THE EPISTEMOLOGY OF AHMADOU BAMBA

by

AHMED PIRZADA

A thesis submitted to

The University of Birmingham

for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

" ý: ýt; ýý º%ý rýti

., , - ý<. ýý,

Department of Theology

School of Historical Studies

University of Birmingham

June 2003

ABSTRACT

Ahmadou Bamba was a Senegalese scholar who lived from 1853-1927. Notwithstanding the role he played in the anti-colonial struggle against French imperialism, he was an extremely prolific writer who left behind a written legacy of over 7 tonnes of manuscripts. This study is concerned with the epistemological concerns of this scholar, and seeks to discuss his ideas of knowledge in their

pedagogical, socio-epistemological and esoteric senses. In terms of Ahmadou Bamba's pedagogical program, he advocated a basic

education in the Islamic sciences of theology and jurisprudence, as well as learning

the Arabic language with a view to further studying the Qur'an and Sunna. The

pertinence of this prescription in the colonial era in which he was living should not be

underrated. This was a time that colonial policy was seeking to eliminate Islamic knowledge and reduce Islam to its most narrow, ritualistic and reductionist form. Notwithstanding this Ahmadou Bamba advocated this syllabus of learning with a view to keeping religious commitment intact, whether of the Muslims in Senegal or those in other parts of the Muslim world.

In socio-epistemological terms, Ahmadou Bamba advocated the teleological

structuring of society in accordance with the overall spiritual goals and aspirations that he had for mankind. Therefore the material pre-requisites and necessities to

practice a spiritual life were to be provided for the citizens of the state. Once a spiritual seeker had learnt the basic syllabus of Islamic sciences, which

comprised an education in both exoteric and esoteric knowledge, he could enter into

the greater spiritual struggle against the forces of the ego, the devil, the desires and the

enticements of the base world. The successful completion of this struggle would enable him to evolve beyond merely rational knowledge into the domain of trans-

rational knowledge. This evolution may be seen as being from knowledge constituted by the intellect to knowledge constituted by the heart. This may be seen as the

culmination of Ahmadou Bamba's epistemology, whereby a seeker starts by applying himself to the intellectual grasp of the Islamic sciences. The society is structured to

provide for his basic needs, and therefore, equipped with the requisite knowledge and the satisfaction of his material needs, he is able to undertake the greater spiritual struggle and evolve from rational to trans-rational knowledge.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION I

CHAPTER I THE LIFE OF AHMADOU BAMBA 11

CHAPTER 2 BENEFICIAL THINGS OF A SPIRITUAL NATURE

2.1 Ahmadou Bamba and non-violence 38

2.2 Exoteric Knowledge 47

2.3 Esoteric Knowledge 85

2.3.1 Seeking knowledge with the wrong intention 90

2.3.2. Evil consequences on seeking knowledge with the wrong intention 94

2.3.3. Beneficial knowledge and its positive consequences 95

CHAPTER 3 BENEFICIAL THINGS OF A MATERIAL NATURE

1.1 Means of Healing 114 (General socio-epistemological theory)

3.2 The Way to Success in the two Worlds 121 Particular socio-epistemological theory)

CHAPTER 4 HARMFUL THINGS OF THIS WORLD 159

4.1 The Ego 160

4.2 Desire 168

4.3 The World 170

4.4 The Devil 183

CONCLUSION 192

APPENDIX 1 The way to success in the two worlds 195

APPENDIX 2 List of technical terms 206

APPENDIX 3 List of interviews 209

APPENDIX 4 Arabic text of Rabbi zidnru ̀ilma 210

BIBLIOGRAPHY 211

Transliteration Table - ý. Arabic Letter Transliteration Short Vowels

5

b ---- a t = --- u th ---- i J h kh

Long Vowels

d dh r f ü

z cS. 1

U-4 S UW sh Dipthongs

S

d ý-- aw t cs=- ay zº gis--- iYy

J--- uww gh f q k 1 m n h t Y

List of Abbreviations

AHS African Historical Studies

CJAS Canadian Journal of African Studies

JMAS Journal of Modern African Studies

JRA Journal of Religion in Africa

INTRODUCTION

1) Rationale

From the late nineteenth century to the eventual dismantling of the Ottoman

Empire classical Islamic formulations with regard to the Muslim world were no longer operative. Practically speaking the classical theological distinction between dar

al-Islam and dar al-barb was essentially redundant. One thinker who lived through

the most important phase of the imperialist project and the consequent intellectual

crisis that afflicted the Muslim world was Ahmadou Bamba. He was regarded as the

pole (Qutb al-zamän) of his ages, and he became a figure closely linked to Islamic

renaissance in West Africa. However his `image' as an anti-colonial national hero has

been very much a twisted blessing, as right up to the present time it has done much to

obfuscate the essence of his message, and in particular his original ideas for Islamic

reform. In fact it is not uncommon in speaking to Senegalese people nowadays to hear

of Ahmadou Bamba being portrayed as a semi divine being whose barakah will lead

to one's salvation, whilst at the same time it is often difficult to find anyone who can

give a clear formulation of his epistemological or socio-political ideas, or who can

give a clear explanation of even one of his poems. This is particularly pertinent as we live in the era of Samuel Huntingdon's post

cold war clash of civilisations formulation. Within `the west verses the rest' paradigm,

special emphasis is given within the sphere of the rest to the threat of Islam. Within

this formulation Islam is generally seen in monolithic terms, with special emphasis being placed on the association of Islam and terrorism. The ideas of Ahmadou Bamba

may be seen as a necessary corrective to this model, whereby his thought may be

regarded as contributing to the argument for the variety and richness within Islam.

2) Objective

The studies that have been done on Ahmadou Bamba so far have not helped

this situation much. In the first instance there is no study in the English language

which is solely devoted to an analysis of his writings. This may be seen as a particular

manifestation of the general tendency wherein a high proportion of the research done

1 Vincent J. Cornell, Realm of the Saint - Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism (Austin, University of Texas Press, 1998), pxxxvi.

so far on organised Sufi activity has been undertaken by sociologists and

anthropologists, and also sometimes by political scientists, but certainly far less by

those for whom the classical Sufi tradition is of major concern. 2 In fact, as the

literature review below makes clear, most of the studies done so far on Ahmadou

Bamba and the Muridiyya have been of an anthropological or politico-economic

nature, wherein Ahmadou Bamba's writings are quoted somewhat like aphorisms or in an anecdotal manner in order to exemplify or further articulate an assertion or a

certain line of enquiry. Therefore the western academic output may be seen as the

other side of the coin, whereby the anti-colonial national hero is taken as a point of departure for social scientific research, and studies are undertaken which accord with

the parameters consequent with this approach. Therefore regardless of the level of

abstraction of the research undertaken, matters such as the didactic nature of Ahmadou Bamba's written works and their core teachings, and his personal concern

with spiritual matters, if mentioned at all, are relegated to the rank of minor or

secondary issues. It is the contention of this work that this very much represents a distorted portrayal of Ahmadou Bamba, particularly as the greater part of his life was devoted to meditation and writing. In fact when he passed away he left behind over 7

tonnes of manuscripts, 3 making him arguably the most prolific writer in history. 4

Furthermore he made several statements during his life that pointed to what he

considered to be the central importance of his writings ('My miracle is my writings'). Therefore any presentation of Ahmadou Bamba not focussing on his writings would be a presentation that would overlook the major theme of his life's work, and would furthermore be guilty of ignoring what he himself considered to be the most important

part of his legacy.

2 Elizabeth Sirriyeh, Sufis and Anti-Sufis, (Surrey, Curzon Press, 1999), p141. This figure of 7 tonnes is often cited in Murid publications, and is commonly quoted by members of

the tarigah, and has become a widely accepted `fact' in Senegal. ° Sheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Spiritual Dialogue, (Wynnewood (USA), International Sufi School of Sheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, 2002), p44. Sheikh Abdoulaye Dieye (1938-2002) was an example of a Murid intellectual who preferred to articulate Ahmadou Bamba's literary and pedagogic achievements, seeking to emphasise them above and beyond his numerous miracles. For a discussion of Sheikh Abdoulaye Dieye's representation of Ahmadou Bamba in the university world of Paris, as well as his pioneering work of founding and participating in several Murid organisations and associations, and establishing a Murid newspaper in Paris, see Donal Cruise O'Brien, `Charisma Comes to Town, ' in Charisma and Brotherhood in African Islam, Donal Cruise O'Brien and Christian Coulson (Eds. ), (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1988), pp 146-149. s Cheikh Ahmadou Bamba, Qasidas du Cheikh Ahmadou Bamba, (Maurice, Cercle Islamique des Mourides de l'Ocean Indien, 1995), p 1.

2

3) Limitations

The life of Ahmadou Bamba was one devoted to learning and spiritual growth,

and from his earliest days he became the personal embodiment of an epistemological

quest. Furthermore it would be true to say that it is difficult to read even a few pages

of Ahmadou Bamba's writings without encountering the idea of knowledge, be it of a

rational or trans-rational nature. This is the fundamental theme that proliferates

throughout his work, and therefore this study seeks to introduce Ahmadou Bamba to

the English-speaking world very much on his own terms, i. e. within the framework of

a spiritually charged epistemology.

4) Literature Review

As mentioned above most of the research done on Muridiyyah has been of a

socio-anthropological or politico-economic nature. Therefore the majority of this

literature does not relate to the epistemological concerns addressed by this study, nor

does it address the need to begin evaluating the content of Ahmadou Bamba's

writings. Nevertheless it may be appropriate to mention some of the major landmarks

thus far in the study of Ahmadou Bamba and the Muridiyyah.

Studies of the Muridiyyah form part of several of the general studies of

Senegalese Islam undertaken over the last one hundred years. The early works of the

French colonial official Paul Marty provided the foundation for subsequent research.

The most significant of his writings were gathered in Etudes sur l'Islam au Senegal

(Paris, Leroux, 1917). Though shaped by colonial interests, the empirical research of

Marty was an important source for other scholars. Lucy Behrman's Muslim

Brotherhoods and Politics in Senegal (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1970),

and Donal Cruise O'Brien who have followed Marty, deserve particular attention.

O'Brien has written useful accounts of the order itself: The Mourides of Senegal

(Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971) and Saints and Politicians (London, Cambridge

University Press, 1975) deserve particular mention. Leonardo A. Villalön Islamic

Society and State Power in Senegal ( Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995)

felt that Behrman and other scholars have tended to focus their attention on the elite

level, in particular on the relationship between the religious leaders of the Sufi order,

the marabouts and the political elite. He offers a `bottom-up' view as a contribution to

a more theoretical understanding of both the African political process and of the role

of Islam in politics. The Senegalese sociologist Cheikh Tidiane Sy La Confrerie

3

Senegalese des Mourides (n. p., Presence Africaine, 1969) devoted a whole study to

the socio-anthropological organisation and activities of the Muridiyyah.

Brief mention is often made of Ahmadou Bamba and the Muridiyya in books

on the history of Islam in West Africa such as Christopher Harrison France and Islam

in West Africa 1860-1960 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1988), and in

general books on the history of West Africa such as Elizabeth Isichei History of West

Africa since 1800 (London, Macmillan Education Ltd., 1977) and Michael Crowder

West Africa Under Colonial Rule (London, Hutchinson and Co. Ltd., 1968).

Fernand Dumont La Pensee Religieuse de Ahmadou Bamba (Dakar, Les

Nouvelles Editions Africaines, 1975) is one of the very few published works that

makes an attempt at addressing the writings of Ahmadou Bamba. This study may be

regarded as a broad thematic sweep over the main concerns of his writings. Therefore

though Dumont does not go deeply into any particular theme of Ahmadou Bamba's

work, nevertheless he manages to appreciate many of the major topics addressed by

his writings, as well as to translate several of his poems, either wholly or in part.

Furthermore he provides useful biographical and bibliographical information.

Rüdiger Seesman Ahmadou Bamba und die Entstehung der Muridiya (Berlin,

Klaus Schwarz Verlag, 1993) is a work which argues that Ahmadou Bamba's doctrine

is not something new, but is derived from classical Sufism, owing a particular debt to

al-Ghazäli and Abdul Qädir Jiläni. With regard to the special position of the prophet

in Ahmadou Bamba's doctrine, Seesman makes a link to Neo-Sufism. 6 The work

begins with a history of Islamisation in West Africa and Senegal (pp9-116), followed

by a presentation of the life of Ahmadou Bamba (ppl 17-159). The originality of this

study pertains to the study of a biographical text `Hayät al-Sheikh Ahmadou Bamba'

by Muhammad al-Mustara al-An (b. 1924). A translation (pp163-179) and long

commentary (pp180-231) is given followed by an appendix giving the original Arabic

text. 7

6 This summary of the overall concerns of Seesman's study was gained through correspondence with him during April 2003.

For further information see the review of this book by Jean Louis Triaud in Archives de Sciences Sociales de Religions no. 96, Octobre-Decembre 1996, pp169-170. In my correspondence with Rüdiger Seesman, he himself advocated this review of his book as `an excellent summary of the essential message. '

4

5) Method

A study seeking to undertake the task of beginning to appreciate the written legacy of

Ahmadou Bamba is confronted with two major problems. The first is the problem

particular to the pioneer. As there are no precedents to refer to in the English language

(and few useful studies of the required depth in other languages), the researcher is

faced with the unenviable task of establishing his own ground rules. Secondly, as

Ahmadou Bamba had written over 7 tonnes of material, it is certain that any

presentation of his writings runs the risk of being a limited presentation at best, and a

reductionist one at worst. Certainly a visit to the library in Touba in Senegal which

houses some of the works of Ahmadou Bamba would probably convince even the

most sceptical individual that a lifetime of study would not be sufficient to appreciate

the contents of that particular library alone. Therefore the researcher is faced with the

dilemma that any attempt to study Ahmadou Bamba's writings may be little more

than scratching the surface of the output of his extremely prolific pen. These challenging research conditions are somewhat ameliorated by the fact

that only a small amount of the 7 tonnes of the writings of Ahmadou Bamba have

been released for public consumption by the various Khula' of the Muridiyya.

Furthermore Ahmadou Bamba is a writer like many Islamic writers (e. g. Imäm

Ghazäli) who wrote popular works as well as specialist works. The popular works

were meant for the appreciation of all seekers, whereas the specialist works were

either specific in their purpose, solely devotional in nature, or were written

specifically for the appreciation of intellectually and spiritually evolved seekers. This study has undertaken to concentrate on the popular works alone, as it is regarded by this researcher as being of primary importance that the English language study of

the works of Ahmadou Bamba begins with an analysis of the writings that he meant to

convey to Muslims for their education and social reform. The works of Ahmadou Bamba that have been released for public

consumption generally exist in a form that is challenging for the western researcher. In only a few cases will these writings be found in `book' form, and it is even rarer to

find a translation alongside the Arabic script. Any researcher doing fieldwork in

Senegal will return with shopping bags full of pamphlets of gasü'id written in angular

Kufic script.

Therefore, given these research conditions, any study of the epistemology of Ahmadou Bamba based on original sources must concern itself with the question of

5

hermeneutics. Rather than leave itself open to the charge of sophistry, this study

strives to be consistent with Ahmadou Bamba's own declared hermeneutic methods.

Though even a cursory reading of some of the works of Ahmadou Bamba will suffice

to exemplify this method (as it proliferates throughout his writings and therefore does

not need laboured articulation), an example may suffice to make the point. In the

garidah Id hawla wa Id quwwata i115 bi'11äh, after mentioning God and the prophet

Muhammad, the following five Sufi scholars are mentioned: Abdul Qädir Jiläni

(1077-1166 C. E. ), Abi Yazid al-Bistänii (d. 261 A. H. ), Tayfur ibn `isa al-'Ali, al-

Ghazäli (1058-1111 C. E. ) and Ma`rüf al-Karkhi (d. 816 C. E. ). Thus it is clear that

Ahmadou Bamba regards God, the prophet and the spiritually inclined scholars (five

of whom are mentioned in this poem) to be sources of guidance that are to be relied

upon. Therefore any study which seeks to be true to Ahmadou Bamba's own

hermeneutic premises should utilise the Qur'än, the sunna and the works of the major

Sufi scholars as the primary bases of interpretation.

Furthermore the spiritual leaders of Muridiyya are the heirs to a rich and

largely untapped oral tradition which has been passed down by Ahmadou Bamba

himself. As far as we are aware no study done so far on the writings of Ahmadou

Bamba has utilised this source to any great extent. This oral tradition is however

sometimes used (mainly in anecdotal form) in anthropological or biographical studies.

As Ahmadou Bamba died as recently as 1927, it is not uncommon even today to meet

people who have themselves met him. Notwithstanding this, at the time of research

most of the living sheikhs were disciples of men who were themselves directly

instructed by Ahmadou Bamba. Though this study has sought to utilise this oral

source of learning, it would not be out of place to acknowledge that entire studies

could be undertaken based solely on this oral tradition. It may be appropriate to point

out the importance of the oral medium in a culture having a high degree of illiteracy

(such as has existed in Senegal from the time of Ahmadou Bamba until the present

day). In non-literate communities oral texts function in similar ways to written sacred

texts in literate communities. 8

$ William A. Graham, Beyond the Written Word : Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion, (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987), p4. Even after initiatives launched in the 1950's to provide education to the general population (as education was only provided for a small, assimilated elite during the colonial period), the literacy rate in Senegal in 1970 was 18% for men and 5% for

women (U. N. statistics). Even in 1985 75% of adults were still illiterate (U. N. statistics), falling to 61.7% in 1990 (Unesco statistics). See Manfred Prinz, L'Alphabetisation au Sensal, (Paris, Editions Harmattan, 1996), pp 13-15,78.

6

In chapter 1 this study begins with a short overview of the life and major

concerns of Ahmadou Bamba. This is undertaken to the extent that it will aid the

understanding of his epistemological ideas. It is noteworthy in this regard that

Ahmadou Bamba turned his back on the worldly riches and privileges that were

offered to him at a young age, and sought to devote his life to spiritual matters. He

was always adamant in his rejection of princes and kings, and he only found

satisfaction in religion and knowledge. In his days as a student he single-mindedly

applied himself to learning the exoteric sciences. Furthermore his acquisition of

esoteric knowledge and the various avenues he travelled along in his spiritual life are

explained up to the point when he evolved from a disciple to a spiritual teacher in his

own right.

Therefore this study of the epistemology of Ahmadou Bamba (particularly his

ideas regarding the acquisition of exoteric and esoteric knowledge, and the evolution

from intellectual comprehension to spiritual realisation and the consequent acquisition

of trans-rational knowledge) begins by articulating his own personal journey down

this road. From this perspective his writings may be seen as the fruits of his own

spiritual realisation, and thus he may be seen as charting a course which he himself

had already travelled along. Thus in analysing the writings and oral tradition of

Ahmadou Bamba his own spiritual experiences and moral praxis must be borne in

mind. Furthermore the socio-historic context of nineteenth century Senegal must also

be appreciated. At this time the French had dealt with the final remnants of armed

Senegalese resistance, and the Senegalese masses had been reduced to colonial

subjects who often lived as little more than dependent vassals under a centralised

feudal-based cash crop economy. Therefore Ahmadou Bamba's epistemological

propositions, and his attempts to facilitate economic emancipation and social

development, should be seen against this background. His basic didactic program

sought the mass education of the poor, illiterate peasants of Senegal. This is an

important consideration for any study of the epistemology of Ahmadou Bamba, as one

of his practical goals was to provide sufficient education to the Senegalese masses to

protect their religious integrity, and to provide a spiritual basis for his programme of

socio-economic activism. Therefore the philosophical underpinning to his work ethic

and the spirit of socio-economic activism introduced into Senegalese society by the

7

Muridiyya was the basic religious education that he sought to give each individual

through his pedagogic program. Chapter 2 of this study seeks to convey Ahmadou Bamba's micro

epistemological program for the education of each individual Muslim, highlighting

those religious sciences which he expected every believer to have mastered. In this

regard the syllabus explicitly articulated in the writings of Ahmadou Bamba is the

traditional one that has been taught throughout the Muslim world from the time of the

establishment of the earliest institutions of religious learning until the present day. In

descending order of importance the subjects on the syllabus were `ilm al-tawhid (theology), figh (jurisprudence), ihsän (spirituality), and knowledge of Arabic in order

to facilitate a study of the Qur'an and hadith.

Theology is a subject wherein intellectual proofs are used to establish and defend theological beliefs. This subject relies on the application of `logic' in order to

facilitate the correct utilisation of the intellect for this purpose. Ahmadou Bamba also wrote several works on jurisprudence (fiqh), which

were based on the Mäliki school of thought. This is quite understandable as the

Senegalo-Mauritanian Muslims overwhelmingly belonged to this school of jurisprudence. However Ahmadou Bamba's jurisprudential ideas are not static or

partisan, but rather his writings illustrate that he subscribes to a broad, evolutionary

approach to the subject, whereby the seeker may evolve beyond his own school to

appreciate the ideas of all four schools of jurisprudence, as well as the various

underlying jurisprudential methods adopted by these four schools of thought in

reaching their verdicts. Through this process of grappling with the jurisprudential

solutions of each of the four schools the seeker can not only transcend his own school, but he may also go beyond these four schools in order to become an imitator of the

prophet (salaf sälih). Thus to truly imitate the prophet requires an appreciation of the

methods and conclusions reached by each of the four schools. Beyond theology and jurisprudence Ahmadou Bamba advocates that the

student learns the Arabic language with a view to studying the Qur'an and hadith.

After learning the exoteric sciences the next step on the epistemological ladder

is to learn esoteric knowledge. Esoteric knowledge is based on the foundation of

exoteric knowledge and is intimately linked with it.

8

Thus after the stage of intellectual understanding, performance of

superogatory spiritual practices enables the seeker to gain enlightenment whereby he

attains to trans-rational knowledge, or gnosis (ma `rifah). Gnosis is higher knowledge

gained through God's will. It is knowledge constituted by the heart. What is actually

known here is beyond the grasp of reason, and is often referred to by the Sufis as

secret knowledge. Some of this higher knowledge pertains to the secrets of divine

predestination, or to the names of God, and other similar higher, obscure realities

which are beyond the sphere of intellectual comprehension.

Chapter 3 is concerned with Ahmadou Bamba's work on the sociological

dimensions of human existence. Epistemology is concerned with individual

regeneration, but each individual exists in a collective social context. Therefore

individual regeneration cannot be divorced from social regeneration. Mallab al-Shims

is a poem which articulates the general sociological theory of Ahmadou Bamba,

wherein the existence of the individual in a social context is addressed, and the

individual's responsibility with regard to his engagement with society if discussed.

Whereas Matlab al-Shit deals with the general sociological theory of Ahmadou Bamba, Mailab al-Fawzayni deals with his particular sociological ideas.

Thus whereas the former gasidah may be applied to any group of people in any

society, the latter is concerned with sociological themes specifically associated with

the Muridiyya movement. Matlab al-Faxnayni is essentially concerned with the city

of Touba in Senegal. This was a city established by Ahmadou Bamba under divine

inspiration, and it was to become the territorial base of the Muridiyya movement.

It was founded with the intention of reviving the practice of the prophet, and it

effectively represented Ahmadou Bamba's vision of the city of God. This vision was

one in which people would live in Touba in communal harmony with all of their basic

needs taken care of. Thus this environment would provide them with the opportunity

to apply themselves to spiritual matters. Therefore the city of Touba is structured with

a view to nurturing spiritual evolution, and Ahmadou Bamba's conceptualisation of

town planning is based on a teleological structuring of the physical in order to

facilitate the spiritual.

However the city of Touba has a broader significance for the Muridiyya as it is

also a place of pilgrimage for the members of the movement. Though pilgrims flock

to Touba all year round, the annual festival of the Maggal (the commemoration of Ahmadou Bamba's exile from Senegal) provides the clearest manifestation of this

9

phenomenon. Therefore Touba has an overriding significance to the global Muridiyya

movement, whereby it is regarded as its territorial base and also a place of pilgrimage.

Thus Touba provides an axis around which the entire Murid community gravitates.

Chapter 4 of this work is concerned with combating the potential dangers to

the spiritual life of an individual. Thus an analysis is undertaken of the ego, the

desires, Satan and the world. Not only is the nature of each of these potentially detrimental entities explained in detail, but the means of struggling to overcome them

is also articulated. Therefore this section of the work is a detailed analysis of the

struggle confronting the seeker in his spiritual quest. This forms the fmal part of the

study as it represents the pinnacle of Ahmadou Bamba's epistemological assertions,

whereby learning exoteric knowledge, ensuring that the material pre-requisites for

living a spiritual life are taken care of, and undertaking studentship under the auspices

of an enlightened spiritual teacher are all undertaken in order to engage in the spiritual

struggle against the ego, the desires, Satan and the base world in order to evolve from

rational to trans-rational knowledge, and enter into the domain of gnosis (ma ̀ rifah).

