirement.Theyenvisionretirementwhere:

Learningneverstops

Oneisnevertotallydisengagedfromworkormeaningfulworksubstitutes

Cross-generationalinteractionstakeplaceroutinely

Personalgrowthisawayoflife.(Pastalanetal,nodate)

Itconstructsmanyofthefoundationstowell-beinginlaterlifethroughaninnovativeapproachtothebuiltenvironmentandservicedelivery,whichusesanestablishedinfrastructureandcommunity.

Therearealsoconsiderablebenefitstotheuniversity,includingjobsforstudents,financialbenefitsfromrentorsaleoftheland,olderpeoplecontributingtocampuslife(forexample,throughguestlecturingandvolunteering),andincreasingtheoneareaofdiversitythatuniversitiesstrugglemosttoaddress:age.

Whilecurrentlythepreserveofrelativelywealthyandeducatedolderpeople,thereisconsiderablescopetodevelopmoreopenmodelsofhousingforolderpeoplewithlinkstouniversitiesinordertoshareopportunitiesforlearning,workandleisure.


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Casestudy:Woonerf,Netherlands

Builtenvironment

WoonerfistheDutchconceptofdesigningstreetssothatwalking,cycling,socialactivities,childrensplay,parkingandlocalcartrafficcanallsharethesamespace.It

ensuresthatstreetsarenotsolelydefinedbytheneedsoftraffic,insteadprioritisingsocialactivitiesandpedestrians(Hamilton-Baillie2000).

Woonerfisdesignedtobevisuallyappealing,toreducetrafficspeedandtopromoteotheractivitiesinstreetspace.Designscanconsistof:

Trafficspeedsof15mph

Carparkingbrokenupwithtreesratherthanregimentedlines

Playareasandseatingdemarcatedbybollards

Publicgardenswhichresidentscanpersonalise

Lightingdesignedtohelppedestrians,notcars

Positioningtrafficcalmingmeasuressuchasraisedjunctionsandspeedhumpstofitintotheoveralldesignoftheneighbourhood.

Astrongfeatureofwoonerf iscommunityinvolvementindesigningtheirownstreetspace,meaningthereisnouniformlook.

Themostcontroversialelementistheremovaloflinestodemarcateroadsandjunctions,inanattempttoforcetraffictogenuinelysharethestreets.Butthishasactuallyimprovedsafetyasitforcescarstoslowdownandbemorevigilant.

Thebenefitsofthisapproachtostreetdesignarestrikingsimplechangestothebuiltenvironmenthavemadetrafficspeedsof15mphinresidentialareasthenorm,have

encouragedgreateruseofcyclingandwalking,increasedsocialinteractionandreducednoise.Italsogivesresidentsasenseofownershipoverthelocalenvironment.Thesebenefitsareusuallyassociatedwithprovidingagoodenvironmentforchildren,butitisclearthattheytacklemanyoftheproblemsthatolderpeopleexperienceaswell.

FromtheNetherlandstotheUK

Woonerfs originatedinDelftandRijswijkinthe1970sandhavesincebecomesocommontheyaretakenforgranted.Therearenowover7,000inHolland,andtheprinciplehasinfluencedplannersacrossmuchofNorthernEurope(Hamilton-Baillie2000).TheprinciplewasintroducedintheUKasHomeZones,with59projectsreceivingfundingunderadedicatedchallengefundin2001.Despitepositiveimpactassessmentsandsupportfromlocalresidents,theschemehasnotbeenrolledoutwidelyandtherearefewerthan100

HomeZoneschemesintheUK(Gill2006).TheschemesthathavebeenbuiltarelessradicalthanEuropeanequivalents,withnolegalorstatutoryguidelinesforwhattheyshouldincludeandnorequirementforsharedsurfaceuse.ThisleadsGilltodescribepolicyreceptionasmorepassiveacceptancethanactivepromotion(2006:11).

PerhapsthemoststrikingelementofHomeZonesisthattheyareentirelyseenasthedomainofcampaignsforchild-friendlyneighbourhoods.TheywerelobbiedforbytheChildrensPlayCouncilandpromotedascosteffectivewaystomakewalkingsaferforchildrenandadolescents(Preston1995).Giventheimportanceofthebuiltenvironmenttoolderpeople,andthepotentialbenefitofHomeZonestothem,theysurelystandtogainjustasmuchfromtheprogramme.Hamilton-Baillieconcludesthat:

TherearenoinherentculturalorsocialdifferencesbetweenBritainandothercountriesincontinentalEuropewhichshouldinhibita

changeinthebalancebetweenpeople,placesandtransport

representedbythedevelopmentofHomeZones. (Hamilton-Baillie2000:22).


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Summary

Thewaywebuildourhomesandcommunitieswillhavetoadjusttothegrowingnumbersoflessmobilepeoplelivingontheirown.Changestothebuiltenvironmentcandramaticallyimprovethewell-beingofolderpeopleandoffsetthemountingpressureofcareandsupportcosts.WhilethisisacknowledgedingovernmentpoliciessuchasLifetimehomes,lifetimeneighbourhoods,itisnotyetarealityinthephysicalfabricofmanyUKtownsandcities.Thecasestudiesreferencedheredemonstratehowthebuiltenvironmentcanbedesignedtoconnectpeopletoservices,activities,otherpeopleandenablethemtoageinplace.