Therefore the student will emerge as an enlightened man himself, thus becoming an

aid to others who seek to tread the same path. The system of transliteration adopted in this study has been adapted from

Hasan al-Arvin's Islamic Shi'ite Encyclopedia (Beirut, n. p., 1973). This system was

chosen from several available systems due to a preference based on its clarity and

readability.

10

CHAPTER 1 THE LIFE OF AHMADOU BAMBA

Ahmadou Bamba was born in 1853 in the village of M'Backe in the Baol

region of Senegal. His paternal ancestors originated from the Toucouleurs of

Mauritania who were related to the Sheriffian tribe of Alumodi Nalla. His mother was

called Jariatullah and was the daughter of Sherif Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn

Hamad Ibn Ali Ibn Bousso, a descendant of Imam Hasan son of `Ali Ibn Abi Tälib

and Fätimah daughter of prophet Muhammad. 9 His father Muhammad (surnamed

Momar Anta Sally) was a respected scholar who had been accepted as an Imam by his

contemporaries. Princes and kings also loved him because of the breadth of his

learning, his moral rigour and the equity of his judgements. Ahmadou Bamba also had

other relatives who were scholars such as his uncle Muhammad Bousso. 10 Therefore it

would be fair to say that he came from a noble and respected family that was reputed for its scholarship.

Ahmadou Bamba was noted for his filial piety, always conducting himself

respectfully in his father's presence. When he completed his own Islamic education

his father took him under his wing and made him his apprentice, giving him various

responsibilities such as teaching, sending official documents and responding to them.

Ahmadou Bamba learnt quickly, and students, disciples of his father, and even princes

and kings began to respect him in the same way that they had respected his father.

However Ahmadou Bamba manifested a lukewarm attitude to princes, kings and

traditional chiefs, and would not accede to invitations and requests except when his

father ordered him to do so, and even then with a heavy heart. This behaviour with

regard to temporal authority was considered very strange by his contemporaries. Certain people regarded him as a madman, whilst others thought of him as a

simpleton and a fool. ' 1

9 Didier Hamoneau, Vie et Enseignment du Cheikh Ahmadou Bamba, (Beirut, Dar-al-Bouraq, 1998), p53. Hamoneau's work is a chronology of Muridiyyah, from the birth of Ahmadou Bamba to the current Khalif of the tarigah. This work has the virtue of objectively addressing the subject matter in the light of the positive and negative depictions of the founder and his successors that are found in French and African literature. 10 Serigne Bachir M'Backe, Tr. By Khadim M'Backe, Les Bienfaits de L'Eternel, (Dakar, L'Imprimerie Saint-Paul, 1995), pp24-25. The author of this work was both a son of Ahmadou Bamba and one of his disciples, and therefore he was contemporary to much of the subject matter. The work contains two parts: part one is a historic articulation of the life of Ahmadou Bamba, and part two is a biography of his spiritual evolution, giving an analysis of the various spiritual stations through which Ahmadou Bamba evolved. " Ibid., pp33-34.

11

In 1883 Ahmadou Bamba's father died at the age of 61. This represented a

turning point in his life, whereby he was able to emerge from the shadow of his

father's fame and reputation and establish his own independent path. This process

began on the day of his father's funeral. After the funeral service Serigne Taiba

addressed Ahmadou Bamba as follows:

I would like you to accompany myself and other dignitaries who were your father's colleagues to visit the king of Cayor (i. e. Lat Dior, who Ahmadou Bamba's father had served as a court scholar). After we have given him our condolences, as the deceased was his intimate friend, guide and personal advisor, we will recommend that you fill the same post that your father did, and that you enjoy the same honours.

Ahmadou Bamba gave a simple but firm response:

I thank you for your condolences and for your advice. However I do not adopt the habit of visiting kings. I have no ambition with regard to their riches, and I only seek honour from the supreme Lord. 12

It was reported by Serigne Lamine Diop that these words caused consternation in the crowd. Pious people were astonished to see a young man transcend the petty futilities of this base world, or to dare to implicitly criticise those who harboured

ambitions for worldly riches. Common people were amazed to see Ahmadou Bamba

turn away from such easily accessible prestige. Some regarded him as foolish, and

Ahmadou Bamba said regarding these people: `Since I turned my gaze away from

them, they treated me like an alien. '13In fact he wanted to detach himself from the

temporal power of princes and kings and devote himself to an ascetic life in imitation

of the prophet Muhammad. He was criticised by those who wanted him to continue his father's work for the king. 14He answered them with the following poem:

`Adopt an inclination to the doors of kings, ' they tell me `So that you will gain wealth that will be sufficient forever. ' `God is sufficient for me, ' I responded, `And I content myself with Him. ' `Nothing satisfies me except religion and knowledge, I only fear my King (God), and place my hope solely in Him. How should I place my affairs in the hands of those Who are as incapable of conducting their affairs as the poor? And how will the lust for wealth lead me To other than those who are the supporters of Satan? If I am tempted and I suffer a need

12 Cited in Didier Hamoneau, pp9I-92. 13 Ibid., p92. 14 Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Touba Signes et Symboles, (Mauritius, Mauritius Printing Specialists (Pte. ) Ltd., 1997), p l7.

12

I will invoke the Owner of the Throne He is the Helper and the One of Infinite Power Who creates whatever He wishes however He wishes If He wants to hasten a matter, it is quickly realised And if He wants to delay it, it is delayed O you who cast blame, do not go too far, and stop blaming me Because abandoning the futilities of this base world does not sadden me at all If my only fault is abandoning the wealth of kings It is a precious fault which will not cause me dishonour. 15

This lucidly summarised Ahmadou Bamba's attitude regarding his refusal to

patronise the castles of kings. Instead of asking kings for what he wanted he would

ask God, and furthermore his main concern in life was a spiritual quest rather than

material advancement. In fact the ones who were casting blame were themselves

mistaken if they thought that Ahmadou Bamba's renunciation of worldly things was a

fault, because there was no dishonour in this.

Therefore it was in this period that Ahmadou Bamba made the crucial choice

of adopting the path of renunciation of worldly illusions and devotion to spiritual

matters, and not the duplicitous path of trying to serve two masters at the same time. 16

These events marked the evolution of Ahmadou Bamba from a teacher to a

spiritual guide, and so in 1883 he founded the Muridiyya (or the way of imitating the

prophet Muhammad). He said to his students:

I have received from my Lord the order to guide people to God, Most High. Those who want to adopt this path can but follow me. As for the others who only want to learn knowledge, the country is full of many appropriately able people. '?

At the time of making this statement he had attained a high spiritual rank.

Therefore it may be appropriate to articulate the main aspects of his personal spiritual

evolution and the particularity of his spiritual praxis in order to facilitate a better

understanding: Ahmadou Bamba met a number of heads of various spiritual

brotherhoods, and learnt from those he thought he could benefit from. 18He was

initiated into the Qädiriyyah brotherhood by his father who had received the wird (a

cycle of prayers particular to each Sufi brotherhood) from Sheikh Massamba Anta

Thiebbo. 19After this he adopted the Shädhil tar qah, and he practiced their wird for 8

's Cited in Didier Hamoneau, p92. 16 Ibid., pp92-93. 17 Cited in Abdoulaye Dieye, Touba Signes et Symboles, p17. 18 Serigne Bachir M'Backd, p37. 19 Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Touba Signes et Symboles, p17.

13

years. Then he was initiated into the Tijaniyyah tarigah, and he practiced their wird

for 8 years too. 20 Each time he entered into a spiritual path he evolved through all of

its stages and learnt their spiritual secrets. However his spiritual thirst was not

quenched, and he came to realise that only God Himself could satisfy him. He himself

stated:

I have transcended men and all that has come from their hands (their prayers, cures, awräd, supplications, etc. ) in order to turn to the Lord of men. 21

From now on he took the Qur'än as a wird. Methodologically speaking this

represented a great revolution in Sufism. At that time every Sufi brotherhood valued

its own wird, which it considered as the only key to the spiritual treasures of the

divine reality. However Ahmadou Bamba evolved beyond these Sufi brotherhoods

and realised that in remembering that there is no god but Allah one could perceive the

secrets of God's remembrance. Due to its newness this approach created a scandal.

Having arrived at nearness to God and the embrace of God's Love and Mercy,

God directed him to the plenitude of the light of Muhammad (nür

Muhammadiyyah). 22 He was shown that the way to absolute proximity to God was

through the prophet. Ahmadou Bamba expressed this poetically by stating: The vision of the sun rising prevents me from following the stars and the moon in the sky23

The stars represent the 124,000 prophets, and the moon represents the qutb

(pole) of the age. The sun represents the light of the prophet. Therefore what

Ahmadou Bamba is stating here is that the fight of prophet Muhammad forbids him

from being limited to other prophets and poles. Therefore he abandoned all of these in

order to undertake the path of service to the prophet. In this regard he stated:

I abandon awräd and devotion to other than the prophet in the service that I render unto creation. Today I place myself eternally in the hands of Ahmad, for the sake of the adoration of God. My companion is the book of God and my guide is Mustapha. My miracle, my glory and my dignity are the book of God and the prophet of God. 24

20 Serigne Bachir M'Backd, p37. 2! Cited in Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Touba Signes et Symboles, p 18. 22 Ibid., pp18-19. Sahl al-Tustari (d. 896 CE) was the first to express in detail the concept of the nür Muhammad, see Gerhard Bowering, The Mystical Vision of Existence in Classical Islam, (New York, Walter de Gryter, 1980), pp147-151. For a broad discussion of the history of the evolution of this idea see Annemarie Schimmel, And Muhammad is his Messenger (London, The University of North Carolina Press, 1985), pp123-143. 23 Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye., p20. 24 Ibid., p20.

14

Therefore the spiritual journey of Ahmadou Bamba may be summarised in

three stages: 1) Initiation into various Sufi brotherhoods and practising their awräd;

2) Transcending these awräd and taking the Qur'an as a wird;

3) Reaching absolute proximity to God through the light of prophet

Muhammad.

It must be reiterated how radical a departure this was in comparison to the

spiritual praxis of his age. The essence of his quest was going beyond what the

founders of various Sufi orders had brought in order to become an imitator of the

prophet Muhammad. The essential message was that al-Jiläni (1077-1166 CE), al-

ShädhiG (1196-1258 CE) and al-T-ijäni (1737-1815 CE) had themselves turned to God

and his prophet, and so the seeker must do so as well.

This, then, was the process through which Ahmadou Bamba evolved from

religious teacher to spiritual guide, and thus founded the Muridiyya. This was further

crystallised through a vision that Ahmadou Bamba received of the prophet, wherein

the prophet instructed him to give his disciples a spiritual education and no longer to

merely give them a bookish education. After this vision he retired to the forest with a

small number of disciples, and he also undertook many spiritual retreats at this time. 25

When he would stay in the forest for an extended period of time, his disciples would

come to look for him. On one occasion when they went to look for him they saw a

hunter in the forest. They gave the hunter a description of Ahmadou Bamba, and

asked if he had seen a man fitting this description. He told them that he had seen a

man fitting this description about five miles away, and he described the area where he

had seen him. When the disciples arrived there, they found Ahmadou Bamba sitting

under a tree by a pond. 26 Whilst teaching his disciples spirituality and undertaking

mystical retreats he continually wrote works on the religious sciences. However he

could not find any religious leader who could teach him something that he did not

already know. On one occasion a certain spiritual leader asked him who his spiritual

master was. He replied that it was the prophet Muhammad himself. As this was the

25 Didier Hamoneau, pp94-95. 26 Abdallah Saliou, Cheikh Ahmadou Bamba Khadim Rasoul, Life Teachings and Poetry, (Indiana, Price Write Publishing, 1999), p17. This work was undertaken by a Murid who did `field-work' in Touba, studying Muridiyyah from sources sanctioned by the spiritual leaders of the tarlgah. The incorporation of information gained from the living oral tradition of Muridiyyah in Senegal adds richness to the study.

15

case he was surprised that Ahmadou Bamba was manifesting such great veneration

for the family of Sheikh Sidiyya, a certain spiritual master from Mauritania. Ahmadou

Bamba replied as follows:

I was like a blind person seeking the right path, who was incapable of distinguishing the one who knew how to give guidance from the one who did not. But when the supreme leader of the Muslim community appeared to me and attracted me to him by the grace of his providence and kindness, intermediaries other than him seemed useless. However I have always maintained good relations with them for the pleasure of God and in order to help one another for God's sake. 27

In order to clarify this statement it may be appropriate to point out that al-

Suyiiti (1445-1505 CE) wrote Tanwir al-Halak fl Imkän Ru 'yah al-nabs wa'l-Malak,

wherein he asserted that the pious can see the prophet and the angels in a waking

state. 2 Furthermore al-Ghazäli stated that from the beginning of the path the Sufis see

visions and experience mystical unveiling so that even in a waking state they see

angels and the spirits of the prophets, hear voices coming from them and learn useful

things from them. 29

By 1894, despite the fact that he had attained a high spiritual level wherein he

had had visions of the prophet and other forms of access to the unseen realm, he was

still not satisfied. He wanted to attain the highest degree of proximity to God and His

prophet that was humanly possible. He had a vision of the prophet wherein the latter

told him that if he wanted to attain his aspirations he would have to undergo all

manner of trials without asking for any help. Ahmadou Bamba stated that his love for

the prophet would enable him to overcome any trials and challenges. These were the

metaphysical reasons that were behind many of the trials and deprivations that

Ahmadou Bamba had to suffer during harsh periods in exile. 30 The more tangible

reasons behind his exile were his confrontation with the colonial authorities. This

confrontation was rooted in the fact that Ahmadou Bamba's saintly reputation

attracted crowds of people to him who were in search of all sorts of blessings, each

person being motivated by what was important to him, whether that was something of

27 Cited in Didier Hamoneau, ppI25-126. 28 See Al-Suyüti, Al-Häwi li'l-Fatäwä, (Beirut, Dar al-Kutub al-`Ilmiyyah, 2000), pp242-255. 29 A1-Ghazäli, Al-Mungidh min al-Daläl, (Misr, Maktabah al-Jundi, 1973). A broader discussion of this issue citing numerous other proponents of this view may be found in Fritz Meier, `A Resurrection of Muhammad in Suyuti' in Essays on Islamic Piety and Mysticism translated by John O'Kane (Boston, Brill, 1999), pp505-547. 30 Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Touba Signes et Symbolen, p26.

16

this world or something of the next world . 3'Thus a man of this stature could not

remain unnoticed by the colonial authorities, which came to regard him as an obstacle

to their plans of domination. 32 This was rather paradoxical, as he was inclined to flee

from men and often complained of them, hated the veneration that the Murids had for

him in terms of their desire to be close to him and offer him their gifts and services,

their preferring him to themselves and their possessions, their too frequent visits, and

the tendency of traditional chiefs to form alliances with him in order to utilise these

for their own security. Ahmadou Bamba never changed his attitude to these matters,

and always remained detached from everything other than God and His messenger. 33

In spite of this the traditional religious leaders were jealous of him as many of

their disciples had left them in order to follow Ahmadou Bamba. 34 They could not

accept Ahmadou Bamba's spiritual dominance, and their jealousy soon translated into

verbal and physical aggression which obliged Ahmadou Bamba to leave the mosque

in M'Backe and establish his own new mosque. The mosque of Ahmadou Bamba

became more popular than the original one, and this intensified bad feelings, even

affecting his relationship with his own family. Many traditional chiefs saw their own

children join the Muridiyya, and this caused conflict within those families and led to

feelings of animosity towards Ahmadou Bamba and his close associates. 35 The

jealousy of these chiefs, who were little more than lackeys of the colonialists, was

such that they would miss no opportunity to report back to the French concerning the

supposedly subversive nature of Ahmadou Bamba. As an example, the chief of

N'Diambour wrote to the French at the beginning of 1895 stating that `the students of

Ahmadou Bamba undertake acts of vandalism in my province. ' In Darou Salam the

same type of denunciation was found in the correspondence of the traditional chief

who stated:

I have the honour of addressing you, sir, with this letter which has as its

purpose the desire to inform you that it is my job to act as the police regarding that which happens in my province, and to give you an account of this. I notice that since the arrival of Sheikh Ahmadou Bamba in the western part of the Baol region, there are certain holy men who pay him visits. I have no

31 Didier Hamoneau, p127. 32 For an analysis of various aspects of French policy with regard to Islam in general and Sufi brotherhoods in particular, see Lucy Behrman, `French Muslim Policy and the Senegalese brotherhoods, ' in D. F. Mccall and N. R. Bennett (eds. ), Aspects of West African Islam (Boston, Boston University Press, 1971), pp185-208. 33 Serigne Bachir M'Backe, p72. 34 Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Touba Signes et Svmboles, p26. 35 Didier Hamoneau, p128.

17

confidence in these people who come and go, and I am writing to you to keep you informed of the present situation in my country. 36

This hatred led to the need for Ahmadou Bamba to change his residence many

times. He left M'Backe in Baol and established the village of Darou Salam in 1886,

and then established Touba in 1887-8 and lived there. 37

Therefore the first people to slander Ahmadou Bamba were not the

colonialists, but those Senegalese people who considered him a threat to their prestige

and power. 38 Beyond these negative reports that the French received concerning

Ahmadou Bamba, and the fact that people flocked to visit him due to his reputation,

another reason for the eventual exile of Ahmadou Bamba was the threat that the

French perceived from the sociological dimension of his message. Therefore it is to

this aspect of his work that this study now seeks to address itself. However, in order to

understand the prescription that Ahmadou Bamba advocated for renewal of Senegalese society, it is necessary to understand the malady to which this social

engineering was addressed. Therefore it may be appropriate to briefly summarise how

Senegalese society reached the condition of crisis that it had towards the end of the

nineteenth century.

From the sixteenth century to the middle of the nineteenth century Senegalese

history was essentially dominated by the phenomenon of slavery which left behind an

aftermath which is still apparent. Apart from the huge demographic deficit, political

and social structures were profoundly undermined. Fratricidal conflicts were

permanently introduced into society. The society became caught up in a system of

commercial slavery due to the fact that the principal states in the country dedicated

most of their time to the business of slavery which became the sole lucrative

commercial venture in the country. Wide scale military expeditions were succeeded by raids against subject villages which had spoken against the raiders. Pillaging, theft,

violation and raids against people and cattle had become common phenomena. This

atmosphere of violence, hatred and terror placed the society in spiritual and moral

36 Cited in Cheikh Tidiane Sy, La Confrerie Senegalaise Des Mourides, (n. p., Presence Africaine, 1969), p1 13. Sy is a Senegalese sociologist. This work on Muridiyyah is highly regarded in Senegal. Of particular interest is the detailed presentation of Ahmadou Bamba's socio-economic praxis, including the founding of new villages and the economics of groundnut production. Furthermore, being a Tijäni, his work has the added value of objectivity. 37 Ibid., p 134. 38 Didier Hamoneau, p138.

18

turmoil. Traditional African religion, due to the narrowness of its horizons, could not

provide an adequate response to peoples' fears. 39

In the midst of this prevailing social conflict, the French colonial project was

introduced into the equation. Until 1854 the French had been content with economic domination of the country through the trading posts at Saint-Louis and Goree. This

policy changed into a policy of territorial conquest with Faidherbe. The Muslims lead

by their spiritual leaders, the French and the traditional African aristocracy backed by

their crown slaves (the cheddo) engaged in violent conflicts. The Muslims struggled

to establish their religious vision of society. Equally the French wanted to model Senegal according to the requirements of the colonial project. The old Senegalese

aristocracy was concerned with retaining its privileges, and had decided to defend its

own interests and way of life. Between these three groups no compromise was

possible. By the 1890's Senegalese resistance was crumbling, and after more than

quarter of a century of difficult conquest, the French became masters of Senegal. 40

It should be mentioned that although these jihads failed, they constituted a

turning point in Senegalese history. They pushed the pagan kings into the arms of the

slave traders, highlighting to a large extent the contradiction between a slave making

aristocracy and the people who found refuge and comfort in a religion which sought

to defend the oppressed. Therefore in the defeat of the Islamic movement was inscribed the conditions of its future success. In many ways the `armed saints'

prepared the way for the `preacher saints', because due to their brave though hapless

struggles Islam came to be regarded as the religion which embraced the hopes of the

oppressed, and provided refuge for communities threatened with destruction by the

colonialists. Therefore Senegalese Islam came to have a popular dimension founded

on its capacity to channel the political and social frustrations of the people. One of the

`preacher saints' who filled the void left by the defeat of the `armed saints' was Ahmadou Bamba, and he provided a spiritual and socio-economic direction for

channelling the frustrated aspirations of the Senegalese masses. 4'

39 Mbaye Gueye, `Cheikh Ahmadou Bamba, Contexte Historique et G6opolitique', in Ahmadou Bamba Face Aux Autorites Coloniales, by Oumar Ba, (Abbaville (France), L'imprimerie F. Paillart, 1982), p205. Ba's work presents the original historical documents of the French colonialists with regard to Ahmadou Bamba and the Muridiyyah, and is an important source of information for understanding the French `logic' behind its policies with regard to Ahmadou Bamba and the Muridiyyah. ao Ibid., pp206-207. 41 Moriba Magassouba, L'Islam au Senegal. Demain Les Mollahs, (Paris, Karthala, 1985), pp20-21. As the title would suggest, this work is somewhat critical in its ideas. It reproduces many of the anti-Murid sentiments of the work of Marty and Monteil. For further analysis of this book see Didier Hamoneau,

19

The French introduced a centralised system of administration based on their

own domestic model which was ill suited to Senegalese needs, as it did not cater for

the existence of semi-autonomous local groups. Effectively a system of forced labour

was introduced, which forced the `lazy Senegalese' to work in a regular fashion, and

was thus part of the necessary ̀ civilising process' which was the duty of the coloniser.

Added to this were an unjust system of taxation and a severe punitive system in case

of failure to comply, or in case of resistance. A somewhat arbitrary system of

deporting `troublesome natives' was also introduced, whereby certain Senegalese

were deported far from their homeland. 2 The colonialists achieved many of their

aspirations such as converting the economy into a monetary system. This upset

existing structures and created a moral crisis for the people. The bearers of the flag of

African traditionalism could no longer respond to the temporal and spiritual

aspirations of the people. Therefore Islam came to be adopted as the means of social

protest against a brutal colonial regime. It became the clear and distinct response of a

people that could no longer resist through direct political action. Thus as the French

were overcoming the final manifestations of armed resistance, conversions to Islam

began to increase. This process risked being cut short if the religious leaders did not

seek to remodel their society according to the Islamic model, as the masses were

living in anguish. It was at this stage that Ahmadou Bamba entered the political

stage. 43 Therefore in the context of this spiritual and social crisis, what did Ahmadou

Bamba advocate?

In addressing the prescription of Ahmadou Bamba for the social maladies of

his time, the first thing to note is that the social sediment of the upheavals afflicting

nineteenth century rural Senegal gravitated around him. Colonialism had imposed a

feudalist type of regime wherein the peasants had been reduced to the status of serfs.

The heavy taxation burden imposed on the peasants rendered them little more than

dependent vassals. Also peasants, due to the lack of cultivable land, and perhaps in

order to avoid the heavy taxation imposed on them by the regime in Cayor, went to

pp283-4. (The terms ̀ armed saints' and ̀ preacher saints' have quoted directly from Magassouba's text and are not technical terms translated from Arabic). 42 For an articulation of this policy of tax collection, levying forced labour and removal of troublesome elements through forced removal from the homeland, sometimes through forced conscription to the black French army, see Mahir Saul and Patrick Royer, West African Challenge to Empire, (Oxford, James Currey Ltd., 2001). This work explains how these policies were broadly utilised during the colonial period in French West Africa, particularly in order to remove the most important players in the political arena. 43 Mbaye Gueye, pp207-209.

20

Baol, Djolof or Sine-Saloum where the `groundnut-culture' was already well

developed. 44 Certain of the cheddo deserted the ranks of the African military and

came to submit to Ahmadou Bamba. The old students of his father came to him as

well as his brothers 45 Furthermore slaves, or former slaves, also came to join the

community. 46 Therefore many of the diverse elements of unstable nineteenth century

Senegalese society were in Ahmadou Bamba's community, and so he had to come to

terms with the different needs and aspirations of these various elements. For example,

the peasants that were looking to Ahmadou Bamba for a solution to their problems

were not doing so with the same motivations as the cheddo, slaves or the former

students of his father. 47

Ahmadou Bamba took these diverse elements and formed an economically

viable socio-religious community from them. He developed an Islamic pedagogy built

around Quranic education, but he also developed training through action and work.

This new way was developed by Ahmadou Bamba as he recognised the diversity of

the backgrounds of his constituents, and the consequent importance of forming a new

and durable social order. 48 In fact the Mund brotherhood has historically speaking

been a vehicle for the economic emancipation and relative social advancement of

recruits drawn in large part from the most disadvantaged sectors of pre-colonial

Wolof society (particularly the slaves and the despised artisan classes). This social

underclass was able to achieve something of a covert social revolution through the

Muridiyya. 49

The ideological underpinning to this social activism was Ahmadou Bamba's

notion of the work ethic. In emphasising the importance of work, Muridiyya

inculcated the community with the idea of perseverance and the spirit of enterprise. This is where the originality of Muridiyya lay, in that it represented the Islamisation

of a Senegalese society suffering from various social problems, thus meeting the

44 Cheikh Tidiane Sy, p150. 45 Ibid., pp108-109. 46 David Robinson, Paths of Accommodation, Muslim Societies and French Colonial Authorities in Senegal and Mauritania 1880-1920, (Ohio, Ohio University Press, 2000), p213. 47 Cheikh Tidiane Sy, pp108-109. 48 David Robinson, pp213-214. 49 D. Cruise O'Brien, Saints and Politicians, (London, Cambridge University Press, 1975), p64. For the ability of the Sufi brotherhoods in general, and the Muridiyyah in particular, to attract discontented members of Wolof society to embrace their vision of social reform during the nineteenth century, see Lucy Behrman, `The Political Significance of the Wolof adherence to Muslim brotherhoods in the nineteenth century', AHS 1 (1968), p68.

21

economic and social challenges with an appropriate solution. A people suffering from

hunger needed a solution which incorporated the economic as well as religious

dimensions of Islam. 50The educational policy of Ahmadou Bamba, which may be

ascertained from his written work, with its clearly didactic purpose, was to provide the

basis for mass education in Islam . 51 The implementation of this policy amongst

illiterate and uneducated people amounted to nothing less than a cultural revolution. 52

It may be appropriate to briefly mention the methods adopted by the

pioneering Murids in their establishment of functioning villages in order to facilitate

the moral and material advancement of their communities. The spiritual leaders of the

Muridiyya were masters in the art of founding and administering villages. They

constructed new villages with places to pray, routes leading to and from the villages

and houses for community members to live in. 53 The predominant social philosophy

within these villages was collectivism and communitarianism. The agricultural

activity which represented the economic support system of the community was

undertaken with the spirit of religious conviction. It is this which explains the

durability of these isolated villages. Therefore the sociological prescription adopted

by the Muridiyya was not limited to land appropriation and village formation, but also

incorporated the creative dynamism of Ahmadou Bamba and his colleagues who were

ready to create new colonies anywhere in the country, where they could not only

apply themselves to work on the land, but also introduce the religious dimension

(such as the chanting of gasä'id). 54 These work and education villages were called

daaras, and were locations wherein apprentice Murids would live communally under

the auspices of a spiritual master, thereby receiving education and training. 55 This

system of founding new villages led to the quick growth of Muridiyya, which is

nowadays perceived by the indigenous population as something of a miracle, and by

5" Cheikh Tidiane Sy, pp225-226. 51 Vide infra p52 for the educational policy ofAhmadou Bamba. 52 D. Cruise O'Brien, Saints and Politicians, p38. 53 See M. A. J. Beg, Two Lectures on Islamic Civilisation, (Kuala Lumper, University of Malaya Press, 1983), pp57-152 for the history of the creation of new towns by Muslim rulers in antiquity. Beg was a professor in the department of Arabic studies and Islamic civilisation in the National university of Malaysia. This book was the result of two lectures he gave in June 1982. 54 Cheikh Tidiane Sy, pp 160-162. ss Ibid., p174. It may be appropriate to point out that these daaras also have female members, and the presence of women and their degree of activity is often important, see Eva Evers Rosander, `Le Dahira de Mam Diarra Bousso A Mbacke', in Transforming Female Identities, by Eva Evers Rosander (Ed. ), (Stockholm, Gotab, 1997), p 166.

22

any secular standards is at least very remarkable. 56 On the basis of all of this it may be

appropriate to consider Ahmadou Bamba within the paradigm of Neo-Sufism, that is

Sufism reformed on orthodox lines and interpreted in an activist sense. This post-

medieval Sufism was stripped of its ecstatic and metaphysical characteristics, which

were replaced by a content which was nothing other than the postulates of orthodox

religion. The `this-worldly' emphasis of a positive attitude to finding practical

solutions to moral, social and economic problems was given added impetus by the

prevailing social decay, economic disintegration and political weakness afflicting Muslim communities. 57

The combination of the jealousy of some of his compatriots, and the perceived threat felt by the French from the sociological praxis of Muridiyya led to the

beginning of Ahmadou Bamba's conflict with the French colonialists. In his work Oumar Ba reproduced many letters written by the colonial authorities and their local

agents, which, amongst other things, explain the logic behind the decision to exile Ahmadou Bamba. 58ln one letter dated 10 July 1895 Leclerc, the director of the Saint-

Louis region, wrote to the director of political affairs:

I have the honour of conveying information to you concerning certain small matters which cause me to fear the emergence of a group from Djollof, N'Diambour and Cayor.

The holy man Ahmadou Bamba, whose students preached holy war in 1891 in Baol, Cayor and N'Diambour, thus precipitating fairly serious problems, are still active... Even if he officially claims to belong to a religious sect which has up to this time shown us no hostility (the Qädiriyya), he preaches incessantly through his disciples. The chiefs of the neighbouring regions are worried...

At Djewal and Coki, the king's employees confirmed to me that they had passed weapons to the holy man. The king of N'Diambour and Abdoulaye Mar received the same information from reliable sources.

On July 4, the day of the religious festival of Ashura, Ahmadou Bamba held discussions wherein more than seven armed men were present.

I ignore the theme of these discussions, but it is certain that due to the prudence of Ahmadou Bamba nothing blameworthy was officially pronounced by him. But it is no less certain that in the evening, when he spoke in his house with the main chiefs being present under the guard of devoted slaves, his students went from group to group giving his orders. I sent two men to t to get some information... but I fear that we will gain nothing by this method. 57

56 D. Cruise O'Brien, Saints and Politicians, p23. 57 Fazlur Rahman, Islam, (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1979), p206, pp209-210. 58 Didier Hamoneau, p142. 59 Cited in Didier Hamoneau, pp143-145.

23

These were the types of accusations which led to Ahmadou Bamba's exile. The threat of holy war, the concern of neighbouring chiefs, the (unsubstantiated)

accusation of possessing weapons, the receipt of damning information, and the feeling

that Ahmadou Bamba said one thing publicly whilst harbouring other notions

privately. The fact is that suspicion and second hand `information' rather than

concrete evidence were the basis of the accusations in the letter. Notwithstanding this, Ahmadou Bamba was arrested on 10 August 1895. He was taken to Saint-Louis, and

on September 5 he was brought before the colonial court. The prosecution stated that `even though we are not able to produce any evidence that Ahmadou Bamba has an

evident intention to undertake a holy war, his attitude, his scheming, and particularly those of his main students are suspicious. '60

Regardless of the flimsiness of the evidence Ahmadou Bamba was condemned to exile in Gabon, and he sailed there by ship on September 21. It must be

remembered that sending a Senegalese man accustomed to the Sahelian climate to the humid equatorial climate of Gabon was like a condemnation to death. This, of course,

was the aim of the colonial authorities, which were accustomed to utilising the

weapon of deportation of dangerous elements to inhospitable regions (e. g. Gabon,

Guyana, New Caledonia, etc. ). The final destination of Ahmadou Bamba was Mayumba in Gabon, a place infested with the dangerous tsetse fl Y. 61 Many others,

such as Samori Toure who was deported to Gabon in 1899, were unable to survive this harsh place of exile. 62

Ahmadou Bamba passed his days at Mayumba worshipping and writing. He did not accept an income from the French government, nor did he touch the food that

was brought to him. It was not known how he nourished himself. During this time he

sought to grow spiritually and to gain inner purification. He grew closer to God, and all of the trials merely increased him in piety. 63 He said regarding his personal spiritual growth during this period of exile: `I became like the sun. 'M

60 Cited in Oumar Ba, p62. The French sought to fight against the `Ttjäniyyah fanaticism' of supposed militants such as Amadu Sheku, Samba Diadana, Mamadu Lamine, Umar Tal, Ma Ba, the Madiyanke, etc. During preparations for Ahmadou Bamba's `trial' and deportation Martial Merlin articulated the French suspicion that Ahmadou Bamba had Tijäniyyah affiliation and could therefore be linked to `fanatic `opposition to the French. Robinson, pp133,215-6. 61 Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Touba Signes et Symboles, p28. 62 Oumar Ba, p92. 63 Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Touba Sinnes et Symbolen, p28. 64 Cited in Cheikh Tidiane Sy, p114.

24

During this period of exile the Murid community continued to survive and

grow due to the hard work of Ahmadou Bamba's brothers and key disciples. 65In fact,

before going into exile, he had given orders that the community should occupy

themselves with seeking knowledge, teaching and agricultural production. 66Ibra Fati

maintained correspondence with Ahmadou Bamba and gave his spiritual and

educational directions to the community. Sheikh Anta, the half-brother of Ahmadou

Bamba, handled relations with the administration and the leading figures in civil

society to the extent that it was necessary for the promotion of the economic and

political work of the Muridiyya. The leading disciple, Ibra Fall, nurtured the

agricultural potential of the Baye Fall community, and developed a network of

contacts throughout the peanut basin and the coastal cities. The economic and social

capital of Sheikh Anta and Ibra Fall played an important role in Ahmadou Bamba's

return from exile in 1902. They concentrated their attention on the position of deputy,

the office with the greatest influence on metropolitan and local circles. Their

contributions helped to elect Francois Carpot, who in turn intervened on their behalf

with the authorities. The administration, under the influence of this pressure, agreed to

allow Ahmadou Bamba back into Senegal. 67

A ship brought Ahmadou Bamba back to Dakar, and various delegations were

there to receive him and to express their joy at his return. He went to Saint-Louis

where crowds of people came to visit him. 68In fact his return caused considerable

excitement, and people came to see him from far and wide, some even coming from

Mecca and Medina. For example, Mawlay Ahmad Tibri, a sheriff from Medina who had published Ahmadou Bamba's work Masälik al-Jindn, and Sayyid Hamza Daffin

Rufska (a descendent of Abu Bakr, the first Caliph of the Muslims) both came from

Mecca to see Ahmadou Bamba. The sheikh was welcomed by crowds of people who hailed him like a hero returning victorious from a battle. The French regretted having

released him because they had inadvertently created a national hero. 69

It seemed that the trials that Ahmadou Bamba had experienced had been a

prelude to the acquisition of spiritual qualities, in the same way that Joseph's

imprisonment had been a prelude to future greatness. However these spiritual qualities

65 David Robinson, p216. 66 Serigne Bachir M'Backe, p70. 67 David Robinson, pp216-217. 68 Serigne Bachir M'Backe, p78. 69 Didier Hamoneau, p195.

25

of the sheikh did not prevent corrupt elements from dramatising the situation, and

putting the colonial authorities on guard. They presented the French authorities with

even more audacious fabrications than before, informing them that the houses of

Ahmadou Bamba were full of ammunition, and that all of the Mund sheikhs and all of

the students of the sheikh had entered into a secret pact wherein they had agreed to

undertake the mission of holy war against the French. The French surrounded

Ahmadou Bamba's residence with troops on all sides. As this was taking place

Ahmadou Bamba remained completely oblivious to events, and remained absorbed in

his religious observances. Certain of his supporters from amongst the Murids who had

numerous students behind them asked if they should launch a holy war against the

French until death or the achievement of victory. Ahmadou Bamba replied : `I do not

hope for the support of a friend, nor do I fear the aggression of an enemy. I am

entirely submitted to God. '70He also said that despite their large numbers and the

various means at their disposal, their activities do not have the least effect. 7 'These

were the words of a man who had reached the spiritual degree at which he realises

that ultimately the spiritual force of divine ordinance will be the ultimate cause behind

all that practically takes place. Human actions on the temporal plane of existence may

be seen as the means through which God realises his wishes.

Eventually the colonial forces decided to exile him for a second time to

Mauritania. It may be appropriate to give a brief summary of the chaotic situation

prevalent in Mauritania at this time, in order to contextualise Ahmadou Bamba's

period of exile against the prevalent socio-political and religious background, as well

as to give some indication of the type of spiritual men who were to host Ahmadou

Bamba's stay in Mauritania.

Whereas Senegal was effectively conquered by 1890, Mauritania was not

finally conquered until the inter-war years and the conclusion of the campaigns in the

north. However southern Mauritania (the Trarza and Brakna regions to which

Ahmadou Bamba was eventually exiled) was conquered by 1903. Saint-Louis in

Senegal became the capital of French colonial rule over the Senegalo-Mauritanian

zone, and it served as a base for conquest and eventual northward expansion. 72The

French sought to conquer Mauritania for both economic and strategic reasons. They

70 Cited in Serigne Bachir M'Backd, p81. 71 Ibid., p82. 72 David Robinson, pp11-13.

26

wanted to stabilise the region between the two rivers in order to develop their

economic interests. From a strategic point of view the conquest of Mauritania would

provide a passage that would enable eventual conquest of Morocco, which the French

greatly coveted. However, the submission of the fierce, warrior-like Mauritanian

tribes was not going to be easy to achieve. Xavier Coppolani (who had served in the

French administration in Algeria, spoke fluent Arabic, and had studied the Sufi

tarä'iq in depth) realised the power of the Sufi orders in Mauritania, and was

determined to utilise them in order to establish French domination in

Mauritania. 73 Therefore pacification was primarily built around the Maraboutic allies

of the Saint-Louis administration - Sa'd Buh (1850-1917 CE) and Sidiyya Baba

(1862-1924 CE). 74

Sa'd Buh and his Fädiliyyah network were the first Mauritanian Sufi order to

establish durable working and workable relations with the colonial regime and

economy out of a base of southern Mauritania. 75Sa`d Buh was the son of Muhammad

Fädil (d. 1869 CE), a man known for his piety, learning and charismatic power. He

had established his own branch of the Qddiriyyah order known as the Fädiliyyah. 76

Sa'd Buh followed his father's model quite closely. The majority of his students were

Wolofs who lived between Saint-Louis and Dakar, and therefore the core of the

community was established there. He organised the education of the community

around the teaching of kaläm, figh and Arabic literature. 77 Furthermore he established

a network of disciples and alliances across Trarza in southern Mauritania, which

reached up to Adrar in the north and Cayor, Baol and Saloum in the south. He

developed ties with emiral families in Adrar and Trarza that would prove invaluable

to French initiatives in the region. Sa'd Buh also offered counsel to princes and kings

who eagerly received him during his annual visits to Senegal. 78

In order to facilitate French colonial interests in the region Coppolani utilised

his strong Islamic culture to win over the religious figures that he felt wielded power

over others. He put before these leaders a difficult choice: Would they prefer to live in

" Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Exil de Cheikh Ahmadou Bamba en Mauritania, (La Reunion, Editions Ecole du Venere Maitre Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, n. d. ), pp74-75. 74 David Robinson, p90. 7s Ibid., p3. 76 For the aspects of the Fädiliyyah which were considered to be controversial by contemporaries see Constant Hames, `Shaykh Sa'ad Buh (Mauritania, 1850-1917)' Islam et Societes au Sud Du Sahara 4 (1990), p133. 77 Ibid., pI34. 78 David Robinson, pp162-169.

27

peace and security under European rule, or to refuse this rule and to live in the

anarchy prevailing in the region at that time. 79 One of Sa'd Buh's companions,

Muhammad Fädi1 Wuld Muhammad Näjim was present at a meeting which took place between Sa'd Buh and the French in 1898. The French asked for Sa'd Buh's opinion

regarding their plans to rule, whilst at the same time protecting the lives and property

of the believers. He deliberated on the issue for a while, and then gave his acceptance.

He expressed strong reservations regarding the conquest of Mauritania, stating that

the tribes would undertake fierce resistance against occupation. When he saw that the

French would do what they wanted regardless of his reservations, he gave in on this

issue as well and went along with the French. SOTherefore from the first French

missions to Mauritania at the end of the nineteenth century, Sa'd Buh did not hesitate

in giving his help. He himself accompanied the mission of Gruvel-Chudeau on the

Atlantic coast, and more notably the actions of peaceful conquest undertaken between

1901-05 by the conqueror of Mauritania, Copolani. 8' In return for this support for the

French, he was given gifts by the administration for services rendered. As Sa'd Buh's

network principally relied on revenue received from disciples during collection tours

(mainly undertaken in the peanut basin in Senegal), the French administration allowed him to continue these closely monitored tours, and in 1913 they compiled a list of

contributors and contributions totalling 63,350 francs for the year. 82

Sa'd Buh remained prominent throughout the first decade of the twentieth

century, but he increasingly ceded centre stage to Sidiyya Baba, the principal

collaborator in the French conquest of Mauritania. 83

Sidiyyah Baba was the grandson of Sidiyyah al-Kabir (1780-1868 CE), an important scholar who established himself in Southern Mauritania having himself

taken the Qädiriyyah tarigah from Sidi al-Mukhtär al-Kunti (1729-1811 CE). He

helped spread the already dominant Qädiriyyah tarigah, initially emphasising the

Kunta version of his mentors. It is also important to note that Sidiyyah al-Kabir was

regarded as a hero by many Mauritanians for his resistance to the French. Therefore

"For a discussion of the anarchy prevalent in Mauritania up to the arrival of the French colonialists see Yahya Wuld al-Bara, `Les theologians Mauritaniens face au colonialisme Francais: Etude de fatwa-s de jurisprudence musulmane' Le Temps des Marabouts by David Robinson et Jean-Louis Triaud (Eds. ) (Paris, Editions Karthala, 1997), pp86-89 8° Ibid., pp99-100. 81 Constant Hames, p134. 82 David Robinson, pp 169,173-4. 83 Ibid., p172.

28

Sidiyyah Baba's credentials were impressive in that he came from a family with a

well-established scholarly and Sufi lineage, as well as a reputation for opposition to

the European presence. Though, as outlined above, Sa'd Buh had serious reservations

about the pacification campaign as he feared a counter-mobilisation of the

Mauritanian tribes in the north, when he realised that his view would not prevail he

adjusted his stance and became a loyal soldier of the conquest. Sidiyya Baba had no

such hesitation. 84

When the French arrived in Mauritania, in contrast to others of his

contemporaries like Ma al-Aynayn in the north, Sidiyya Baba offered to facilitate

their military conquest. Camels were provided and he offered a house he had inherited

at Boutlimit as a staging post for French columns. He cultivated the friendship of

administrator-Islamists such as Xavier Coppolani and Paul Marty, and he wrote legal

opinions (fatäwä) favouring the acceptance of French over-rule. It is evident from the

accounts of these administrators that the sheikh as one of the most impressive

intellects that they had met in their West African service. Little wonder that men from

Sidiyya Baba's group came to be depended upon by the early administrators, and

some of them served in the government offices in Saint Louis and Dakar as advisors

on Mauritanian affairs. When a major political crisis loomed on the horizon at the

time that Ahmadou Bamba was forced into exile, it was Sidiyya Baba's intervention

and his personal assurance to the French administration that he would take

responsibility for Ahmadou Bamba's actions that helped to convince the French to

allow Ahmadou Bamba's return from Gabon. 85

Furthermore the decision to exile Ahmadou Bamba to Mauritania was taken

because there were already many great saints living there, and it was hoped that by

sending Ahmadou Bamba there it would reduce his prestige, and thus the crowds that

were prone to gravitate around him would have their enthusiasm dampened, and thus

be dispersed. 86 The feeling of racial superiority of the white, Arab Mauritanian

(bidän) over the black Senegalese (südän) was and still is a defining point in

Senegalese-Mauritanian relations. The pogroms and expulsions of 1989 testify to the

David Robinson, pp 179-184. gS Charles Stewart, `A Mauritanian Reformer: Shaikh Sidiyya Baba', in Tarikh vol. 7 no. 1 (1971), p68. 86 Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Touba Signes et Symboles, p30. Though Ahmadou Bamba had always advocated non-violence from the earliest period of his life, the fact that Sidiyyah Baba also advocated non-violence (be it for pragmatic reasons), was complimentary to Ahmadou Bamba's stay in Mauritania. This seems to have enhanced Ahmadou Bamba's reputation in the eyes of his hosts rather than to have marginalized him as the French had hoped.

29

continuation of these feelings. Coupled with this there have remained from Ahmadou

Bamba's time pretensions to superiority in Islamic learning and practice on the part of

the light skinned Arab Mauritanians. 87

Ahmadou Bamba inaugurated a new phase in the history of Islam and the

black man. The black people of Senegal had the custom of going to Mauritania to

seek spiritual masters. Ahmadou Bamba reversed the roles and became the first black

spiritual guide to be followed in large numbers by the white race. 88 Eminent

Mauritanian religious figures manifested their attachment to him, and even dedicated

eulogies to him. Sheikh Sidiyya Baba said of Ahmadou Bamba:

`Sheikh Ahmad is a bounty that the Lord, Master of creation, sent them. '89

Ahmadou Bamba himself explained the mystical significance of his second

period of exile in Mauritania, and how it differed from the first exile in Gabon,

whereby he stated that the second exile represented the fulfilment of his life by God.

It was God's reward to him. 90

Therefore whereas the first period of exile in Gabon was a period of struggle

and spiritual growth in the harshest of environments, the second period of exile in

Mauritania was one wherein the fruits of this life-long struggle were reaped.

An analogy may be drawn to the life of the prophet Muhammad and his

companions, whereby in the Meccan phase of their spiritual lives they were struggling

in unfavourable and harsh conditions to learn and grow spiritually, and to establish the

new religion of Islam despite great opposition. The fruits of this struggle were reaped

after they migrated to Medina, and the life-long struggle of prophet Muhammad and his companions was rewarded with success by God.

Before leaving to go into exile in Mauritania, Ahmadou Bamba had written

some orders and recommendations for his students:

From Ahmadou Bamba, son of Muhammad, son of Habibullah, to all of his students. Greetings to you.

The present purpose is to ask you to put aside any words that have been published anywhere in the country which cause hurt to the people that hear them. Henceforth those amongst you that cause me any more problems with the governor and his colleagues shall, as a result of these words, be abandoned in this world and the next.

These are the instructions that you must follow:

87 David Robinson, p4. g" Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Touba Sinnes et Symboles, pp30-31. 89 Ibid., p31. 90 Ibid., p32.

30

1. Those who want to learn to read and write in Arabic should refer themselves to my brother Ibrahim (i. e. Ibra Fati);

2. Those who want to work without learning anything should refer to themselves to my brother Sidi al-Mukhtar (i. e. Sheikh Anta);

3. Those who wish to combine the two should also refer themselves to Ibra Fati;

4. Those who wish to do neither one nor the other should be driven away and they can go where they please.

The foremost students such as Ibra Fall and Ibra Sar, etc., should expel from their ranks all of the bad followers and keep only the good ones who will bring no trouble.

I wish for these instructions to be strictly followed in the future. 91

What is noteworthy regarding these instructions is that even though Ahmadou

Bamba was exiled for planning a holy war and having ammunition in his house, he

strictly warned his followers against even verbally harming people in the country, or

causing him any problems with the colonial authorities. Furthermore he instructed that

only good students should be kept within the fold, and that these students should

study, or work or do both at the same time. Furthermore he expected these orders to

be strictly followed. In the event, the Murids set themselves to work with great vigour

during his exile in Mauritania, so that during this exile his prestige in Senegal

increased, and the number of Murids grew rapidly. 92 His return from Mauritania in

1907 was widely acclaimed as the return of a great saint, spiritual leader and founder

of the Murid brotherhood, a great reviver of Islam who brought honour not only to

Senegal but also to Africa as a whole. 93

On his return to Senegal in 1907, Ahmadou Bamba was placed in the village

of Thiene because it was felt that by placing him in the Djollof region (distant from

his native Baol), the crowds who visited him would be significantly reduced in

number. However the devotion of his followers was so great that the distance of this

village was not enough of an obstacle to prevent his followers from flocking to meet

him. The French attempted to contain this growing enthusiasm to visit the Sheikh by

stating that only if a certain sum of money was paid could a permit be obtained which

would enable a visit to be made to him. The Murids vigorously opposed this measure,

91 Cited in Hamoneau, p209. 92 For an analysis of the gradual growth of Muridiyyah see D. Cruise O'Brien, The Mourides of Senegal, chapter 3, `The Expansion of the Brotherhood, ' pp58-78. 93 Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Touba Signes et Symboles, p32.