Casestudy:PreventativeHomeVisits,Finland

BuiltenvironmentandrelationshipsFinlandhaspioneeredasystemofpreventativehomevisitsforolderpeople,inanattempttoshiftthefocusfromtreatmenttoprevention.TheyarepartofFinlandsNationalFrameworkforHighQualityServicesforOlderPeople whichplacesapremiumonpreventionandmakinghealthyageingcentraltoallpolicyareas.

Thepurposeofthevisitsisto:

assessandsupportindependence,toprovideinformationabout

services,toidentifyriskfactorsendangeringthepersonshealthand

welfare,andtocheckthesafetyofthehomeandsurroundings.The

likelyfutureneedforindividualservicescanalsobeestablished.

(MinistryofSocialAffairsandHealth2008:23-24)

Trainedprofessionalsenterthehomesofolderpeopletoassessthephysicalsurroundingsbutalsotoadviseonhealthandprovideinformationaboutavailableresourcesandservices.Thesevisitsaretargetedatolderpeoplewhodonotyetneedhealthandwelfareservicesbutaredeemedat-risk,suchasthosewholivealone,areonlowincomes,aresusceptibletofalls,havechronicdiseasesandthoserecentlywidowed.

Thevisitsareseenasawaytopreventpoorhealth,keepcostslow,enablepeopletoageintheirownhomesandensuretheyhaveamoreactiveretirement.Aparticularproblemwasseentobethatwhileadviceandhealthpromotiongoesoninearlystagesoflife,throughschoolhealthprogrammes,childcentres,maternityclinicsandoccupationalhealthintheworkplace,ittendstopeeteroutafterretirement.Finlandisthereforetrying

toputanewinfrastructureinplacetocontinueeducationalworkaroundpromotinghealthylivingandidentifyingproblemsearly(Voutillainen2009).

Thevisitshavebeensuccessfulbecausethey:

focusonpreventionensuringhealthierlivesandcosteffectiveforthestate

supportageinginplace,helpingpeopletostayintheirownhomes

areapersonalisedapproachtoservicedelivery

focusonprovidinginformationtopeople,givingthemadviceontheoptionsavailablefortheircareandsupport,navigatingthemthroughthecomplexsystemofservices

aredeliveredbylocalmunicipalities.


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Fewcountrieshavebeenuntouchedbytheeffectsofageingpopulations.Thewaysocietiesrespondhaslaggedbehindtherealityofpeopleslives.Whilethestatepensionageinthe

UKiscurrently60forwomenand65formen,manyareableandwillingtoworklonger.Educationisdesignedprimarilyforchildrenandyoungpeople,butadultsneedandwanttolearnaswell.Wecanexpect20yearsofretirementbutonlyhalfofussaveadequateamountstofundthis.Andourcitiesandhomeshavebeendesignedlargelyfortheablebodied.

Theunderlyingproblemisthatwehavedesignedourinstitutionsandcommunitiesaccordingtoanimageoflifeafter65thatisoutofdate.Laterlifeisfrequentlyseenasatimeofdecline,dependenceanddisengagementfromsociety.Thechallengeistobuildasocietythatassumesolderpeopleshouldparticipateandbeactiveforaslongaspossibleandtothebestoftheirability,notonethatassumestheyaredependentanddisengaged.Weneedtoadjustinstitutions,servicesandcommunitiestosupportolderpeopletorealisethisvision.

Respondingtothischallengewillrequirewideningtheagendabeyondtraditionalissuessuchashealth,socialcareandpensionstootherareasthatdriveolderpeopleswell-being,includingrelationships,work,learningandthebuiltenvironment.

Wehaveseeninthispaperhowcountrieswithdifferentpoliticalsystemsandculturesarerespondingtoacommonchallenge.WhiletheUKcannotsimplyimportgoodmodelsfromoverseas,wecanidentifytheunderlyingprinciplesandapproachesthatmakeforsuccessfulandinnovativeinterventionstoimprovethewell-beingofourageingpopulation.

Thecasestudiespresentedinthispaperhighlightthenewapproachesthatwillbeneeded:

Apremiumwillhavetobeplacedonbuildingrelationshipsbetweenpeople

LocalprovidersandsocialenterpriseswilltakecentrestageServicesshouldbepersonalisedtoallowindividualneedsinthisdiverseandgrowing

populationtobetakenintoaccount

Responseswillhavetotapintopeoplesexperiencesanddailyroutinestoensuretheirbuy-in

Olderpeopleshouldbeenabledtocontribute,notbeseenaspassiveconsumers

Olderpeoplewillneedinformationandadvicefromtrustedsourcestohelpthemmakethemostoftheseopportunities

Thetransitiontolaterlifeshouldbephased,withelementsofworking,learningand

retirementbeingintegrated.ArecentflurryofactivitybytheBritishgovernmentshowsthatageingisrisingupthepolicyagenda.TheEqualitiesBill,theGreenPaperonsocialcare,pensionreform,reviewofthedefaultretirementageandtheAgeingStrategy,BuildingASocietyForAllAges,arealltobewelcomed.Howeverthereremainsadominantfocusoncentralisedstateactionsandservices,ratherthanwholesaleinstitutionalreform.Forexample,theannouncementofa20millionfundforinformallearningopportunitiesisnomatchforshiftingentrycriteria,fundingoptions,andthedesignofcoursesandbuildingsinexistinghighereducationtoenableolderadultstotakepart.Thecasestudiesinthispapershouldprovidesomefoodforthoughtastheageingagendadevelops.

6.Conclusions


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