31

and took their protest to the house of the chief of the Louga subdivision. He found

himself completely powerless to contain the crowd, some of whom had no

reservations about sleeping at the train station in order to take the first train to Louga.

He wrote to the governor of Senegal informing him that the unrest and trouble

provoked by the partisans of Ahmadou Bamba could re-ignite religious fanaticism in

the region, and increased surveillance would be necessary. In January 1912 the French

administration decided that in order to end this unrest they would transfer Ahmadou

Bamba to Diourbel `where surveillance would be easier. '94

This period also marked the beginning of a change in French policy with

regard to Ahmadou Bamba, despite the fact that he always refused to collaborate with

the regime. Therefore what could be the reasons for this change in policy? This

question is particularly pertinent when one considers the aggressive policy of the

French with regard to their Muslim subjects, and the rigidity with which this policy

was applied to Ahmadou Bamba. In reality, war in Europe appeared certain, and the

colonial authority realised the great influence that Ahmadou Bamba had. 95 In fact in

1915 in an internal report made by the French colonial authorities it was stated that

`his influence on the indigenous population is considerable, not only on his

followers-but also on other Muslims who consider him to be a saint, and the most

pious and best servant of God who has received special grace from God. 96 If a call to

civil disobedience was launched by Ahmadou Bamba this could lead to incalculable

consequences. This was particularly the case as Senegalese troops played a major role in French military actions. Therefore this opening of a second front (and an internal

one at that) would have been a travesty for the French. 97

Another factor in the change of French policy with regard to Ahmadou Bamba

was the contribution of the Muridiyya to the economic activity in the country. At the

same time that Ahmadou Bamba was trying to build a viable socio-economic order to

enable his religiously orientated community to survive, the French were in the process

of constructing a colonial economy which meant the conversion of the Senegalese

economy from a subsistence economy to one wherein cash crops were prevalent. 9x

With the advent of the Muridiyya, groundnut production increased markedly.

94 Cheikh Tidiane Sy, pp 120-121. 93 Ibid., p 121. 96 Oumar Ba, p 155. 97 Didier Hamoneau, p225. 98 David Robinson, pl.

32

(during the first world war) production reached 303,067 tonnes. This certainly

attracted the attention of the colonial regime which realised that beyond its

specifically religious character, Muridiyya was territorially expanding in the country

with a consequent benefit in terms of groundnut production. 99

Therefore the French were particularly struck by the metamorphosis which Ahmadou Bamba caused in Islam. By itself Islam had never had an impact on the

economic aspect of life in sub-saharan Africa. However Ahmadou Bamba's teachings

emphasised the praiseworthy nature of work. The coloniser could not help but notice

this economic potential which would consequently lead to the commercial importation

of various commodities. In an internal report from 1911 the French authorities

commented on this new economic force:

The Murid movement does not have any political interests, but its activities in the economic domain should be closely followed with regard to the consequences it could have on local commerce. 100

In establishing this new strategy with regard to Ahmadou Bamba the French had not neglected anything. On the one hand they knew that he was very influential,

but that his movement had an economic dimension which was a satisfactory

counterweight to possible future difficulties. This is clearly articulated in an internal

report from 1926:

The Murid sect merits special mention because of its importance and the growing number of its followers. It has entirely conquered the Baol region, and spread to the neighbouring regions of Thies, Sine-Saloum, Louga and particularly to Cayor.

If it is possible to regret allowing this growth, and being aware that the Muridiyya could eventually become the source of difficulties, it is important to note that at the economic level Muridiyya has markedly contributed to the development of agricultural production in the Baol region. This beneficial action is an important counterbalance to any eventual difficulties that could arise. 10 '

Therefore the French were clearly balancing the Muridiyya contribution to

their economic interests (i. e. promoting the production of the lucrative groundnut cash

" David Robinson, p I. 99 Cheikh Tidiane Sy, pp 122-123. 100 Cited in Cheikh Tidiane Sy, p123. 101 Oumar Ba, p166. In the light of this statement it is interesting to consider the substantial political influence that Muridiyyah would eventually come to enjoy in post-independence Senegal. See, for example, Lucy Behrman, `Muslim Politics and Development in Senegal', in JMAS 15,2 (1977), pp261- 76.

33

crop), against the possible problems that could arise in the future due to the

emergence of a mass movement with its own socio-religious agenda.

Ahmadou Bamba was also evaluating the benefits and losses arising from co-

operation with the French. Though he never collaborated with the colonial regime, he

could justify co-operation in terms of the chaotic and violent conditions of the pre-

colonial ancien regimes which affected the Muslims as much as the non-Muslims, and

the weakness of Muslim societies relative to the new regime. He saw the opportunity

for Islamisation provided by the new conditions of stability wherein the colonial

authorities controlled firearms, clamped down on raiding, etc. 102 Thus Ahmadou

Bamba undertook tentative cooperation with the colonial regime to the extent that he

felt that it was in the interests of Islam.

In fact nowadays, the majority of Senegalese people live in rural areas, more

than half of them in the groundnut basin. This population is made up of followers of

the great holy men who have become powerful figures in the political life of Senegal.

They owe their economic power and social prestige to the groundnut economy. 103 In

terms of the post independence role of Muridiyya, the large annual contribution of

Murid cultivators to Senegal's groundnut harvest has secured the brotherhood an

important place in the national economy. The brotherhood has broadened its

economic portfolio by branching out into urban commerce and investment. 104Due to

its important role in the national economy of Senegal the brotherhood has always been

assured of significant consideration from government economic planners. 105Therefore

Ahmadou Bamba's economic program has continued to reap benefits for the Muslims

of Senegal more than a century after these initiatives were initially launched.

In January 1919 the French wanted to award Ahmadou Bamba the Cross of the

Legion of Honour, a distinction going back to Napoleon's time which was awarded

for service to the state. Ahmadou Bamba refused to accept the award, explaining his

refusal as follows:

102 David Robinson, p226. 103 Momar Coumba Diop (Ed. ), Senegal Essays in Statecraft, (Oxford, Codesria Book Series, 1993),

pl 17. For an interesting discussion of the evolution of the role of Murid sheikhs form pioneers in

groundnut production to leaders who used the colonial system to great advantage, thus themselves becoming powerful political figures, see Catherine Boone, Merchant Capital and the Roots of State Power 1930-1985, (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp40-43. 104 D. Cruise O'Brien, The Mourides of Senegal, (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971), p214. 105 Ibid., p217.

34

I am the captive of God and I recognise no other authority but His. My reward falls on the Generous Giver for the service I render unto the prophet, and He is

the most excellent of Givers. 106

Furthermore, in April 1916 the colonial authority made Ahmadou Bamba a

member of the Consultative Committee of Muslim Affairs. He and a few other holy

men were asked to represent the Muslims of Senegal, and Sheikh Sidiyya was asked

to represent Mauritania. However Ahmadou Bamba never sat on the committee

maintaining his attitude of indifference to worldly power. 107 Therefore Ahmadou

Bamba's partial co-operation with the French was far from full-scale collaboration,

and he was always careful to keep the relationship at arms length.

The reputation of Ahmadou Bamba spread outside the borders of Senegal and

Mauritania to the entire Muslim world. He received delegations from Morocco, Syria,

Iraq, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Central Asia and other countries. The most famous

delegation that came to see him came in 1926 from the city of Medina. This

delegation included Sheikh `Umar al-Kurdi, the head of one branch of the Nagshbandº

order, and Sheikh Muhammad Ali Jawwäd from the Khalwati order. They gave

Ahmadou Bamba letters that had the signatures of many spiritual leaders of different

orders. During this time there was a war in Hijaz between Sharif al-Husayn and the

Sa`üd family. Abdul Aziz Ibn Sa`üd had started the Wahhabi movement, and was

attempting to conquer the whole of Arabia. The delegation from Medina asked

Ahmadou Bamba to pray to God for them, in order that war in Mecca and Medina

would be averted. Sheikh `Umar al-Kurdº composed a poem containing the requests

of the delegation:

The light of Sainthood is evident, only those who have an illuminated intellect

can see it. Look at it so clear on the face of the one who has illuminated all of Africa. He is Sheikh Ahmad, Sheikh of haqiqal, tarigat and guidance, who leads mankind by truth and faith. 0 servant of the prophet, your secret and power is incomprehensible and immeasurable. Your grace has reached the holy city of Medina. The atmosphere of the holy city was perfumed by your gifts, and it comes to thank your high and illustrious person through our delegation. Look at us through your holy regard to purify our internal state. Be

generous with the people of Medina and support them during this period of trials, to please and satisfy the holy prophet)°

106 Cited in Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Touba Signes et Symboles, pp32-33. 107 Didier Hamoneau, p233. 108 Cited in Abdallah Saliou, p35.

35

Ahmadou Bamba was very generous to the delegation. He gave them the best

food and gifts for the people of Medina. This delegation asked him his opinion about

whether the Wahhabi movement was part of Islam. He answered that it was, but he

compared it to a tree that is dry on the inside and therefore does not have the potential

to produce fruit. It should be noted that a delegation of this dimension coming from

the holy city of Medina to a small city in West Africa was unheard of during this time.

It would have taken at least a month to travel from Medina to Senegal as there were

no cars or aeroplanes to facilitate this journey. '09

Ahmadou Bamba continued to teach his students and also to spend periods of

time in solitary meditation. His frugal habits in terms of food and clothing were

evidence of the fact that he was truly of an ascetic disposition. ' 10

In 1924 he wanted to officially establish Touba as the spiritual capital of the

Muridiyya, and so he decided to build a mosque there. Eventually official permission

was given for this on 30 April 1925. Though this mosque was not built in his lifetime,

he left precise instructions with his sons regarding the construction of the mosque, and

he made them promise to build a mosque that would not only be the pride of Senegal,

but would also be a beacon of faith in West Africa, and a masterwork of Islam. ' 11

On 19 July 1927 Ahmadou Bamba died. He had spent thirty-three years of his

life in exile or under house arrest, but even in these conditions he had managed to

devote himself to his personal religio-spiritual quest. He was a man who was totally

devoted to worship, and throughout his life a large amount of his time was spent in

private meditation. Furthermore he was wholeheartedly committed to the moral and

material upliftment of his people, not limiting himself merely to the religious aspects

of Islam, but also seeking to facilitate the fulfilment of the socio-economic needs of

his people. Ahmadou Bamba left behind him a great wealth of written material which has

yet to be fully appreciated and utilised. He himself considered this body of work to be

his greatest legacy. Notwithstanding this Ahmadou Bamba also left behind a practical

legacy in the form of a functioning community with the city of Touba as its centre. In

fact Muridiyyah has grown beyond West Africa so that nowadays it has adherents in

109 Ibid., p35. "0 Cheikh Tidiane Sy, p126. 111 Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Touba Signes et Symboles, pp54-55.

36

all parts of the world, and it remains an active, expanding element in the global

Muslim community.

37

CHAPTER 2

BENEFICIAL THINGS OF THIS WORLD OF A SPIRITUAL NATURE

2.1 Ahmadou Bamba and Non-Violence (The philosophy of Ahmadou Bamba)

Against the backdrop of domination by an advanced military power, and very

little possibility of successful military resistance, what did Ahmadou Bamba

advocate? On being accused of advocating armed opposition (jihäd) against the

colonialists he answered his accusers with the famous response: "If you say that I

advocate struggle then this is true. But I advocate struggle through knowledge and

piety (tagwä). A12

This non-violence of Ahmadou Bamba needs to be explained further. He

explained his choice himself as follows:

When I think of this dungeon (in Dakar where he was being held) and of the authority of the time, I think of undertaking armed struggle at all costs, but the one who effaces all sins (al-mäht - one of the names of the prophet Muhammad) dissuades me from it. 113

Therefore though Ahmadou Bamba recognised armed struggle as legitimate,

his spiritual station prevented him from undertaking it. He had reached a spiritual

level whereby no form of violence could harm him. To those who were amazed at the

miraculous protection that he enjoyed, the Sheikh answered:

My Lord has bestowed on me the secret of the verse `God has protected you from the people (Wallähu ya `simuka min al-näs). ' 14

Therefore Ahmadou Bamba's self-immersion in the Qur'än and sunna and his close

relation to God and the prophet elevated him beyond struggle with armaments, and

enabled him to undertake the greater struggle (jihad al-akbar), the struggle for

spiritual purification based on knowledge and fear of God. This jihad al-akbar is

alluded to in a statement made by the prophet on his return from the Tabük military

expedition:

We have returned from the minor struggle (jihad al-ashar) to fight the major struggle (jihad al-akbar). "'

112 Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Le Centenaire du Jihad al-Akbar, (Mauritius, 1995), p80. 113 Ibid., p80. 114 Ibid., p81. This is a verse of the Qur'än (5: 67). "S Cited in al-Ghazäll, Ihyg' `Ulwn al-Din, (Beirut, Dar al-Kutub al-`Ilmiyyah, 1998) vol. 3, p7. Hadith narrated by al-Bayhagi, and it is daif according to Al-' Iraqi's analysis, which shall be used for the rest of this study when quoting hadith from the Imo'. For an explanation of the technical terms of hadith classification utilised in the rest of this work, see Muhammad ibn `Alawi al-Mäliki's al-Manhal al-Latif fi `Usül al-Hadith al-Sharif (Jeddah, Matba' Sahar, 1982)

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What he meant by the jihäd al-akbar was the struggle with Satan, the lower

self and passionate desire, and he referred to it as a major war because of its constant

duration, the extent of the exertion it demands, the danger it entails, and the fear that it

might turn out badly at the end. ' 16

An analogy needs to be made here with the life of prophet Muhammad. When

he was only four years old two angels visited him. They opened his chest and took out

his heart and removed a black muscle from it, and then washed it with celestial water

and put it back in his chest. 117 Therefore the prophet was given a certain spiritual rank

and inner purity which enabled him to remain non-violent in the most difficult

circumstances. In fact during his thirteen year period of receiving revelation in Mecca

he did not raise a sword or even lift a hand against anyone even though the Muslims

suffered beatings, killings, oppression, boycott, abuse, etc. The closeness of Ahmadou

Bamba to the prophet and his non-violence in similarly difficult circumstances should

therefore be understood in this light. Furthermore the persecution that the prophet

suffered in Mecca and the cruel colonial domination in Senegal at the time of

Ahmadou Bamba had many similarities, not least of all the unlikelihood of successful

armed resistance. According to Ahmadou Bamba, fighting against the French at that

time would have been as useless as trying to break a rock with sand. Therefore he

advised his followers to treat the Christians as the prophet treated the non-believers in

the beginning at Mecca. A similar analysis of the situation was made by Paul Marty,

who was very much the architect of French colonial policy with regard to the Murids.

He quite unequivocally stated that Ahmadou Bamba had been born too late to carry

out any scheme of direct action against the French, as they were much stronger than

he was"8.

The closeness of Ahmadou Bamba to the prophet lead him to imitate the

methodology of the prophet by patiently building a community in similarly trying

circumstances, and his imitation of the prophet may be profitably considered

according to the aforementioned spiritual and political reasons.

116 Abdul Qadir Jilani, Sufficient Provision for the Seekers of the Path of Truth vol. 2, (Houston, Al Baz Publishing, 1995), p45. 117 See Muhammad Husayn Haykal, The Life of Muhammad, (USA, North American Trust Publications, 1976), p50 and Martin Lings, Muhammad, His Life Based on the Earliest Sources, (London, George Allen & Unwin Publishers Ltd, 1983), pp25-6. 118 Lucy E. Creevey, `Ahmadou Bamba 1850-1927', in Studies in West African Islamic History vol. 1, Ed. by John Ralph Willis, (London, Frank Cass and Co. Ltd., 1979), pp290,296.

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Many western scholars who see Muhammad as a prophet in Mecca see him differently

at Medina. He usually becomes a more secular head of state. 119For example, in

discussing the Medinan period of the prophet's life Watt often makes the prophet look

like someone who had the conquest of the whole of Arabia and beyond as his primary

aim. 120 Therefore the non-violence of the prophet in Mecca is seen by many western

scholars as merely a strategic ploy adopted to mask a secular, hidden agenda. To such

thinking the following may be the appropriate retort: Contrary to Gandhi in India, for

example, the non-violence of Ahmadou Bamba was not of a merely tactical or

strategic nature, borne of a philosophic dogmatism, and used to secure a negotiated

settlement with the British colonialists, thus facilitating a peaceful transition to

independence. 121 That is not to say that Gandhi did not hold his own religious and

philosophical views seriously, but rather that he had gradually become intellectually

convinced of their correctness, and thus decided to adhere to these views. 122 This is

altogether different to the case of Ahmadou Bamba. His gentleness was due to his

pure nature, the original Elfrah which had been preserved intact, by the grace of God,

since his earliest days. That is why, without doubt, his non-violence bore long-lasting

fruits and was crowned with success. 123 Primarily, therefore, spiritual reasons must be

sought for the non-violence of Ahmadou Bamba, whereby he had attained to a lofty

spiritual station, and been divinely endowed with a laudable nature. This analogy

between the reasons for the non-violence of Ahmadou Bamba and the reasons for the

non-violence of the prophet Muhammad was made by Ahmadou Bamba himself in

the gasidah Maf tih al-Jinn wa Maghäliq al-Nirän (Pages 4-8) 124:

4. In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful. Prayers and peace be on our master and protector Muhammad who was granted a clear victory in that

5. sin was turned away from his essence in the past, present and future, and by

completing His favour on him, and he guided him to the straight path and granted him help, though some of his people had said before `If God does not help him... ' Peace be on his family and companions. And He said in this regard : `Truly God will help him. '

119 Jabal Muhammad Buaben, Image of the prophet Muhammad in the West, (Leicester, The Islamic Foundation, 1996), p32. 120 Ibid., p320. 121 Tariq Ali, The Nehrus and the Gandhis: An Indian Dynasty, (London, Pan Books Ltd., 1985), p34. 122 For a discussion of Gandhi's philosophical evolution through grappling with various religious and philosophical ideas until he came to adopt a certain form of Hinduism, see B. R. Nanda, Mahatma Gandhi, (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1989), pp53-56. 123 Didier Hamoneau, pp32-33. 124 This gasfdah is published in page format and it is easier to reference in that form. However, for the majority of gasä'id that have been published in verse format and may be referenced in that format, they will be presented in verse format in this study.

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He granted him a victory And a recompense not seen before He for whom my life became Perpetual contentment and joy

6. The best revelation guided me Through the best of prophets And by his noble companions Serving the best of men My religion is the love of God And the love of the one through whom the enemy is suppressed The controller of fortune gave unto me Without my suffering any harm He left misguidance to others And He did not want me to suffer illness He led me to gardens by His predestination Through my enjoying the permitted things alone He purified my existence as a servant And He helped me eternally By the one who remained eternally My protector from grief The Eternal One repelled suffering and faults And he taught the unseen He protected my heart from grief For the sake of others

7. My Lord eradicated my evil How wonderful is our Lord My proximity to Him increased A nearness of contentment and nobility I seek to render thanks unto Him He guides me to His remembrance He directs dislikeable things to other than me And He protects my sanctity To God be my praise and thanks He is my guide, the Acceptor of Thanks He protected me from reprehensible things And things that bring trials I gave my life unto him Whilst He is the one who grants a long life With no harm or trickery Or things which bring down illness He repelled harm to other than me And so it was repelled Through me He guided the readers of the Qur'an To good things and spiritual nourishment

8. He guided me to the one who made My life into contentment and joy The one whose heart was bewildered with God And who thus remained joyous

God gave unto him, may peace and prayers be on him, for the service of composing this poem, the joy contained in every letter, and through this he gained what others could not obtain of righteousness, piety and knowledge, which leads to happiness and profit. No harm was directed to him, and he was granted the best state and station, and God is entrusted over what we say.

The introduction to this section of the gasidah clarifies the fact that the

prophet Muhammad was granted a clear victory by having all of his sins wiped away,

whether past, present or future sins. Ahmadou Bamba is alluding to the following

Quranic verses:

We granted you a clear victory In order to forgive you your sins of the past and the future And to complete His favour on you and guide you on the straight path (48: 1-2)

It is narrated that the prophet used to offer his prayers until his feet became

swollen. Somebody said to him: `God has forgiven you your sins of the past and the

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future. ' On that he said: `Should I not be a grateful slave. ' 125 Therefore in response to

being forgiven for his past and future sins the prophet would engage in excessive

worship due to his gratefulness to God for the forgiveness He had granted him.

Furthermore, though the prophet passed through great dangers he was under the

protection of God. This, then, may be seen as the perfect model of a man who had

drawn close to God and had been purified and forgiven his sins, and was now

protected from harm. In the case of Ahmadou Bamba striving to imitate the prophet

totally had led to him being close to the prophet (as is stated on page 8: `He guided

me to the one who made My life into contentment and joy'), and thus also gaining

forgiveness and protection from God. This is the point that the rest of the gasjdah

quoted above seeks to make. Therefore on page 6 Ahmadou Bamba states that `My

religion is the love of God, and the love of the one by whom the enemy is

suppressed. ' Therefore love of God and love of the prophet are the weapons which are

being used to suppress the enemy. Page 6 further explains this, in that first of all

Ahmadou Bamba was forgiven and purified. He states: `He purified my existence as a

servant' and on page 7 `My Lord eradicated my evil, How wonderful is our Lord. '

Having reached this station of closeness to the prophet and having gained purification from God, he was now protected from harm: `He directs dislikeable things to other

than me, And he protects my sanctity, ' and also: `He repelled harm to other than me,

And so it was repelled' (page 7).

Therefore this divine approach to non-violence was altogether different to Ghandi's approach. For Ahmadou Bamba it had become a form of non-violence borne

out of certitude, as God had assured him that he would be preserved from all human

machinations. Therefore before the colonial authorities sought to adopt aggressive

tactics against Ahmadou Bamba, he had already received the certitude of divine

protection. There are many remarkable examples of the divine protection which Ahmadou Bamba enjoyed:

His first contact with violence was in Saint Louis in Senegal. The colonialists

were trying to use intimidation. The soldiers took the Sheikh to the governor where a

great cannon was waiting for him. They placed him before the cannon. The governor

asked him if he knew what the cannon was. The sheikh confessed that he did not. The

'u Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Sahih al-Bukhari vol. 6, (Riyadh, Darussalam Publishers, 1997), p310.

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governor told him that it was a cannon. The sheikh asked what it was used for. The

governor told him that if he stood before the cannon and something was placed inside

it, it would cause him to fall down dead. The Sheikh pulled out his pen and showed it

to the governor and stated that he had a weapon that could do exactly the same. This

is the image of the non-violence of a man who has certitude, wherein he fearlessly

fights against aggression with knowledge and piety. After this scene, the Sheikh and

all of the disciples who had been arrested by the colonial authorities were put in jail

for one week without any food. Confronted with this attempted starvation, the Sheikh

received from his Lord the gift of staying alive without receiving any food. This

happened to the Sheikh on another occasion when he was left in the equatorial forest

for over seven years, with nobody ever coming to feed him. In fact, at each attempt at

violence, the Sheikh referred himself to God who bestowed His compassion on him.

In October 1895 the colonisers took Ahmadou Bamba to Dakar where he experienced

three major ordeals: the dungeon, the furious bull and the lion: The Sheikh continued

to do his prayers in every situation in which he found himself. He was summoned by

the governor and ordered to cease his prayers. When he refused they put him in a

dungeon which was only one and a half metres in height. When this failed to break his

spirit they placed him in the path of a bull. The bull began to charge, but as it got near

to the sheikh, he stood motionless and the bull ran away. Then the colonisers placed

the Sheikh in a prison cell and placed a hungry lion in the cell with him. The lion

came to lie down at the side of the Sheikh like a tame kitten. On another occasion the

Sheikh was being transported in a ship at the time of the midday prayer. The Sheikh

decided to perform the prayer, so he went to perform his ablutions. At the moment of

making his ablutions a lady approached him with the object of nullifying his

ablutions. 116 This would mean that he was disobeying the pact he had made with

God. Once more the Sheikh did his ablutions but the lady repeated her act. Then the

sheikh left the ship and abandoned himself into the hands of his Lord by throwing

himself into the immense ocean with his prayer mat. He prayed his prayers with his

126 If a woman touches the hand of a man when he is in a state of ritual ablution this can, in some cases, nullify his ablution according to the Mäliki school. For details of this jurisprudential verdict, see ̀Abd al-Nabi, Figh al-Mubtadi bi-sharh Mukhtasar al-Akhdarº. (Umdurmän, Matba' al-`Ayyäshi, 2001), pp62-64.

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prayer mat resting on the surface of the water. '27 This act of trusting in God

exemplifies his profound attachment to God. These examples cited above give ample

evidence of how the Sheikh was protected by God against his enemies. Therefore the

non-violence of the Sheikh may be seen as divinely orientated non-violence borne out

of spiritual certitude.

However, it must also be stated that Islam is a holistic religion which caters

for all of the affairs of life, from individual worship to collective economic, social and

political affairs. The division between church and state is totally foreign to Islamic

thinking, and politics and political aspirations and goals are not seen in the same

sinister light as they are in other religions and philosophies. Therefore the prophet is

regarded as having completed his mission in Medina by establishing a just politico-

economic system across the Arabian Peninsula. Secondly, the Muslim is not expected

to behave in an irresponsible manner. Therefore if the utilisation of force is not

possible at a certain juncture due to the practical political reality existing at that time,

it is acceptable to await a future opportunity when the just utilisation of force may be

possible. This was the policy which the prophet adopted and which Ahmadou Bamba

imitated.

It may now be appropriate to undertake a study of this greater struggle through knowledge and fear of God advocated by Ahmadou Bamba. As stated above, with any

major exponent of Sufism his practical spiritual and ethical praxis is a very pertinent

consideration to be borne in mind when analysing and surveying his writings. In the

case of Ahmadou Bamba, before discussing his writings on knowledge it may be

appropriate to briefly mention his own personal education.

At the age of six he was put into the care of his maternal uncle Muhammed

Bousso (who was a scholar), who introduced him to the study of the Qur'an, and after

teaching him he sent him to his uncle Tafsir M'Backe Ndoumbe. When the latter died

Ahmadou Bamba had mastered nearly a fifth of the Qur'än. Ahmadou Bamba

continued his studies with his father Momar Anta Sally. His father was a high ranking

scholar who eventually became the court scholar of the king of the region of Cayor.

Eventually he left him in the care of his uncles Muhammad Bousso and Samba

Toucouleur Ka with whom he studied the exoteric religious sciences. Khali

121 Sheikh Abdullah Dieye, Non-Violence, The Vision of Ahmadou Bamba, (Reunion Island, Muridiyya Publications, n. d. ), pp23-30. For a discussion of the barakah (blessing) of saints manifesting

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Mudiakhate Kala (the gädi of Cayor) taught Ahmadou Bamba lexicography,

philology and the art of writing in verse. Ahmadou Bamba also learnt from a Moor

from the Deymani tribe called Muhammed al-Yadäli, who taught him rhetoric and

logic. 128 Learned people in his locality soon came to acknowledge the value of his

religious writings and recognised him as a master scholar. 129 At Quranic school

Ahmadou Bamba manifested a great thirst for knowledge. His single-minded

application to learning the religious sciences was noted by many, and he learnt a large

number of works on theology, mysticism and jurisprudence by heart. Effectively he

performed a veritable miracle of learning, and became like an ocean of religious

knowledge. 130 His mastery, therefore, was of both the exoteric and esoteric sciences,

and he makes it clear that knowledge necessarily encompasses both of these, and thus

his writings are devoted to each of these types of knowledge. Therefore it should be

noted that Ahmadou Bamba falls within the paradigm of `knowledge-based' Sufism

of the orthodox variety, and his emphasis on this proliferates throughout his writings.

This study will now attempt to articulate his ideas about each of these two types of

knowledge beginning with exoteric knowledge.

It should be stated, however, that though this study seeks to analyse several

important writings of Ahmadou Bamba, his work was actually written in a manner

whereby a qualified teacher would teach them to a student. Therefore the role of the

teacher in explaining the texts is crucial. Throughout the history of Islamic education

receiving one's education from the scholars of the time and not through books alone

was considered essential for the student. Some Muslims held it to be a calamity to

replace the teacher with paper; others went so far as to regard the professor-less

person as a godless man or one led by the devil. In this regard imäm al-Shäfi`i states:

Whoever learns from books will miss the required achievement131

Therefore in the best traditions of Islamic education Ahmadou Bamba's works

should ideally be taught, enabling a wisdom transaction between teacher and pupil.

This wisdom transaction is the result of a relationship between the teacher and the

pupil which has always been regarded as personal, and not institutional. A student

itself in supernatural ways (such as the ability to walk on water), see Edward Westermarck, Ritual and Belief in Morocco vol. 1, (New York, University Books Inc., 1968), pp148-159. 128 Didier Hamoneau, pp56-57. 129 Ibid., p279. 130 Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Touba, signes et symboles, pp 15-16. Several of the texts that Ahmadou Bamba learnt by heart have been cited by Serigne Bachir M'Back6, pp16-18. 131 Cited in Ahmad Shalaby, History of Muslim Education, (Beirut, Dar al-Kashshaf, 1954), p115.

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would study a given work or subject with a teacher, not a particular place of

learning. 132 This study seeks to arrogate to itself the role of giving various expository

explanations that a student may expect to receive from a teacher of the writings of

Ahmadou Bamba.

132 A. L. Tibawi, Arabic and Islamic Themes, (London, Luzac and Co. Ltd., 1976), p191.

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2.2 EXOTERIC KNOWLEDGE

Any study of the works of Ahmadou Bamba will be faced with the task of

addressing both the form and content of his work. Therefore before embarking on the

task of articulating the content of his writings it may be appropriate to address their

form. Ahmadou Bamba's chosen mode of expression was the gasidah, which is a very

conventional piece of verse, with one rhyme, whatever its length, and a uniform

metre. 133Therefore the gasidah may be defined as a two-hemistich monorhymed

form. 134 Two aspects of this form stand out as basic. On the one hand there are very

positive qualities inherent in the form, in that its simplicity and elasticity, contrary to

casual impression, allow considerable freedom and manipulatory power. Coupled

with these positive qualities the gasidah also has certain impeding qualities: One of

these is that the intransigent relationship between the two hemistichs of the single

verse, its sadr (its first half) and its `ajüz (its second half), produce a structure from

which poets cannot break free. The gasidah is committed to a division of the single

verse into two almost equal hemistichs, with two caesuras (metrical pauses), an

arbitrary caesura at the end of the first hemistich, which is nevertheless observed in

the majority of cases, and an obligatory caesura at the end of the verse. The other impeding quality springs from the syntactic patterns within the gasidah text. Thus

there is an intriguing paradox at work here, one of freedom and authority on the one hand, and of construction and resistance on the other. 135 Perhaps it is this very juxtaposition of creative freedom and delimiting structure which enables structured

expression, and this may be the reason that the gasjdah has been a poetic genre that

has enjoyed such longevity amongst the Arabs.

It may be enlightening to analyse the journey of the gasjdah as a poetic genre which eventually became the vehicle for the expression of religious ideas. How is it

that an African scholar in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century came to use

this archaic form to express his religious convictions? The classical gasrdah was the

fundamental mode of expression of the pre-Islamic poets of the Arabian Peninsula.

The gasidah has been defined by Ibn Qutaybah (828-889 CE) as follows:

133 Evan Donzel, B. Lewis, Ch Pellat (Eds. ), The Encyclopaedia of Islam vol iv, (London, Luzac & Co., 1978), p713. 134 Salma Khaddra Jayyusi, `The persistence of the Qasida Form', in Qasida Poetry in Islamic Asia and Africa vol. 1, Stefan Sperl and Christopher Shackle (Eds. ), (New York, EJ Brill, 1996), p3. This book records the proceedings of the q Fidah conference at SOAS in London in July 1993. 135 Ibid., p6.

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I heard a discriminating man of letters comment that the composer of odes began by mentioning the abandoned abodes, the decay, the ruins. Then he wept, complained, and apostrophised the vernal camping grounds and bade his companion to halt, so as to turn this into an occasion for recollection of those who have lived there and then departed; for in their abiding and departing those living under tent posts differ from the sedentary villagers because of their migration from water source to water source in search of fresh pasture, following rainfall wherever it may be.

To this he linked the nasib (here to be understood more specifically as the evocation of the beloved). Thus he wept over the vehemence of passion, the pain of separation, the excess of love's ardour and longing so as to dispose favourably, attract attention and exact a hearing - because rhapsodising a beloved touches souls and clings onto the hearts...

Then, assured of being heard and listened to, he followed up, impressing his entitlements. Thus in his poetry he undertook journeys, complained of exertion, of sleepless vigils, of traversing the darkness of night and the heat of noontime, and of emaciating mount and camel.

At that point, knowing that he had thus duly obligated his patron to fulfil his claim and expectation and impressed on him the adversities which he had borne on his journey he commenced with the panegyric (mafiih). 136

Therefore the classical form of the gasidah describes the poet's journey (rahtl)

towards the object of his praise (mamdüh). It is in this sense that the gasidah is a

poem that has a goal (gasd) fraught with a message to awaken people. 137

As the gasidah tradition evolved it became possible for writers to use this

poetic genre to transcend the actual historically registered point of the birth of that

tradition. 138 The first to do this was Hasan ibn Thäbit, the poet of prophet Muhammad,

who liberated the gasidah from its Bedouin point of origin to enable it to develop a

whole symbolic scheme of references for Arabic mystical poetry. These enabled

subsequent poets to introduce themes belonging to the needs of the new times and the

new culture of Islam. 139 Thus with Hasan ibn Thäbit the weeping over the beloved

(nasib) and the journey (rahil) sections were often characteristically short, and there

would be an abrupt transition from Bedouin themes to the relevant religious

preoccupations. 140 Therefore virtually the whole of the gasjdah would be concerned

with religious issues, and thus the genre was adapted to these needs.

136 Ibn Qutaybah, Al-Shi'r wa al-Shu'arä', Ed. Ahmad Muhammad Shakir, (Cairo, Dar al-Ma'ärif bi Misr, 1966) vol. 1, pp74-75. 137 Annemarie Schimmel, see prologue of Stefan Sperl and Christopher Shackle, pp475-476. 138 Jaroslav Stetkevych, The Zephyrs of Najd, (London, The University of Chicago Press, 1993), p52. In this work the author discusses the tripartite structure of the qasidah, particularly focussing on the nasib. 139 Ibid., pp62-63. 140 Ibid., p59.

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Throughout Islamic history the gasidah has continued to be utilised for the

sake of religious expression. In fact the Bedouin or partially sedentarised societies - as in Mauritania - still cultivate the gasidah with delight. 14' Historically speaking, it

was the southern movement of Islam from the Arabic speaking countries such as Morocco and Mauritania, which led to the gasidah finding a new home in Senegal and

much of the rest of Muslim West Africa. 142 By the seventeenth century Arabic

literature had become widespread in West Africa, whilst the eighteenth, nineteenth

and twentieth centuries witnessed an outpouring of writing in Arabic in prose and

verse from Senegal to Cameroon, and from the Sahelian regions to the coastal forests.

The study of poetry came to form part of the basic higher education of Muslims in the

traditional system in West Africa. The diwans of the six predominant pre-Islamic

poets were studied to give students a good grounding in language and style. The other works of poetry that were widely studied were of a religious nature, being gasä'id in

praise of the prophet Muhammad, or treatments of such gasa'Id e. g. the Burdah of al- Büsiri (1213-1297 CE). The ability to compose Arabic verse came to be regarded as the hallmark of the scholar, even if relatively little of the output in verse form was

what one may regard as being of a literary nature. Fiqh, tawhfd, grammar and other

essential educational subjects were staple items of scholarly production. Whilst there

were really no poets in the sense of literary artists who confined themselves to the

writing of `creative' verse, there were many scholars who used poetic forms to

express personal feelings, whether in praise of rulers, teachers, Sufi sheikhs, the

prophet Muhammad, tarigah founders, etc. While much of this did not strictly follow

the model of the classical Arabic gasidah, the poems are usually described by this

name and often reflect the vocabulary and images of the genre. 143

It is an important consideration when undertaking the study of the work of a writer who writes gasd'id to be aware of the fact that the semantic development of the

gasidah is neither narrative nor explicit in a logical sense, but depends on a sequence

141 Evan Donzel, B. Lewis, Ch Pellat (Eds. ), p713. 142 For an analysis of the southward spread of Arabic literature from the Arab world, see Amar Samb, Essai sur la Contribution du Senegal ä la Littcrature d'Expression Arabe tome I (Lille, Services de Reproduction of Theses (University of Lille), 1972), pp26-35. This two-volume work was the PhD thesis of Amar Samb, a prolific Senegalese writer, who has written works in several disciplines such as Senegalese history, sociology and literature. In this work Samb documents the southward movement of Islam and Arabic literature into Senegal, and the subsequent production of Arabic literary output by various Senegalese writers. 143 John Hunwick, `The Arabic Qasida In West Africa', in Stefan Sperl and Christopher Shackle, pp84- 85.

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of key themes and images repeated in different contexts. Such repetitions may occur

throughout the work, but tend in particular to link the beginning, middle and end of a

poem in a significant manner. 144 Thus the gasidah may be regarded as a polythematic form where different themes are joined together, sometimes without transition, and

without manifest reasons for their sequence. 145 This is a very important consideration for anyone who seeks to understand the work of Ahmadou Bamba. Perhaps the

following passage from Fernand Dumont's study of the writings of Ahmadou Bamba

represents the final word on this issue:

On first reading the writings of Ahmadou Bamba what first strikes the reader is the impression of there being an absence of discursive thought directly expressed by the author. Effectively it seems that Ahmadou Bamba is not a `thinker' in the ordinary sense of the word, in the manner that al-Ghazäli may be thought of as a thinker. However this first impression proves to be unfounded. Little by little one discovers that the often very fine and beautiful thought of the master does exist, be it somewhat sparse in places. It is necessary for the reader to search for it under the musical monotone of the poems 146

It may be appropriate to remark that the utilisation of the gasidah as the

chosen genre for conveying the content of Ahmadou Bamba's ideas has certain distinct advantages associated with it. It is important to note that a non-sequential

polythematic approach involving repetition and allusion rather than explicit

expression may be regarded as the most appropriate form for conveying truths which

often pertain to subjective, experiential and trans-rational matters. There is a limit to how far speculative reason alone can lead one in the spiritual quest, and if the chosen

mode of expression in itself undermines the tendency to view matters solely in a discursive and sequential manner, then this may be regarded as the most appropriate

means of expressing these ideas. Furthermore, it is very easy to learn a gasidah by

heart, for one is guided by the metre and bound by the rhyme. '47

Given the form of Ahmadou Bamba's writings, the next question which arises is one of hermeneutics. As this study seeks to present Ahmadou Bamba on his own terms, an attempt will be made to interpret his work according to his own

methodology. This is not very difficult to do, as the same hermeneutic theme

144 See introduction to Stefan Sperl and Christopher Shackle, pxviii. 1°5 Renate Jacobi, `The Origins of the Qasida form', in Stefan Sperl and Christopher Shackle, p21. 146 Fernand Dumont, La Pensee Religieuse d'Ahmadou Bamba, (Dakar, Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines, 1975), p2. 147 Annemarie Schimmel, p477.

50

proliferates throughout his writings. An example of this may be found in the first eight

verses of the gasidah Ia hawla wa lä quwwata ilia bi'lläh:

There is no Might and Power except Allah, the Exalted, the Great

Prayers and peace be on our master Muhammad

1. Our Lord I complain to you of my condition By the blessing of Mustapha and five other men

2. Sheikh Gawth al-Qädir al-Jiläni The possessor of knowledge and gnosticism

3. And Abi Yazid al-Bistämi The revered, heroic knower

4. And Tayfur Ibn `Isa al-`A. 11 And Abi Hämid al-Ghazä

5. And the fifth of them is Ma`rüf Karkhi The great, saintly scholar

6. Our Lord, our Lord, our Lord Our Lord, our Lord, answer us

7. By the blessing of Mustapha the best of creation, the praised one Make them be present at my death

8. By their honour save me from ruin And lead me to guidance through them

Therefore after mentioning God and the prophet Muhammad, five of the major Sufi saints of the past are mentioned. Then in verse 8 Ahmadou Bamba states `By

their honour save me from ruin And lead me to guidance through them. ' Thus

Ahmadou Bamba regards God, the prophet and the major Sufi scholars (five of whom have been mentioned here) to be worthy of reliance.

Having articulated the form which the writings of Ahmadou Bamba take, and

also the hermeneutic premises of this study, we are now able to begin analysing the

content of his work: Tazawwud al-Shubbän (provision for the youth) was one of Ahmadou Bamba's works which sought to provide the youth with the knowledge

necessary for them to practice Islam. Ahmadou Bamba advises the youth therein

regarding their education as follows:

15 Do not delay learning until old age. For that will deprive you of spiritual elevation 16 For death is close at hand, harsh and bitter. It comes quickly and no one can flee from it 17 Whoever does not learn in his youth and is lead by his desires 18 Will rarely attain his goal. As he has lost the time of youth 148

148 The numbers refer to the verses of the respective work cited, and this system will be continued for the rest of the study, unless the work is published in another format (e. g. page format).

51 .a

rA

em - "ýO

Therefore it is clear that youth is a time for learning, and missing the

opportunity of learning in youth may be considered an irreparable loss.

Moreover Ahmadou Bamba gives a clear indication of the syllabus according

to which the youth should be educated. He writes:

90 generation of youth if you fear humiliation then let your learning precede your action 10 Start with belief which is exempt from interpolation and doubt 11 And after this jurisprudence (figh) and after these two knowledge of spirituality which eradicates shameful vices 12 Next one should undoubtedly learn the instruments necessary to study hadith and Qur'an 13 Such as grammar, prosody, rhetoric, the Arabic language and its

understanding

Therefore here we have a hierarchy of subjects which provide the basis for an

ordered syllabus of study for the youth. The first subject to be studied is belief (`ilm

al-tawhtd), then jurisprudence (fiqh), spirituality (ihsän - this will be discussed in the

next section as it pertains to the esoteric sciences), then the Arabic language is to be

studied, with a view to enabling a deeper study of the hadith and Qur'an.

Before entering into an exposition of these subjects it may be appropriate to

give an overview of the overall philosophy and concerns of the writings of Ahmadou

Bamba. The overwhelming concern of the writings of Ahmadou Bamba was to show

the way of imitating the prophet. He did this in a particular way: Generally speaking

writers before Ahmadou Bamba wanted to ensure that Muslims were not in

contradiction with the teachings of Islam. Their different respective opinions lead to

one school opposing another. What Ahmadou Bamba tried to do was to show the

reality of the texts before him in order to resolve these conflicts. Therefore the goal of Ahmadou Bamba was to show that one reality can be traced from the time that he

lived in, through all of the various schools in Islamic theological history, back to the

prophet himself. Conceptually speaking this may be seen as a very ambitious attempt

at a comprehensive resolution of the history of Islamic religious sciences. This may be

regarded as being in the same spirit in which the truths that the prophet Muhammad

brought are confirmed by the Qur'an to be the same truths that Ibrähim and Müsä

brought (Qur'än 87: 19). Therefore what the prophet Muhammad brought was the

same as what other previous prophets had brought, and so, likewise, what Ahmadou

Bamba is attempting to do is to reassert the prophetic way by resolving Islamic

theological history back to the prophet himself, and thus imitating his message and the

52

message of the previous prophets before him This is what the first thirteen verses of

the gasidah Sindidt are concerned with asserting'49:

In the name of God, the Beneficent the Merciful

Prayers and peace be on our master Muhammad

1.0 God by the brave chosen one and by Your friend Ibrähim 2. And by Your word Müsä, Sälih, Khidr and Shu'ayb and 'Ismd'il 3. By Sulaymän, Nulh, Yünus, al-Yana` and Zakariyyä', Yahyä and Hüd 4. Härün, Yüsha`a, 'Ilyäs and Adam, Da'üd, Dhil Kifl, `Isa, Lüt 5. And Yüsuf, 'Ishäq, and other of Your messengers and prophets 6. And by all of the angels and by the best of them Gabriel and M7cä'zl 7. By the angel of the trumpet Isräfil and by the seizer of the souls of

creation Azrä'll 8. By the companions and the saints and by the active scholars 9. By al-Siddiq and al-Färüq and the owner of two lights and the father of

the grandsons of the prophet 10. By the distinguished Malik, al-Shäfi`i, Abü Hanifah and the praiseworthy

Ahmad 11. By the tablet and pen and the great Throne and chair of God 12. By the Qur'an and the Torah and what DA'üd and the Spirit came with 13.0 God send my prayers and blessings on him and his offspring and

companions and wives.

Verses 1-5 cite numerous prophets and holy persons mentioned in the Qur'än.

This is done with a view to asserting that the message brought by all of them was the

same message, and that all of them were charged with rehearsing God's signs to the

people (Qur'an 10: 47). In fact the Qur'an asserts that to every people a prophet was

sent (Qur'an 10: 47), therefore the philosophy of prophethood in Islam is one of God's

universal guidance of mankind through those individuals specifically chosen for this

mission.

Verses 6-7 are concerned with the angels through whom God carries out His

plans. As God enforces His edicts through these angels, they are entrusted with

carrying out His orders. One of them, Gabriel, has the job of taking God's revelations to the prophets.

Verse 8 mentions the companions of prophet Muhammad, the saints and

workers among the scholars. That is to say that the guidance brought by the prophet

was preserved and taught by the companions, saints and active scholars. This was

particularly the case with the four rightly guided Caliphs Abü Bakr, `Umar bin al-

149 This formulation of the concerns of Ahmadou Bamba's writings was explained to me by Sheikh Ali Ndaw in Paris on 12/2/99. He is a Mouride sheikh of Senegalese origin.

53

Khattäb, `Uthmän and `Ali (verse 9), and the founders of the four Sunni schools of

jurisprudence, Imam Malik (712-795 CE), al-Shäfi`i (767-820 CE), Abü Hanifah

(698-767 CE) and Imam Ahmad (780-855 CE) (verse 10).

This knowledge, which was revealed for the guidance of mankind, came from

the essence of God, to the throne of God, down to His chair and was written on the

preserved tablet by the pen (verse 11). Verse 12 mentions the holy books brought by

certain prophets of the past i. e. the Qur'an revealed to prophet Muhammad, the Torah

revealed to MGsä, the Psalms (Zabür) revealed to Dd'üd and the 'Injil revealed to `Isa.

Verse 13 mentions the prophet, his offspring, companions and wives, who

were the most instrumental people in conveying the teachings of Prophet Muhammad

to mankind. The prophet first invited his kith and kin to the faith. At the very outset he

met some success in that at least four conversions were made in the very initial phase

(Khad-ijah (his wife)), Abü Bakr (his friend), Zayd bin Härithah (his freedman) and

`Ali bin Abi Talib (his cousin)). In turn, these converts themselves preached Islam

with great missionary zeal. '50Furthermore it was revealed to the prophet in the

Qur'an: `Warn your nearest clansmen' (26: 214). Therefore the `Islamic propagation

strategy' of the prophet was to form an `inner core' of his companions, wives and

progeny which was utilised as an instrument for conveying the Islamic message

further afield. Therefore the role of this `inner core' was crucial in the successful

propagation of Islam in the time of the prophet.

Overall the first thirteen verses of this gasidah may be seen as a summary of God's guidance of mankind. The prophets, angels, books, saints, scholars,

companions, wives and offspring of prophet Muhammad are like a single brotherhood

that brought a message for the guidance of mankind. Ahmadou Bamba is asserting the

way of imitating the prophet by analysing through his writings the whole theological

history of Islam, from the saints and active scholars - particularly the founders of the

four Sunni schools of jurisprudence - all the way back through the companions, wives

and offspring of the prophet, to the prophet himself and all of the other prophets sent

before him. He is undertaking this analysis with a view to reviewing this

theological heritage and taking it back to the prophets who were the original

proponents of these ideas.

150 Muhammad Yasin Mazhar Siddiqi, Organization of Government under the Holy Prophet, (Lahore, Islamic Publications (Pvt. ) Ltd., 1988), pp50-51.

54

This study will now begin by discussing the first of the aforementioned

subjects which is `ilm al-tawhld, and though the work Tazawwud al-Shubbün is

divided into three parts we will concentrate on the first division (`ilm al-tawhid),

which has to do with basic belief. The reason for starting with this is because it is

required of a seeker to begin his spiritual life by adopting certain beliefs, and thus this

is the starting point of Islam.

Before proceeding further it may be appropriate to clarify the purpose and

scope of `ilm al- tawhid, which is to give intellectual and textual proofs for religious beliefs held in Islam in order to eradicate doubts and facilitate religious

conviction. 15 'According to al-Zandäni `ilm al-tawhid contains the following six divisions:

1) Belief in the oneness of God - necessary beliefs about God;

2) Belief in the prophets of God - the characteristics that it is incumbent for

them to have, as well as an explanation of the miracles performed by them;

3) Belief in the divine books which God sent down to guide mankind; 4) Belief in the angels - an exposition of the functions assigned to them and

their relationship to the creation in this world and the next; 5) Belief in the last day and the reward prepared for the believer and the

punishment prepared for the disbeliever;

6) Belief in divine predestination. 152

Verses 30-186 of Tazawwud al-Shubbän faithfully follow these six divisions.

Verses 33-39 state various matters regarding belief in God, and verses 40-45 point

out that the opposites of these are impossible to associate with God. The other two ideas expressed about God are that He can do whatever He likes (verses 46 and 47),

and that His works are a proof of His existence (verses 48-53).

To analyse what has been said here as a whole, God can do whatever He likes

and the creation is evidence of His existence. Moreover, he has certain attributes of which 20 have been given. These attributes will be further discussed below.

Verses 54-87 discuss the angels of God. Some of their characteristics are given

such as their sinlessness, that they are neither male nor female, they do not eat or

's1 'Abdul Majid Aziz al-Zandäni, Kitäb aI-Tawhid, (Jeddah, Maktabah Jeddah, 1989), p8. 152 Ibid., pp8-9.

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drink, they are created from light, etc. The angels whose names are known are

mentioned, and their respective functions are stated.

Verses 88-103 discuss the divine books revealed by God to various of His

messengers. What Ahmadou Bamba makes clear in verse 100 is that it is necessary to

believe in the four confirmed revelations (Torah, 'Injil, Zabür and Qur'än). This belief

in the revealed books is incumbent on the believer, as cited in the Qur'än:

The prophet believes in what has been revealed to him from his Lord and so do the believers. They all believe in God, the angels, the books, and the prophets. `We make no distinction between the prophets', and they say `We hear and we obey, forgive

us our Lord, and to you is our return (2: 285).

He also mentions some other revelations which are thought to have been

revealed to Adam, Seth, Idris, Abraham, etc. '53

Verses 104-141 discuss the messengers of God. The messengers have the

qualities of truthfulness, trustworthiness and commitment to transmitting the message

they are entrusted with. The opposite of these qualities is impossible for them. All that

happens to humans can happen to them apart from the committing of sin. They

perform miracles as evidence of the truthfulness of their message. The number of

messengers is 313,314 or 315, and Ahmadou Bamba cites the 25 mentioned in the

Qur'an, and the number of prophets is 124,000.154

Verses 142-162 speak of the day of judgement by describing the life in the

grave, resurrection, the gathering, recompense for sins, etc.

Verses 163-173 describe predestination, whereby all things whether good or

bad are predestined by God. If something afflicts you, you could never have escaped

it, and if something escapes you, you could never have got it.

It is important to note that what is intended in this work is to give the youth a

basic understanding of what it is necessary for a Muslim to believe in. Ahmadou

Bamba does not elaborate very much in this work as that was never his intention, but

seeks to present a work which would be comprehensible and useful to a young

Muslim.

153 Though Ahmadou Bamba does not mention his sources, Ismä'il Ibn `Umar Ibn Kathir, isas al- Anbiya', (Egypt, Dar al-Ta'lif, 1968) voll may be consulted for the other revelations given to each respective prophet. 154 A more detailed discussion of this may be referred to in Sheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Al-Iman, (Mauritius, Khidma Printing and Publishing, 1999), p41.

56

Another work which has exactly the same intention is a work called Tazawwud al-sighar (Provision for children). Exactly the same ground (the six divisions of belief) is covered in his work in verses 20-92, but at an even more basic

level of understanding. The reason for this is that the work is intended for children

whereas Tazawwud al-shubbän is intended for the youth (who are a little older). Moreover Ahmadou Bamba wrote other works on `ilm al-tawhid which were for

adults and advanced students, and therefore at a much higher level of complexity. Herein is contained an important consideration in evaluating Ahmadou Bamba's

writings, whereby their pedagogical significance must be taken into account. One of

the more detailed writings on `ilm al-tawhid is called Mawdhib al-Quddus (The gifts

of the Holy one). This is a work of 650 verses which is solely devoted to the subject

of Islamic belief, which gives a much more detailed analysis of each of the six

aforementioned divisions of belief.

Before undertaking a discussion to articulate some of the contents of Mawdhib

al-Quddüs (regarding God and His attributes particularly), it may be appropriate to

attempt its contextualisation within the history of the science of'ilm al-tawhid. This is

a science which grew out of various differences which arose in the Islamic community

regarding certain fundamental beliefs, such as whether the Muslim who committed a

major sin was still a member of the community, whether the Qur'an was created or

not, to what extent, if any, did man have freewill, what was the status of the attributes

of God with regard to His essence, etc. With these discussions which arose in the Muslim community there arose various religio-political groupings (Khärijites,

Mu'tazilites, Ash'arites, Jabrites, Murji'ites, etc. ). With all of these factors, and also the encountering of certain non-Muslim creeds (Mazdaism, Christianity, etc. ), it

became necessary to utilise intellectual and textual proofs to defend and clarify

correct Islamic belief. 155

Mawdhib al-Quddüs is a rendering into verse of Umm al-Barähin by Abü

Abdullah Muhammad al-Sanüsi, who was a fifteenth century Algerian scholar. Ahmadou Bamba states in verse 13 of Mawähib al-Quddüs that there is nothing like

this work of al-Sanüsi in this field, and that is why he has chosen to render it into

verse (verse 19). Al-Sanüsi was perhaps one of the first people in his time that felt a

'" Taufic Ibrahim and Arthur Sagadeev, Classical Islamic Philosophy, (Moscow, Progress Publishers, 1990), p20. For an interesting analysis of the origins of these discussions see W. Montgomery Watt, The Formative Period of Islamic Thought, (Oxford, One World Publishers, 1998), pp 182-6.

57

religious responsibility to teach the knowledge of correct belief in simple terms. The

need to reconcile intellect and belief was particularly strongly felt. In fact the

undertaking of this historic responsibility by al-Sanüsi and the unique role he played

in preserving and defending correct belief lead to the utilisation of his works for many

generations after him. 156 Methodologically speaking, al-Saniis s work did not reject

the classical theological tradition, but rather sought to benefit from it to whatever

extent it was possible to do so. Al-Sanüsi lived in the age wherein the religious

decline of the Arabs had begun, and therefore the primary problem that he faced was

of teaching and explaining Islamic beliefs and re-establishing them in a manner which

would reassert their original vitality. Therefore the situation faced by the original

scholars of the discipline was not the one faced by al-Sanüsi. His scholarly

predecessors sought to defend orthodox Islamic beliefs against the perceived

deviations and heresies of various heterodox schools, as well as tackling the

associated problem of finding an appropriate method of discourse with and absorption

of the Greek knowledge which had reached the Muslim world through various

translations. Thus though al-Sands was facing a very different situation in his time,

he adapted and utilised the intellectual output of the classical scholars, particularly

those of the Ash'arite school, thus utilising them for the needs of his time. 157

Al-Sanüsi s works came to be used as standard theological texts in many

countries which were experiencing the phenomenon of colonisation, wherein the

indigenous education systems were being curtailed and opposed and western models

were being introduced. His works (particularly Umm al-Barähin) were frequently

used to defend and revive the beliefs of Muslims in North African countries like

Algeria, as well as in Sudan. 158 Senegal was another country where al-SunUsi s works

were used in the vanguard against the colonial project. In fact it was fundamental to

French policy in Senegal to attempt to reduce Islam to its most simplistic form, so that

it could not be used as a means of resistance to colonialism, as well as to create an

anti-Islamic education system and promote secular ideas. 159 Ahmadou Bamba's

response to counter these ideas was to utilise the weapons of piety and knowledge,

and al-Sanüsi s work Umm al-Barähin was adapted by him under the title Mawähib

156 Abu Abdullah al-Sanüsi, (Ed. Mustafah Muhammad al-Ghimäri), Sharh Umm al-Barähin, (Algiers, Mu'assasah al-Wataniyyah li'l-Kitäb, 1989), pp7-8. 157 Ibid., p13. iss Ibid., p13. '59 Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Le Centenaire du Jihad a] Akbar, pp 65-67.

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al-Quddüs in order to facilitate the defence of the beliefs of the beleaguered

Senegalese masses. Therefore Ahmadou Bamba was adopting the theology of al- Sanüsi for the same reasons and with a view to achieving the same goals as many of his fellow believers who were experiencing the same challenges.

It now remains to quote some of the important ideas contained in Mawühib al- Quddüs with a view to undertaking a discussion of them:

36. Know that the judgements of reason consist of three types 37. They are the necessary, the impossible, and what is known to scholars as the possible 38. The necessary is what the sound intellect cannot conceive the non- existence of, like the pre-eternal existence of the Master of the Throne 39. The impossible is that entity whose existence is known to be inconceivable to the mind of he who understands 40. Like the existence in creation of a pre-eternal entity, as is claimed by some deluded fools. 41. The possible is an entity whose existence and non-existence are both possible in the eyes of the erudite 42. Like the immediate or future death of an individual, Or like the act of creation of beings by God, so be intelligent 43. According to the law of God (and not the intellect) it is incumbent on all mature Muslims to know 44. What is necessary, impossible and possible for God, may He be glorified 45. And likewise to know the same for all of the prophets

These verses are important in the analysis of the epistemology of Ahmadou Bamba, in that they articulate the three types of judgement that reason can make: the

necessary, the possible and the impossible. The necessary is defined as that which the

sound intellect cannot conceive the non-existence of (verse 38). The example given is

that of the pre-eternal existence of God, which is established by the intellect after pondering over the order which has been established in creation. 160 The impossible is

the category of reason which pertains to matters which it is impossible for the intellect

to conceive the existence of, like the pre-eternal existence of a created being (verses 39-40). It is of course a contradiction for something to be created and pre-eternal at the same time. The possible is the category of reason wherein the existence or non- existence of an entity is equally possible, like the death of someone occurring at anytime, now or in the future.

These three categories of judgement are then used to establish what is

necessary, possible and impossible for God and the prophets (verses 44-45). In fact

160 Ai-Sanüsi, p23.

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the knowledge of these categories with appropriate examples in each case in order to

enable these notions to be easily brought to mind when required, is necessary for

every right thinking person who wants to succeed in successfully acquiring the

knowledge of God and His prophets. The importance of these categories is considered

to be so great that they are considered to constitute the correct use of intellect, and

someone who is bereft of these concepts is not to be considered intelligent in his

thinking. ' 61

With regard to the discussion of the relation between the essence and the

attributes of God, the Mu'tazilites denied the reality of the divine attributes as certain hypostases distinct from the divine essence. 162 Whilst not adopting the realist position

with regard to the divine attributes, which was the position of many theologians, who

affirmed the real existence of the attributes as things in contrast to the divine essence,

nor the nominalist position of the Mu'tazilites whereby they were inclined to declare

the attributes simply as names designating the divine essence, the Asharites tended to

adopt a middle course between these two extremes. 163

In fact the essential distinction regarding the attributes of God made by the

Asharites was to classify them into two main groups: 1) negative attributes (salbiyyah), and 2) positive attributes (a1- ̀ agliyyah), of which there are seven: knowledge, power, will, life, hearing, seeing and speech. 164

With this in mind it may be more appropriate to discuss Ahmadou Bamba's

more developed writing on the attributes of God. In Mawähib al-Quddus he states: 60 The essential attribute (, vi ..

fah nafsiyyah) is His Existence (wuji) and the five after it are attributes of negation (salbiyyah) which are fixed (in the essence) 61 Because they exclude all matters that are not appropriate for the Merciful 62 Then there are seven attributes called realities (ma`dni) which confirm divine perfection 63 And without doubt these are expressions of attributes existing in Him 64 They are established in His essence and because of this establishment they articulate its characteristics 65 That is to say that since they are established in His essence they affirm characteristics for it. Therefore reflect (on this)

161 Ibid., p24. 162 For an involved discussion of the various intricacies of the Mu'tazilite position on the divine attributes see Richard C. Martin, Mark R. Woodward and Divi S. Atmaja, Defenders of Reason in Islam, (Oxford, One World Publications, 1997), pp68-71. ]63 Taufic Ibrahim and Arthur Sagadeev, p26. 164 M. M. Sharif (Ed. ), A History of Muslim Philosophy vol. 1, (Weisbaden, Allgauer Heimatverlag GmbH, 1963), p227.

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66 There are those attributes which are called conceptual attributes (ma'nawiyyah) which are illustrated by the following example: 67 The attribution of power to the divine essence means that He is powerful, so evaluate what has been said.

The first thing to be noted here is that the form of Ahmadou Bamba's

conceptualisation of the divine attributes is quintessentially Asharite in nature, in that

the essential Asharite distinction between the negative attributes and the seven that are

positive is present in his analysis.

The fact that God exists is an attribute which points to His essence. There are

five negative attributes which clarify what is not appropriate for God. As for the real

attributes (ma`äni), Ahmadou Bamba states that they are attributes of divine

perfection which are in his essence, and that because of that they establish

characteristics for it. Therefore what Ahmadou Bamba is saying here is that these

attributes are not other than the essence but rather that they qualify it by depicting its

characteristics. In other words those attributes of divine perfection such as Knower,

Powerful, etc., are expressions of the essence and affirm characteristics of the subject

in which they reside. Therefore knowledge is a characteristic of an essence in so far

as it is knowing, power is a characteristic of an essence in so far as it is powerful, etc.

Regarding the conceptual attributes (ma'nawiyyah), they may be defined as

the affirmed characteristics of a subject which are caused by something residing in the

subject. 165 Ahmadou Bamba states that the attribution of power to the divine essence

means that He is powerful (verse 67). Therefore the fact that God has the attribute of

power means that He is powerful. In other words there is not only a relation whereby

the attributes of divine perfection are in the essence and thus establish characteristics

for it, but furthermore this attribution to the essence has its logical corollary with

regard to the conceptual attributes. With regard to this Al-Juwayni sometimes refers to

the silt al-ma `änT as `ilal (i. e. causes) and relates them directly to the sift al-

ma ̀ nawiyyah. In other words, the sift al-ma `dni are causes of the sirrt al-

ma ̀ nawiyyah, and if God is powerful, living, knowing, etc., this is caused by His

power, life and knowledge, etc. Thus, in this sense, God is knowing by virtue of an

eternal knowledge, powerful by virtue of an eternal power, 166

165 Mohammad Moslem Adel Saflo, Al-Juwayni's Thought and Methodology, (Berlin, Klaus Schwarz Verlag, 2000), p 129. 166 Mohammad Moslem Adel Saflo, p122,125.

61

Therefore what is clear from all of this is that Ahmadou Bamba is very much

in the Asharite mould in terms of belief (`agidah), and his assertions about God may

be usefully considered with regard to this.

48 By the consensus of the people of knowledge (the necessary attributes of God) are twenty in number 49 The first of these is existence (wujüd), then His pre-eternity (qidam) and His eternity (bagä) which is without end 50 The reality of His eternity is for the negation of any form of non-existence to be attached to His existence, according to the wise 51 Then the absolute difference of God to every created entity (mukhälafatuhu li kulli hädith), therefore grasp this example 52 It may be defined as an assertion of His non-corporeality, with an associated lack of the particularities and accidents of corporeal entities 53 Then His self sufficiency (qiyamuhu bi nafsihi), which is one of the attributes necessary for the eternal one 54 In other words He (the glorified, the mighty one) is not in need of a mahall or a mukhassis 55 A mahall is defined as an essence and not as a place according to those of intelligence 56 Likewise a mukhassis is defined as a causal agent (so ponder over their view) 57 And His Oneness (wahdäniyyah), in other words He has no second in terms of His essence, nor any equal 58 Neither in His description , may He be glorified, nor His actions (may He sustain us through His bounty)

Verse 49 of Mawdhib al-Quddüs articulates existence as an attribute of God.

The way that this can be understood is by addressing the dependent nature of

whatever is in the world. Certain causes, effects and conditions are necessary for the

creation of a certain being, and if these factors do not persist the creation and survival

of that being will not be possible. For example, the survival of every human being

depends on a mother, a father, on nutrition, on growth, and hundreds of other agents

and conditions which effect its life. Indeed no phenomenon in nature is self-sufficient

and self reliant. Such beings which cannot appear and live independently are termed

by philosophers as possible. The possible does not necessarily exist by its essence,

and on the other hand its existence is not altogether impossible. In other words the

possible will appear if certain conditions are present, and will not appear if the

necessary conditions are absent. Whatever we see in nature from the tiniest atom to

the largest galaxy possesses this quality of possibility, i. e. their existence depends on

other things for their appearance. In fact the cause always precedes the effect and

generally every being is preceded by another being which had played an effective role

62

in its creation. This correlation exists all over the world and renders it fully coherent.

This coherence pertains to things which are themselves possible and depend on other

things. If a plant has grown from a seed, the seed had in its turn been created by

another plant, and so on. Because every creature in nature is in need of another

creature, we must, consequently, seek an anchorage in which all needs and causes

originate. A being who is free from need and possibility, and no originating cause can be found for its creation. Therefore, all possible things in our material world must

inevitably originate from a necessary being. Necessity pertains to that which is self

sufficient and its essence is the same as absolute existence. It persists by itself and no

other cause or condition can influence its appearance or existence. The necessary being is the absolute, stable, indispensable existence, free from all fault, defect and

non-existence. Following these characteristics it becomes the origin and cause of

other beings. 167 Therefore through this causal explanation wherein the law of causality

teaches us that behind the occurrence of every phenomenon there is a cause, we infer

the necessity of a prime cause.

A version of this cosmological argument that has attracted more attention from

contemporary philosophers is the argument from contingency to necessity. It starts

with the observation that there are contingent beings that could have failed to exist.

Since contingent beings do not exist of logical necessity, a contingent being must be

caused to exist by some other being, for otherwise there could be no explanation of

why it exists rather than not doing so. Either the causal chain of contingent beings has

a first member, a contingent being not caused by another contingent being, or it is

infinitely long. If the chain has a first member, then a necessary being exists and

causes it. After all, being contingent, the first member must have a cause, but its cause

cannot be another contingent being. Hence its cause has to be non-contingent, i. e., a

being that could not fail to exist and so is necessary. If, on the other hand, the chain is

infinitely long, then a necessary being exists and causes the chain as a whole. This is

because the chain as a whole, being itself contingent, requires a cause that must be

non-contingent since it is not part of the chain. In either case, if there are contingent

"'' Muhammad Javed Bahonar. A Few Words on Knowing Allah, (Tehran, Sepehr Printing, 1985), pp48-50.

63

beings, a necessary being exists. So since contingent beings do exist, there is a icox necessary being that causes their existence.

Coupled with this causal explanation is the argument through movement. It is

evident that no immobile object can spontaneously move by itselt; and no mobile

object can come to a stop automatically. We witness the whole material world in

motion, including tiny atoms and vast galaxies. No doubt, the motion of every

phenomenon is due to a cause which exists in nature, and so the motion of' the whole

universe together with its evolution, change and transformation is not an exception to

this rule. The principle of motion is one of' the most important principles on which

some philosophers base their acceptance of God's existence. ""' It must not be

forgotten that if the motion of every mobile thing, be it tiny or huge, is the result of a

motive force in this world, it is not inconsistent with this täct that God is the driving

force behind the whole universe. This is similar to the law of'causality where every

phenomenon is the result of a certain cause existing in the world, whereas the original

cause and the cause of causes is God. Thus to God is attributed both the role of

original cause and originator of the world, as well as the role of the natural motive force behind all motion. 170 These two steps of initiating creation and instigating the

change and transformation of the phenomena in creation is attributed to God in the following Quranic verse:

Most surely in the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the alternation of night and day are signs för men who understand. (3: 189)

Therefore these two actions of creation and transformation, which have been

attributed to (iod. are proofs of His existence. The negative attributes exclude all matters that are not appropriate fier God.

The first of these is qidam, which is an expression which indicates an absence tier God

of any prior existence. Thus God did not exist prior to I its current existence. but Ile

has always existed as Ile now does. Qidam may be viewed as expressing the idea that God is without beginning, both in terms of f lis essence and His attributes. The word

qidam may also be ascribed to created entities to convey the idea of' a lengthy period

"'R Robert Audi (Ed. ), The Cambrid Dictionary of; Philos_ophv, (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995), p609. "'`' Aristotle and Saint Thomas Aquinas arc two of the philosophers that present arguments I 'Or the existence of God based on the principle of motion; see Robert Audi, pp32,43. 170 Ibid., pp32-34.

64

of existence. For example, the Qur'an speaks of an old, shrivelled date stalk (36: 39).

This metaphorical utilisation of the word yidam is not possible fir (; od. This is

because He is not bound by time or place, as both of these are created entities and thus

are not an appropriate ascription für the Creator. Therefore the metaphorical form of'

qidam (which is time and place bound) is only appropriate for the creation. The yidwn

of God is real and true and not of this metaphorical nature, and hence must b

distinguished from it. 171

The eternal nature of God (haga') is indicative of His continuous existence into the future without end, in the same way that Ilis yidam indicates liis continuous

existence into the infinite past. "Therefore these two attributes together point to the täct

that the existence of God continues infinitely into the future as it has existed in the

infinite past. Thus the eternal nature of God is a negative attribute in the sense that it

negates the possibility of any end to Ills existence (fund) in the future, as Ills qidam

negated the possibility ofGod's origination in time (hudi- h). 172

If God was not eternal then he would not be without beginning (qidam). This

is due to the fact that that which is without beginning has no end. Thus if the thct that

God is without beginning has been established, then the consequent implication is that

He is an eternal being. 1"

God is different from His creation (mukhiila/ilh li 'I-hawruliih). and I le does

not resemble created beings in any way, not in terms of Ilis essence, nor in terms of'

His attributes, nor in terms of His works. God says in the Qur'än that 'T'here is

nothing like Him, and He is the hearing, the knowing' (42: 11 ). The fact that there is

nothing like Him establishes His transcendence, and the fact that lie is the hearing and

the knowing establishes His attributes. His transcendence negates the possibility of

anthropomorphism, and the articulation of His attributes refutes any opinion which

seeks to deny the existence of His attributes. "l'his Quranic verse begins with the

establishment of God's transcendence in order to emphasise the lack of any

resemblance of God to the creation. This is the case even in terms of I lis hearing and

His knowing, which are in no way limited, as the hearing and knowing of the creation

are. It still remains for the absolute difference between the Creator and the created to

be unequivocally articulated:

"' AI-Sanüsi, p30. 72 Ibid., pp30-31. 171 Hasan Abüd, Tabsit al 'A lc ä'id al-Islamiyyah, (Kuwait, Dar al-ßuhuth al-Islämiyyah, 1979), p77.

65

God is without tbrm, and is not composed ofany substance. The substances of

the body are not free from division, composition, motion, rest, firm and quantity.

"These are the qualities of created entities, and are therefore wholly inappropriate for

the Creator. God is not confined within any of the six directions (either above or

below, right or left, in front or behind). When direction is itself an originated thing

how can Ile be governed by it? In fact God is in no way bound by space which Ile

I Iimself created. 174

God sustains Himself (giyümuhu hi na/. ihi) through His essence, and Ile is

beyond the need for a place or an originating agent. He is so seli'suflicient that }le has

no need of anything. He has no need of any place 'where' Ile is, which means that Ile

has no need of an essence other than His own essence. Thus Ile has no need fier a

place in the manner that an attribute needs an essence 'where' it exists. "l'his is

because God is himself an essence described by attributes, and is free from the need for an essence I iimself: Also, God is free from the need for an agent who endows I tim

with existence, either in terms of His essence or in terms of' Ills attributes. This is

because fie necessarily exists without a beginning or an end, both in terms of His

essence, and in terms of His attributes. Only entities for whom non-existence is

possible are in need of an agent to initiate their existence, and as non-existence is not

possible for God He does not fall into the category of beings that have this need. When it is said that God is not in need of an agent, the idea which is being

conveyed is that His essence is not like other essences, which are not beyond the need for a causal agent (i. e. a creator). This freedom from need is only possible for God.

The Qur'än states: Say He is God the One God the one turned toward for fulfilment of needs (al-. cumucl) He does not beget nor is lie begotten And there is nothing like Him (Chapter 112)

Al-samad is the one turned to for the tülfilment of needs, which means that

everything except God is in need (of Him), both tier their creation and their

perpetuation. This is also indicated by the verse 'fie does not beget nor is Ile

begotten. ' This means that Ile is not in need of an initiating ti ctor to bring Him into

existence. 175

1" AI-Ghazäli, Ihyä 'Ulüm al-Din vol.. 1, p88. 175 AI-Sanüsi, pp31-32.

66

Therefore from this analysis of the diflerence of God to the creation, it ma' he

said that all existence falls into four categories:

1. That which does not need an essence or a Creator (This is God's essence). 2. That which does not need an essence but needs a creator (The essences of'created

beings).

3. That which needs an essence but does not need a Creator ('he attributes of(iod).

4. That which needs an essence and needs a Creator (the accidents cri created entities

(a 'rück).

God may also be described by the attribute of oneness (wahdänivvah). This means

that God has no other in terms of His essence, attributes and works. The oneness of God has the following three aspects: 1. The denial of multiplicity in terms of His essence. His essence is one and not

composite. In other words it is not a unity of disparate elements, like a body

formed of many molecules. Therefbre one aspect of God's oneness may be

expressed as the absolute indivisibility of I lis essence.

2. Denial of any equivalence to (iod in terms of I lis essence (or in terms of I Iis

attributes). Therefore God is completely incomparable in terms of His essence.

and no other being can in any way have any equivalence to or share in I {is

essence. "These two aspects of God's oneness also apply to His attributes, in the

sense that the attributes are indivisible and are in no way a unity of various

elements, and the attributes are incomparable to the attributes of creation, in that

no created being can have attributes like those of(iod. 3. In terms of the actions of God, Ile has sole control over His creation. This may be

restated as the idea that no instigator other than God can be thought of as having

non-contingent power. '76 Furthermore there is no being in creation that can

undertake the actions that God is able to.

After the five negative attributes, the seven real attributes (., i/lt al-ma'i-lnr) will be

articulated. These attributes exist in the essence of' beings, whether they arc created like the whiteness of a body for example, or without beginning like the knowledge

and power of God. These attributes are articulated in the fbllowing verses of'jt1a -chih

u! -Ouddüs: 68. The first (of these real attributes) is power (quc/rah) and will (ir" club) and

176 Ibid., p33.

67

knowledge ('ilm) and life (hayüi), so devote yoursellto His worship 69. And hearing (sum'), sight (husar) and speech (kulýim)

The first of these is the power (qudrah) of God. Power is equivalent to the

intention by which a thing comes into existence according to a determinate plan of

will and knowledge, and in conformity to both of them. The All-Powerful is one who

does what lie wills, or does not act if lie so wills, and is not so conditioned as to will

necessarily. So God is All-Powerful in that lie could bring about the resurrection now

were 1-le to will it. So if Fie does not bring it about, that is because l Ic has not willed

it, and He does not will it to happen now inasmuch as Ills knowledge had previously

fixed its appointment time and moment according to a plan. The absolutely powerful

one is He who creates each existent entity individually without needing assistance

from anyone else. So far as man is concerned, he is possessed of power in a general

sense but deficiently so, for he only attains some possibilities. It is not within his

power to create, yet God is I Himself creator of' human powers by Ills power. inasmuch

as He puts all the existing causes at the service of man's power. '"

The will (irddah) of God is given an exposition in the theology ('cu, i lah) of'

AI-Tahäwi as follows:

Everything happens according to His decree and will And His will is carried out The only will that people have is what l le wills lör them What f le wills for them occurs, and what I lc does not will does not occur lie gives guidance to whoever lie wills, and protects them and keeps them sate from harm out of His generosity And Ile leads astray whoever Ile wills, and abases them and afflicts them out of His justice. All of them are subject to I lis will, between either Ills generosity or I [is justice. "R

From this passage ofal-Tahdwi s theology it is clear that everything that

happens in existence does so through God's will and predestination. In tact the Qur'än

states: 'We created you and what you do. ' (37: 96)

From this Quranic statement it is clear that the actions of mankind are created

by God. In this regard the prophet said:

"' AI-Ghazäli, The Ninety ine Beautiful Names of God, Tr. By David 13. Burrel and Na, ih Daher. (Cambridge, The IslamicTexts Society, 1995), pp 131-132. "" Quoted in Abd al-Ghani Ibn 'I alib at Maydani, Sharh at -'A idah al-'I ahawiyyah, (Beirut, Dir al- Fikr, 1982), pp61-62.

68

'God created every worker and his works. ' 171) (al-Bukhäri)

God's will is carried out according to His wishes. The creation have no choice.

as what God wants for His creatures occurs. Also, God guides whom lie wishes to out

of His generosity, and misleads whom He wishes to out of His justice. Fach of these

categories of being is subject to I {is will. '8')

however this must be qualified by asserting that Islam does not assert a rigid form of determinism. Actions are created by God and earned (koch) by mankind. 181 in

fact mankind have been given the freewill to choose their actions by (iod, and also the

power to undertake an action. The final result lies with God and it is in this sense that

he has created the actions of mankind. '82 Therefore mankind earn their actions by

intention, even though the final outcome of everything is in God's hands.

God also has the attribute of Knowledge ('ilm), and Ills knowledge is related

to all necessary, possible and impossible entities. All of these are known to Him and

clear to Him from pre-eternity to post eternity, without any need fier contemplation or deduction, and He comprehends everything by His knowledge"'. This is the case

whether the object of comprehension is manifest or hidden, small or large, first or last,

at the stage of its inception or having reached the stage of its tüllilment. With respect

to the multitude of objects known, His knowledge is infinite. Also His knowledge

itself is the most perfect possible with respect to its clarity and disclosure, in such a

way that no more evident disclosure or vision can be conceived. Finally God's

knowledge is not derived from things known, rather things known are derived from

it. 184 Unlike a man whose knowledge is restricted and can only fi cus its attention on

certain things at one time, God is all-knowing and can focus His attention on the

whole universe at all times. lie ignores nothing. Ile acquires His knowledge from no

source, and He has complete understanding of' everything belbre its creation. ' 8';

God has the attribute of life (haväl). However, lie is not a living being in the

same sense that other beings are, which are associated with motion, growth, breathing,

procreation and nutrition. God is the reality of existence, in the sense that all litt is

"'' Cited in Ibn Kathir, Tafsir al hrän al-Azim vol 4, (Bei rut, [)är al-Jil, n. d. ), p15. Hereafter referred to as Tafsir Ihn Kathir. "i0 AI-Maydäni, p62. 'x' Ibid., p121. 182 Ibid., p128.

AI-Sanüsi, p36. AI-Ghazäll, The Ninety Nine Beautiful NamesofGud, p80.

'ýs Muhammad Javed Bahonar, p13.

69

derived from the life of God. "" Life is ditlcrent to the other real attributes in that

these others need something to relate themselves to, notwithstanding the tact of

whether these entities which are related to are necessary, possible or impossible. For

example, knowledge needs something which is known by it. This is not the case with

the attribute of life, as this attribute is self referential, and is the u priori condition fi>r

the existence of the other attributes. 'x'

God's will and power are linked to possibly existing things, as opposed to

things which have an existence which is necessary or impossible. I lowever the nature

of the relation between God's will and power and possibly existing things is diflcrent.

Power is the attribute of God which describes His ability to produce an etlect in terms

of the existence or non-existence of possibly existent things and their accidents,

whereas God's will is the attribute which produces an effect in terms of deciding

between one of two (or more) possibilities, such as existence or non-existence.

tallness or shortness, etc. Therefore the effect produced by God's power is related to

the effect produced by God's will, since God does not cause possibly existent things

to come into existence or remain in non-existence, except in accordance to whether lie wills their existence or non-existence. Furthermore, the decision undertaken h\

God's will is undertaken according to His knowledge, as His will is exercised

according to His knowledge. 188 "Theretore it may be summarily stated that God

exercises His power according to His will, and His will decides according to Ills

knowledge. The necessary underpinning of the activity of His power, will and

knowledge is that lie is living. Therefore God's actions in creation are undertaken

according to these four attributes of power, will, knowledge and life.

God has the power of hearing (sum'). In other words there is nothing of' an

audible nature which is inaccessible to the hearing of God. even if it is hidden. So lie

hears secret things as well as whispers, and other things which are even more subtle

and concealed than this. For example, He perceives the crawling of a black ant on a

rock in the dark of night. lie hears the praises of those praising I lim. as well as the

entreaties of those praying, and lie responds to them. lie hears without any auditory

organs or ears, and His hearing is free from auditory accidents that could hetäll it.

God is elevated above auditory changes that happen to Him when audible sounds

Ibid., p1 I. ' AI-Sanüsi, P36. 'RK Ibid., p34.

70

occur, and lie is exalted above hearing through ears or by instruments and devices.

Therefore it will be realised that hearing, as far as lie is concerned. is tantamount to

an attribute by which the perfection of the qualities of things heard is disclosed. 't'hus

the hearing of God is very different to the hearing of man. Man does not perceive

everything audible but only sound nearby. Furthermore his perception of these is by

means of organs and instruments, and is therefore subject to shortcomings. It' sound is

hidden it will fail to be perceived, and if it is far away it will not be perceived either.

And if the sound is too loud it may cause damage to the hearing. ' x"

God also has the attribute of sight (husur). Ile sees in such a way that nothing

is remote from Him, even what is under the earth. His seeing is also above dependence on pupils and eyelids. The impression of images and colours have no

effect on His essence, as they have on the pupils of men, as that is a törm of change

and influence. Since He is exalted beyond that, seeing in His case is equivalent to an

attribute through which the perfection of the qualities of visible things is ascertained. Man's sight, though, does not reach to what is far away, nor does it penetrate inside

what is close at hand, but rather it deals with appearances, and fulls to reach what is

interior and secret. 19"

Therefore hearing and seeing are two attributes through which things are

unveiled and clarified, as in the case with the attribute of knowledge. However

unveiling, through the attributes of hearing and seeing is more particular than the

unveiling through knowledge. The hearing and the seeing of God is related to every

existing thing, whether it is an entity without beginning (the essence and attributes of

God), or a created entity. lie hears and sees that which exists or will exist. God hears

and sees things pre-eternally in His essence. 191

The speech of God is without letters or sound, and t its speech cannot be

conceived of as not existing, nor can He be deemed to be a silent being. This is

because everything which is possible fbbr the creation is possible fier the Creator, and if

God did not have the attribute of speech it would mean that Ile did not have an ability

which His creation did have. His speech should he thought of as the attribute through

which His knowledge is disclosed. His words are expressed by the verses which are

referred to as the speech of God, the linguistic manifestation of which is embodied in

AI-Ghazäli, The Ninety Nine Beautiful Names of God, pp83-84. AI-Sanüsi, pp36-37.

'"' Ibid., pp36-37.

71

the Qur'an. There is only an indication of His words in the Qur'an, but the Qur'an is

not the total embodiment of His words. 192 Letters and sounds are originated in time.

and therefore God's speech cannot have these qualities. because we cannot think ofan

imperfect attribute being established in the essence of God. This may be understood

by referring to the traditional Asharite expository paradigm of inner speech (kal Tim a/-

nafc). Speech can be either of the type which comprises sounds and letters, or it can

be inner speech (i. e. speech of the mind). This latter type of speech is perfect, and is

therefore not impossible for God. Nor is inner speech necessarily created. Thcretbre

this is the type of speech which is established as being God's speech. I lowever it may

be asserted that this type of inner speech is nothing other than knowledge and

perception. And what people refer to as inner speech is knowledge organised in words

and phrases, which comprise certain traditionally established and understood

concepts. These concepts are fixed in the heart, and they come to be expressed in

speech. and become known and heard through hearing. 't'hese established concepts are

in an order. These ordered, established concepts are known as thought. Thought is

defined as the working of the faculty of thinking. 193 Therefore it is in this broader

sense that God's speech represents an articulation of His knowledge via thought and

the faculty of thinking.

The Qur'an as the speech of God consists of orders and prohibitions, and informative and interrogative statements. E lowever if it is God's speech, how do we

explain the fact that it consists of letters and sounds which are contingent and not

eternal? If we say that God's speech is written in the Qur'än this does not require that

the eternal is located in the Qur'an, just as if we say that tire is located in the book, it

would not necessarily follow that the essence of tire is located in the book, for the

book would then be burnt. Likewise, if the essence of fire was located in the tongue.

then he who utters the word fire, his tongue would be burnt. Fire is a hot body having

a verbal sign which consists of the articulated sounds that produce the letters of the

word fire. Therefore the hot body that burns is the essence of the thing indicated, and

not the sign itself. Likewise, the eternal speech of (; od that subsists in His essence is

the thing indicated and not the sign. Therefore the signs in the book of God embody a

pointer to His eternal attribute of speech. To clarity this matter further, there are three

192 Ibid., p37. Abu Ammar Yasir Qadhi, An Introduction to the Sciences of the Quran, (Birmingham (UK), Al-Hidaayah Publishing and Distribution Ltd., 1999), p35- 0.3 AI-Ghazäli, AI-Igtisäd fi'I-1"tigäd (Ankara, Ankara University Press, 1962), pp114-117.

72

things which are involved. Reading, what is read and the Qur'an. What is read is

God's speech, which is His eternal attribute subsiding in Ills essence. As fier the

reading, it is on the tongue as an expression of the act of' the reader, which is

contingent as it was begun in time. The term Qur'dn could be applied as meaning

what is read. If this is what is meant by it, then it is eternal, not created. This is what

the pious ancestors meant when they said that the Qur'än was the uncreated word of

God. However, if what is meant by the Qur'än is the reading itself, which is the act of

the reader and is contingent, then it is something created. 194

In Mawühih al-Quddüs Ahmadou Bamba also discusses the conceptual

attributes which are a practical signification of His essence (ma'na wivvah): 69 Then there are those attributes which are a practical signification of Ills essence195 70 They are that God is powerful, willing, knowing, living, hearing� 0 seeker 71 And Ile, may Ile be glorified, is seeing and speaking� so ask the knowledgeable ones (about this)

The conceptual attributes which are a practical signification of I üs essence

(ma'nuwiyyah) are related to the real attributes (ma'ant). This is due to the fact that to

describe an entity as powerful, for example, cannot be done except by establishing

that it has power. Therefore the attributes which practically manifest the qualities of

the essence are subject to the real attributes, and the former may be thought of as

being subject to the latter. Therefore, the first of the real attributes is that (god has the

attribute of power established in His essence, and what is subject to Ills power is the

first of the attributes which are a practical manifestation of Ills essence, which is that

he is powerful. Likewise, His will is the second of His real attributes, and the second

of His attributes which are a practical manifestation of His essence is that lie is

willing, etc. 1116

Mawühih al-Quddüs is a very sophisticated work which discusses many other

matters of belief at a high level of complexity. l; ven regarding the attributes of 'God.

verses 49-261 are devoted to discussing many other matters not touched on here.

Verses 262-390 are about the prophets, and the rest ofthe work deals with the

other fundamental beliefs of Islam, such as the angels, the divine boks, the afterlife.

'9' Ibid., pp 118,125-128. '`'S This is the second hemistich of verse 69. '"" AI-Sanüsi, p39.

73

etc. It is to the section of the work which deals with belief in the prophets that

attention shall now be turned:

263 The attributes that are obligatory for the prophets are three 264 May the purest prayers and peace be on them without end 265 Truthfulness, trustworthiness and transmission of' the message as the,,

have been ordered (however they came to receive the message) 266 Truthfulness is defined by the erudite as reporting authentically what has

been received 267 Trustworthiness is defined by those who have achieved (spiritual success)

as the preservation of all of the organs 268 From all that the Lord of the sky has declared to be undesirable or

prohibited 269 The reality of the transmission of' the message is the fulfilment by the

prophet of conveying to the creation what he has been ordered to convey, so understand this

270 The opposite of these attributes are impossible for them 271 May prayers and everlasting peace be on them, and on those who are

guided by them 272 Namely, lying or treachery (that is doing what is disliked or forbidden) 273 And thirdly, concealment of what the Lord of the 't'hrone has ordered

them to convey to mankind 274 The nature of lying is the conveying (by he who knows) of that which is

not correct 275 "Treachery is defined as not preserving the organs from that which is

forbidden 276 And concealment is not fulfilling the transmission of the message as

ordered to do so

Prophets were men sent by God to the creation in order to convey to people

what God had revealed to them. Their truthfulness was necessary so that they would

authentically report God's message to creation (verse 266). The proof of their

truthfulness is that God himself verified their veracity by stating:

'My slave was truthtul in all that he conveyed from me. ' 197 (narrated by Imam Malik)

Also God verified the truthfulness of the prophets by allowing many miracles to be performed at their hands. 't'hese miracles could not he emulated by any other

human being, and were thereföre a proof of the prophets' divine mandate. 'l'herelore

not only did God himself bear witness to the prophets' truthfulness, but Ile authored

many miracles at their hands, and so if the prophets turned out to he liars this would

mean that God Himself was a liar as declaring a liar to be truthful is itself a lie, and it

is impossible for God to lie. It is also necessary tier the prophets to be trustworthy as

"" Ibid., p57.

74

they have been made a reference point for mankind. If they were to undertake actions

which were forbidden or disliked by God. this would be like asking people to imitate

what God had prohibited. In fact the prohibited would become licit as God has

explicitly asked us to follow the prophets: Say (0 Muhammad) if you love God follow me, And God will love you. (3: 31)

In fact a good example of following the prophet scrupulously can lxs scen in

the behaviour of the companions of the prophet. If the prophet took oll'his shoes, the

companions would do the same; if he took off his ring, they would take oil' theirs;

when the prophet shaved off his hair, the companions impetuously rushed to do the

same. Effectively the companions would try to imitate the prophet in all matters big

and small, including his manner of sitting� sleeping, eating, etc. Therefore as

scrupulously following the prophets is required for spiritual advancement, God must have made them trustworthy reference points. In fäct all of the actions of the prophets

were either acts made compulsory by God, or acts which I le liked. ""

The prophets fulfilled their duty of conveying the message of God to the

creation. This duty was explicitly made incumbent on Prophet Muhammad in the Qur'än:

0 Prophet, convey what has come down to you from your lord. It'you do not do it you will not have conveyed the message. God will protect you trom the people. Truly God does not guide the disbelievers (5: 67).

In this verse of the Qur'an the prophet has been emphatically commanded to

convey everything revealed to him by God. It should all be conveyed without any

regard for the likes and dislikes of people, or their acceptance or rejection of the

message. The verse also gives the prophet the good news that the disbelievers will be

unable to harm him, and with regard to his mission as a prophet he will enjoy divine

protection. The sentence and if you do not you will not have conveyed the message' is worth considering. This means that if the prophet even failed to convey one divine

command he would not find himself absolved of' his responsibility as a prophet. This

is why the holy prophet attempted to strive with the greatest courage and strength all his life to fulfil the heavy obligation placed on his shoulders. ""'

'98 Ibid., p59. "'9 Mufti Muhammad Shafi. Ma`ariful Quran, (Karachi, Maktaba-r-Darul-Ulowm, 1999) vol. 3, pp213- 214.

75

As stated in verse 270 the opposite of truthfulness, trustworthiness and

transmission are impossible for the prophets, namely Tying, treachery and

concealment of the message. Lying is impossible for the prophets as this would

constitute deliberately falsifying the message of God. Treachery is defined as not

preserving the organs from that which is forbidden. 11' the prophets behaved in this

manner it would mean that God had sent men to reform mankind who were

themselves corrupt individuals, and that the reformer himself had character traits that

he was charged with attempting to eradicate. Concealment of the message by the

prophets would mean that men whose function was to convey God's message to

mankind themselves concealed it. Therefore it would be illogical fier the prophets to

have these three traits of lying, treachery and concealment of the message, and so

these attributes are impossible for them.

After establishing what is necessary and impossible for the prophets,

Ahmadou Bamba establishes what is possible for them. Some of these possibilities are

as follows:

323 Everything human in character which does not lead to a decrease in their high rank (is possible for them) 324 Like minor illnesses, hunger, thirst, joy and tiredness 325 And like facing harm, travelling, concern for sustenance, contemplation 326 Renting or leasing, and combat and blows and injuries 327 Short and long periods of sleep, and the struggle of a spiritual seeker fier righteousness

Verse 323 states the general principle that everything which is human in

character which does not lead to a decrease in their lofty rank is possible for the

prophets, and verses 324-327 give various examples of this. Therefore the broad

sweep of human activities is within the sphere of possibility for the prophets.

'T'herefore 'ilm al-tawhid is a subject that Ahmadou Bamba has written about in 7azawwud ul-Shuhhdn and Tazawwud al-Sighir at a basic level of understanding.

and also in Mawdhih al-Quddüs at a highly intellectual level of understanding.

wherein he discusses many of the problematic aspects of belief that have been a cause

of difference among Muslims throughout their history.

What is important to note is that on the level ofspeculative theology Ahmadou

Bamba's works may be seen as an eloquent re-articulation of much of'what had been

written before him on `ilrn al-tawhid, particularly the theology ofthe Ash'arite school.

At this level the works of Ahmadou Bamba are not necessarily diflcrent from what

76

has gone before. What was different about Ahmadou t3amha was his implementation

of 'ilm al-iuwhid at the level of praxis. ̀00, t may be appropriate to articulate some

examples of this in order to facilitate greater understanding:

After a period of conflict with the French colonialists. Ahmadou Bamha was

brought before the colonial tribunal at Saint Louis. The tribunal decided to deport the

sheikh "to a place where his fanatical preaching would have no effect. "2 (iabon,

where the sheikh stayed for over seven years, was chosen to be the place of exile. I lis

enemies wanted him to he moved away in order to harm him, but the sheikh thanked

God for this isolation which distanced him from men and brought him closer to God.

His book, His companions and His angels. He stated in verse 14-)5 of Asiru

ma 'a '1-A hrar:

My castle has become empty and my family has left me. This exile answers the wish of being able to chant that which is not praised enough. Human illusions have caused the whites to fall into traps. They have deluded themselves, victims of their own imagination, which is sometimes the source of delusion. 202

le spent his days in prayer, meditation, writing and preserving his writings in

trunks, which he pulled along under the shelter of a cabin when it rained. In the

surreal scenery between the virgin forest and the Atlantic ocean the Sheikh reaffirmed his position as a slave of God and servant of the prophet:

O ocean of Mayumba, witness that I am the slave of the One who lbrgives sins. And that I remain a servant of the chosen one. Witness that I am the intimate friend of the One who grants honours, I reject all forms of association with God and solely adore I lim. Witness that I am the friend of the one who has the honour of being taken as a model, the friend of God. 20;

After five years of danger, health hazards and privations apparently having no

effect on him, the colonial administration sent him to Lambarene in the north of

Gabon, which was an isolated place in the equatorial jungle. All his trials merely

increased the piety of the Sheikh, and enriched him with sublime mystical experiences

which inspired his poetry. Eventually he was granted a pardon and he returned to his

'00 This idea was introduced to me during my discussions with Sheikh Ahdoulaye I)ieye in London on I9/4/99. He was a Mouride Sheikh from Senegal. 20$ Cited in Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Touba Signes et SYmtx>Ies, p27. 202 Ibid., p27. 20 Ibid., p28.

77

country inwardly richer than when he had left. This was the miracle of the sheikh. that

his saintliness enabled him to live a life of perfect serenity in (; od. beyond the distress

and hardship that surrounded him. Before various types of calamities he did not give

up. For the rest of his life he was continually hounded by the colonial authorities.

suffering thirty three years of deprivation of liberty at their hands.

This, then, is indicative of the degree to which Ahmadou Rumba /veil his

beliefs. Under the most trying conditions he turned to God, reftising to accept any

authority other than His. Therefore it is in this sense that Ahmadou Bamba was to

distinguish himself in the field of 'ilm al-tawhid. His was not merely a philosophical

theology, but a theology of praxis too. It may also be appropriate to add that this may be seen as an important corrective of what came betbre him. in the sense that other

writers, scholars and thinkers merely concentrated on theoretical expositions of' Islamic belief. What Ahmadou Bamba did was to marry the theory with practice, and in this sense he may be regarded as imitating the prophet. As expressed ab ovc, he was

concerned with showing the way of imitation of the prophet, and any study of the litt

of the prophet will highlight that he was not merely a speculative thinker, but also an

extremely active individual who practically manifested his inner convictions. "Though

it may be enlightening to continue discussing Ahmadou Bamha's writings and actions

with regard to 'ilm at-tawhid, it may be appropriate to end the discussion here and

enter the next part of the study in the interests of maintaining a balanced and broad

study of his ideas.

Ahmadou Bamba also wrote broadly about jurisprudence (/ryh). Eiyh is a body

of laws deduced from the chari'ah 1o cover situations not directly treated in . shari'ah

law. In this sense flgh tends to be specific, in that it demonstrates how the basic

principles of shari'ah should be applied through detailed rules of Islamic law in given

circumstances. 204 For example, the Qur'an often asks the believer to establish prayer,

but it does not give details of the number of cycles of prayer, the aspects ot'prayer that

are compulsory, superogatory and encouraged, etc. This function of giving detailed

rules of how to perform a general religious in is the role of Jrcih.

The first of Ahmadou Bamba's works on _/iyh that we will consider is

tazawwud al-tihuhhün, the second section of' which deals with this subject (the first

204 Abu Ameena Bilal Phillips, The Evolution of Figh, (Saudi Arabia, International Islamic Publishing House, 1995), p2. See also Muhammad Hashim Karnali, P rinc iples of Islamic Jurisprudence, (Petaling Jaya (Malaysia), Pelanduk Publications, 1995), p2.

78

section which deals with 'ilm al-lawhid was dealt with above). Verse 187 of this work

mentions the five pillars of Islam (testimony of fäith, prayer. alms. lusting and

pilgrimage), and verses 191-553 discuss the jurisprudence associated with these five

pillars, which are summarised by subject matter below:

191-196 Fiqh of water - the classification of water into the three categories: pure and

purifying, pure and not purifying and impure.

197-241 Figh pertaining to those who reject prayer outright, and those who accept

that prayer is a duty but still do not perform their prayers.

241-277 Compulsory and superogatory acts of ablution and the manner in

which wudfi ' should be performed.

278-293 Compulsory and superogatory acts of ritual bathing (ghus! ) and the manner

in which it should he performed.

321-326 Compulsory and superogatory acts ofdry ablution (tuvummunt).

327-349 The things which break rii ü '.

350-475 Conditions of prayer, the call to prayer, obligatory and superogatory acts of'

prayer, times of prayer, making up missed prayers and superogatory prayers.

475-515 Fasting - compulsory and superogatory aspects.

516-528 Zakät - compulsory and superogatory aspects.

529-553 Hajj - compulsory and superogatory aspects. 05

This work is therefore seeking to provide the seeker with the basic rules which

will enable him to perform the necessary acts of worship which are compulsory for

him to do. It should also be pointed out that Ahmadou 13amba belongs basically to the

school of Imäm Malik with regard to jurisprudence, which he himself' makes clear

several times in his writings (e. g. verse 92 of_jatiwar u! -nu/T wherein he retcrs to the

Mäliki school as 'our school'). However his writings also make it clear that he does

not subscribe to the notion that the seeker should be static and rigid in his

jurisprudential commitments. but rather he subscribes to an evolutionary, broad and

progressive approach to fiyh, wherein the seeker absorbs the breadth of' the whole

theological diversity represented by all four schools of jurisprudence in his quest to

imitate the prophet. Basically Ahmadou Bamba's system has three stages: The first

stage is to adhere to one of the four schools of jurisprudence (in his case it was the

205 These subject areas are commonly found in most standard works on fiyh, e. g. AI-Sayyid S5biy. Figh al-Sunna voll, (Beirut, Dar al-Kitäb al-'Arabi, 1085).

79

Mäliki school. because that was the prevalent school in West Africa rather than for

reasons of theological preference on his part). The second stage is to strive to learn the

other schools of thought. This is alluded to in the yusiduh al-S'indidi : 10 By the distinguished M5lik, al-Shafi'i. Abü llanifäh and the praiseworthy

Ahmad

This may be done at the level of jurisprudence (Jiyh) through learning from

teachers who subscribe to these schools of thought, as well as by consulting the

comparative works of compilation of the four schools of thought on each of the areas

of jurisprudence. This would enable the seeker to know the solution of each of' the

four schools of thought to each issue which is in the domain of/iyh, and to evaluate

the merit of the proofs adopted by each of the schools of thought. Not only should this

study enable the seeker to broaden his knowledge on aspects of practical

jurisprudence (fiyh), but the seeker should also seek to understand the methodological

differences between the four schools of thought which are the usual cause of the

differences in jurisprudential judgements given by the four schools of thought.

Therefore whereas a study ofJlgh highlights the diflcrences between the four schools

of thought on various jurisprudential issues, and also the theological proofs associated

with these differences, a study of the principles of jurisprudence (usiil (11-Jiyh) highlights the different methodologies adopted by each school, which are often the

reason for the different jurisprudential judgements of the four schools. In fact even a

cursory study of Islamic hermeneutics will highlight that the existence of' ditlerent

schools of Islamic law result from the different methods of interpretation. 20fi It may he

appropriate to briefly consider these diflerences between the tour schools of'

jurisprudence. Ahmadou Bamba was born and lived his life in West Africa where the

Mäliki school holds exclusive, or all but exclusive sway. `"' The main theme of' the

methodology of Imdm Mdlik was to regard as crucial the practice ('amid) of' the

people of Medina rather than the written down records of the sayings and actions of'

the prophet. This is the essential hermeneutic point of' diflcrence between M51lik's

Madinan school and the other three schools of jurisprudence. l'hus fier Imam M51ik

the Qur'dn, the sunna and ijiih5d are inextricably hound together in one whole, which

206 Wan Mohd nor wan Daud, The Concept of Knowledge in Islam, (London. Munsell Publications Ltd., 1989), pp4-5. 207 Abdullah al-Ma'mun Suhrawardy and Alexander David Russel, First Steps in Islamic Law in West Africa, (Lagos, Islamic Publications Bureau, 1986), p111.

80

is the 'amal of the people of Medina. Therefore the Muwatta' of Imäm Malik presents

a composite picture of the religion of Islam in action. Thus a particular practice may

come from the Qur'an, or from the sunna of the prophet. or from later authorities, but

it is seen as part of a whole - the existential lived reality that Malik hound himself

surrounded by in Medina. Therefore what Malik presents us with is a book entitled the

Muwatta which is based on action rather than written down texts. 209.1 he question may

be asked as to why Medina had such a great importance in the theology of' Imam

Malik. In fact Medina retained its importance throughout the first two centuries of'

Islamic history as an important centre of learning in the Islamic world. The

importance attached to Medina was for two reasons: firstly it had a greater number of'

scholars than other areas, and secondly, its historical associations with the prophet and

the companions. It was the city to which the prophet and the companions had

emigrated, where the majority of the legal verses of the Qur'an had been revealed and

first put into practice, and where, for the first time, an Islamic polity had been

successfully established and maintained for at least thirty five years. Also, even after

the death of the prophet, many of the major companions had remained in Medina. 2 )"

After the death of the prophet, with the spread of the Islamic empire. new

territories came under the control of the Muslims. The companions of the prophet

began to spread to these various cities to establish Islam in them. Külä was a city

ibunded by 'Umar, and he appointed Ihn Mas'üd as the instructor and scholar of the

city. Ibn Mas'üd lived there for ten years giving theological verdicts in matters of law

and religion. 'Ali, the fourth caliph of Islam, made Kütä his capital. and

approximately 1500 companions of the prophet took permanent settlement there. Thus

Küfä grew as a seat of' learning. 210 It was in this thriving theological region of the

Islamic world that Imam Abu }lanifah was to establish the Ilanal school of

jurisprudence. Abü Hanifah's methodological approach was to base his school of

jurisprudence on the Qur'än and sienna. Also, as well as these two fundamental

theological pillars, Abü i}anifah became the first theologian to give such prominence

to giyüs (or analogy). Analogy was based on either the Qur'an. sunna or rjm«'

Yasin Dutton, 'I he Origins of Islamic Law, (Surrey, Curzon Press, 1999). pp3-5. Ibid., ppl4-15.

210 M. H. Khan, The Schools of Islamic Jurisprudence, (New Dehli, Kitab I havan, 1997), p59. For an analysis of the history and culture ofKüta from its creation to modern times, see (lichem [)fait, Al- Kütä Naissance de la Ville Islamigue, (Paris, G. P. Maisonneuve et Larose, 1986). For a discussion of the foundation, physical structure and settlement of Küta, based on historical sources. see Netzar Alsayyad, Cities and Caliphs, (London, Greenwood Press, 1991), pp55-65.

81

(consensus). Therefore if the required theological verdict was not tbund in the Qur'an.

tradition or consensus, then the solution would be found by resorting to drawing an

analogy to similar underlying causes or situations. By the principle of analogy Abu

Hanifah solved many complex theological issues. Due to this utilisation of analogy in

order to solve theological issues, his followers gained the title of upholders of

personal opinion (ahl al-ra ' y). Abü Hanifah is also noted for his utilisation of the

principle of isiihsän (juristic preference). All Sunni Muslims are agreed on the fact

that if the verdict reached through analogy is inconsistent with the Qur'dn or . s'unna

then it will be set aside. Abü IHanifah went a step further than this. According to his

thinking if the results of making analogy are not acceptable either because they are

likely to cause undue inconvenience or hardship to those to whom it is applied, or

because it is against the broader rules of justice, or because it is not in the public

interest, the jurist is at liberty to reject the rule and to adopt one which is more

preferable and equitable. AN! Hanifah also had a broader notion of' consensus than

Imam Mälik. Not only was the Hanafi conception of consensus not limited to the

`amal of Medina, but if the jurists at any time in Islamic history and at any place in

the Islamic world agreed on an issue, then that consensus was binding on all Muslims.

Custom (`urJ) is also a principle of jurisprudence for Abü Hanifäh. whereby local

customs and usages were taken as authoritative. It should also be stated that for Abü

Hanifah the Qur'an, sunna and ijmä' were primary precepts, and analogy, juristic

preference and custom were merely secondary sources. 211

Imäm al-Shäfi i came onto the theological stage in an epoch wherein juristic

controversy had become prevalent between the jurists of Medina and Küfä, known as

the ah! al-hudith and ahl al-ru'y schools respectively. Many of the ati)rementioned

hermeneutic differences between the two schools were causing conflict, particularly

the extent to which rational methods (such as givüs, islihsään. etc. ) could be used. "l'his

was also a time when the scholars of hadith had succeeded in their etlbrts at collecting

and documenting the hadith of the prophet. Once the scholars were assured of' the

subject matter of the sunna they began to elaborate the law, and hence the need to

regulate ijtihüd became increasingly apparent. 212 Theretöre lmäm al-Shäti'i may be

'" Ibid., pp64-68. 212 Mohammad Ilashim Kamali, p4.

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seen as very much the mediator between the I lanafi and Mäliki schools of thought

respectively. 213

AI-Shäfi'i s method was to base judgements on the Qur'än and sunna. He was

also a strong supporter of ijmü', by which he meant the agreement of the majority of

leading scholars in the Muslim lands in any age. Al-Shäfi'i accepted the idea of giväs.

and he considered it as a variety of ijtihäd of which he approved. ']'here are subtle

differences between the lianafi and Shäfi'i applications of giyüs but it is beyond the

scope of this study to look into this issue further. 214 Al-Shäfi'i rejected the idea of

istihs5n completely. The fourth of the Sunni imams was Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who was

a student of Imam al-Shäfi`i. He restricted the role of i/mü', associating it more with

the age of the companions than with later epochs, and he also restricted the role of

giyäs to cases of sheer necessity. He found islihti n acceptable, unlike his teacher. `]`

Therefore for Ahmad ibn Hanbal the divine law was not in any way dependent on

human reasoning, and he taught that the only fundamental roots of the law were the

Qur'än and the sunna. 216This brief summary of some of the key issues in the history

of the principles of jurisprudence gives us some idea of the methodological breadth

that Ahmadou Bamba wishes the seeker to acquaint himself with on his journey to

becoming a true imitator of the prophet. Not only would the seeker thus know the

theological prescriptions to various issues (figh), but also the methodological

presuppositions and underpinnings that lie behind the jurisprudence.

The final part of the syllabus that Ahmadou Bamba advocates for the youth is

to learn the Arabic language with a view to learning Qur'än and hadith. Though

Ahmadou Bamba has written no particular work on the Arabic language, the teaching

of Arabic through the madrusah education system is a centuries old tradition in

Senegal . 21 Furthermore though he has written no work solely devoted to

interpretation of the Qur'än (taf ir) or explanation of hadith. his work as a whole

contains explanations of these two sources of legislation, some of which will he given

an exposition in the rest of this study.

211 C. G. Weermantry, Islamic Jurisprudence, (London, The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1988), p53. 214 For further details see M. H. Khan, pp101-103. 2" Ibid., ppl 12-114. 2"' C. G. Weermantry, p54. 21' For an articulation of the way Arabic was taught in the traditional institutions in Senegal, see Dr. Mamadou Ndiaye, L'Enseignement Arabo-Islamique au Senegal, (Istanbul, Centre de Recherches sur L'Histoire, L'Art et Culture Islamiques, 1985), pp9-66. This work also gives a thorough explanation of the changes that occurred to this system of education in the colonial and post-colonial periods.

83

It may be appropriate to conclude this section of the study by summarising Ahmadou Bamba's standpoint on the traditional exoteric sciences of' Islam. lie

considers the appropriate order of study to be 'ilm al-lawhid, /Iqh, and the Arabic

language with a view to learning Qur'an and hadith. In other words after learning 'ilm

al-tawhid and frgh well enough to practice Islam (particularly the obligatory rituals of' Islam), the Arabic language should he learned in order to enable a deeper knowledge

of the Qur'än and Hadith to be gained. This is to be the syllabus according to which

youth are to be taught Islam. In the sphere of belief Ahmadou Bamba was an Asharite,

and from the perspective of. ßgh he was basically a Mäliki. What now remains is fror

his esoteric ideas to be given some consideration, and it is to this that the next section

will be devoted.

84

2.3 ESOTERIC KNOWLEDGE

This section of the study begins with a translation of the gasiduh Ruhb zidni

'ilmu: 218

In the name of God The Beneficent The Merciful

Lord increase me in knowledge (20: 1 14)

Allah's prayers and blessings be on our master Muhammad This is the way of gaining a spiritual opening and the means of success relating to

Lord increase me in knowledge'

O Lord all praise be unto You forever Prayers be on the one who embodies Your purpose

2. And on his family and companions Increase me in beneficial knowledge and sharpen my mind

3. By his honour, and on the basis of this grant me an opening That will eradicate my forgetfulness and baseness

4. Beautify my heart and tongue 0 Beautiful One With the beauty of the Qur'än and make me noble

5.1 pray to You for goodness and increase And knowledge and good acts and contentment

6.1 direct myself to Your door which does not close For anyone as long as he avoids the forbidden

7.0 Doer of Good, 0 Opener, 0 Knower 0 King of the Givers, 0 Wise One

8. Teach my heart knowledge from Yourself And enlighten my heart and increase me in understanding

9. Teach my tongue and rid me of its impediment And make it remember You and thank You continuously

I O. Let me enjoy my life with hearing and sight

"" This explanation is a result of discussions I held with Sheikh All Ndaw in Paris 12/2/99. He is a Murid Sheikh of Senegalese origin who lives in Reunion island in the Indian ocean. The reason that this section begins with this qasidah is that it represents a succinct summary of several of the main epistemological ideas of Ahmadou Bamba. Furthermore, due to its centrality to Ahmadou Ramha's epistemological ideas, appendix 4 contains the Arabic text of the gasrdah. Its Arabic is an example of the style particular to Ahmadou Bamba, and contains non-standard orthographical and grammatical aspects.

85

And strength by the honour of the best ofmen

IE Make Your prayers and blessings on him perpetual And on his offspring and those who imitate him.

This yasTdah begins with the introductory statement: This is the way of gaining a spiritual opening and the means of success relating to

Lord increase me in knowledge. '

The style of Ahmadou E3amba's gasii'id are such that the introductory

statement (if it occurs) is a summary of the whole yusidah. 21 `' 'l'heretöre in the case of'

this ya. tiiduh two major issues are highlighted. The first of these is gaining a mystical

opening and the second is increasing oneself in knowledge. With this succinct

statement of the overall orientation and concerns of the qasidah Ahmadou Bamba

enters into a more detailed exposition of these matters. 10 Lord all praise be unto You threver

Prayers be on the one who embodies Your purpose

The first verse begins by praising God and invoking His prayers on the

prophet Muhammad. All knowledge that has come to humanity has come through

God. One of His 99 names is the all-knowing (a! -'alim), and the Qur'an states that

'above every knower there is the all-knowing. ' (Qur'än 12: 76). The Qur'sn also states

that He taught man with the pen. Taught man that which he knew not. ' (96: 4-5).

'Fhcretbre in this context the reason fior beginning with the praise of (iod is that all

knowledge emanates from I Iim, and that Ile is the One who teaches man what he does

not know.

The question also arises as to why the verse begins with All praise' (al-

muhümidu). I have chosen to translate the definite article here as 'all' (praise), though

literally speaking it could be translated as 'The praise. ' All praise is due to God

because everything in the heavens and the earth praises I line (Qur'an 57: 1), and I Ie

Himself is the author of this praise as lie created all things and that which they do

(Qur'an 37: 96). Therefore all praise is für (god in the sense that I Ic is the source ol'all

praise, being the creator of all things that praise as well as the creator oftheir action of

praising. In a divine utterance cited by al-Qurtuhi, God says:

21') Vide Infra p107 for the yasidah Astaghfiru'lläh, which is another example ofthis.

86

Praise by Me of Myself precedes the praise of all My creatures of Me. My praise of Myself from eternity was for no other reason but itself. while the praises of My creatures are blemished by motivations. 220

Al-Qurtubi asserts that God praised Himself in beginningless eternity fier the

greatness of His blessings. His servants are incapable of offering praises worthy of

Him, therefore He praised Himself on their behalf. 221

The one who embodies the purpose of God is the prophet Muhammad. All

divine knowledge that has come down to the Muslims has come down from God

through the prophet. The Qur'än was revealed to him, and along with the . sunnu (his

sayings, actions and implicit approval of certain matters) it forms the major basis of

Islamic legislation. Therefore in this sense guidance comes to mankind through the

prophet, who left mankind with the word of God and his own sunna, both of which

together embody God's purpose. In this regard the Qur'dn says about the prophet:

He does not speak of his own desire lt is only a revelation revealed unto him (53: 3-4)

Therefore the sunny embodies God's purpose as much as the Qur'än (which is

the word of God), as the former is Muhammad saying what he is ordered to say by

God. 222This matter is, however, subject to qualification. Shdh Wall-Alläh writes:

*Whatever has been reported from the prophet and included in his books of, hadith is divisible into two categories, viz (1) things pertaining to the prophetic mission, in connection with which was revealed the uyul 'Adopt whatever the prophet commands and refrain from whatever he prohibits', and (2) things not connected with the prophetic mission, regarding which the prophet himself

said : `I am only a man, Whenever I give you a religious command, follow it, but whenever I give you a direction based on my personal opinion, remember that I am only a man. '223

Therefore it is clear that in matters of revelation pertaining to the tünction of

the prophetic office, it is incumbent on Muslims to follow the prophet's dictates, but

in matters which pertain to opinion and are therefore non-prophetic in nature, it is not

incumbent to follow. The sunna contains some matters which are of a non-prophetic

nature, and thus pertain to the second category above, though the Qur'Sn is a

220 Cited in Mahmoud Ayoub, The Quran and its Interpreters, (Albany, State University of New York Press, 1984), p47. 221 Ibid., p47 222 Muhammad `Ali al-Säbüni, Mukhtasar Fafsir ibn Kathir Volume 3, (Beirut, Dir al-Qurän, 1981), p396. "' Cited in Allamah Shibli Numani, Imam Abu Hanitä Life and Work, Tr. By M. Fladi Ilussain, (Delhi, Idara Isha'at-E-Dinayat (P) L, td., 1995), p153.

87

revelation from God to Muhammad in total, and thus pertains to the first of the

aforementioned categories.

However, Muhammad represents the embodiment of God's purpose in a

higher sense. The prophet Muhammad said:

`I was with God in the mother of Books as the seal of the prophets when Adam was still clay. ' (narrated by Imam Ahmad)``'

The mother of the book is the preserved tablet (a1-lawh al-maWü )225 on which

God wrote all that would happen in the world until the end of time, before he formally

began the task of creating. Therefore the prophet Muhammad was already the seal of

the prophets before the spirit (rüh) was blown into Adam. Thus he was the first

prophet to be divinely created and the last to historically emerge. 226 Therefore God

created the last prophet who would be sent for the guidance of mankind first, the man

who would articulate His guidance from the beginning of his mission on earth to the

end of time. Therefore the final embodiment of God's guidance was created first, and

in this higher sense he may be seen as quintessentially embodying God's purpose.

The qasidah continues by invoking blessings on the family of the prophet and

his companions. In this regard there are various statements made by the prophet about

his family in order to clarify their status for the believers:

Aisha stated that Allah's apostle went out one morning wearing a striped cloak of black camel's hair. There came Hasan bin Ali. He wrapped him under it, then came Husain and he wrapped him under it along with the other one. Then came Fatima and he took her under it, then came All and he also took him under it and then said: `Allah only desires to take away any uncleanness from you, 0 people of the household, and to purify you through a thorough purifying (xxxiii, 33). 227

Therefore this saying of the prophet makes it clear that those tour sublime

personalities enjoy the status of beings that Allah Ilimself'wants to purify. 22

Equally, a logical consequence of' following the Sunna of the prophet is

adherence to those who are responsible for the collection and transmission of'

224 Hadith quoted in Imam Ahmad ibn Rajab al-Hanbali, Latä'ifal-Ma_drif ti mä li mawäsim al _äm min al-wazä'i_f, (Beirut, Dar Ibn Kathir, 1992), pI58. "s The Preserved Tablet is a Quranic concept cited in 80: 13-16 and 85: 21-22 for example. 22(, Imam Ahmad ibn Rajab al-Hanbali, pp 158-160. 227 Sahih Muslim vol. 4, translated by Abdul Hamid Siddiqi (Lahore, Sh. Muhammad Ashraf; 1978), p 1294. 228 it is debated amongst the scholars whether the wives of the prophet should be included as members of his family, and thus fall within the domain of this verse. See Muhammad 'Ali al-Säbüni. Mukhtasar tafsir ibn Kathir Vol. 2, pp94-5.

88

traditions. In the first rank are the companions and their followers. "'Furthermore

there are various statements that the prophet made about his companions and their

followers in order to clarify their high status:

The best of my umma would be those of the generation nearest to mine. Then those nearest to them, then those nearest to them, then people would come whose witness would precede the oath and the oath would precede the witness. 230

In this statement the prophet is making it clear that the best of the Muslims

would be those belonging to the first three generations, that is his companions. then

the generation who would follow them, and then the generation who would follow

them. After this people would emerge who would he of an untruthful nature.

Therefore Ahmadou Bamba is citing the iämily and companions of the prophet

as Muslims of a high status whom the prophet himself has declared to he crucial

reference points for the umma. If all knowledge comes to us from Allah through the

prophet, it was through the effort of his family and companions that this knowledge

reached us.

The second hemistich of verse 2 of Rabb zidni 'ilma states:

Increase me in beneficial knowledge and sharpen my mind.

The question which arises here is that what actually is beneficial knowledge'?

Ahmadou Bamba provides an answer to this in the work Alm-ülik ul-Jinin: 159 True knowledge engenders fear of the All-Knowing Whoever does not acquire it is ignorant and blameworthy 160 Knowledge does not benefit the slave if it is acquired for the love of being praised 161 Nor if it is sought to outdo one another or to compete like the hypocrite 162 Nor if it is sought für the sake of giving theological verdicts and harmful

judgements 163 Nor if it sought for the sake of subjugating ones companions 164 Nor if it sought as a pastime for sport and play 165 Nor if it fills the heart with jealousy, rancour or arrogance which deprives it of guidance 166 Nor if it leads to mutual hatred, mutual rivalry or disagreement 167 Nor if it leads to pride, arrogance and disputation 168 Nor if it leads to argument, anger, deception or fighting 169 Nor if it enables one to lay a trap by various strategies and great verbosity 170 No, rather beneficial knowledge is that which teaches someone his faults 171 Which inspires him to adopt patience, generosity, forbearance, sincerity and modesty

22') Binyamin Abrahamov, Islamic Theology, (Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 1999), p7. 2 ;" Sahih Muslim vol. 4, p1345.

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172 Truthfulness, seclusion, consideration with the heart and sight, and contemplation 173 To adopt good behaviour secretly and openly without (harbouring feelings of) hatred 174 Leading to fear and reliance (on God), abstinence, hope and self-denial 175 Elimination of covetousness, and inclination to piety at all times 176 Ridding one of jealousy, arrogance, transgression against others, rancour and pride 177 Urging one to permanent sincerity and perpetual good relations with Muslims (for the sake of God) 178 So if knowledge does not lead one to guidance it will lead one to perdition 179 it is said that whoever helps someone to seek knowledge for worldly reasons 180 Shares with him the consequences. like someone who sells a sword to a thief 181 Knowledge is not knowing a lot of things, but it is a light of understanding 182 Seek your Lord with it young man, thus you will acquire the reward of permanent bliss 183 Whoever does not fear the Lord of the worlds, is not a scholar even if he has learnt every sphere of knowledge.

In this passage Ahmadou Bamba begins and ends by stating the overall

purpose of acquiring knowledge, and provides a criterion for the evaluation of' the

veracity and value of any type of knowledge. The truth of knowledge is to be judged

by its ability to engender fear of God, and a person who has mastered every discipline

of knowledge is not a scholar, no matter how many things he appears to know. It may

be appropriate to introduce a terminological distinction here, whereby we distinguish

between someone who has a lot of information (i. e. someone who has mastered many

disciplines of knowledge but has not reached the station of fearing God). and someone

who has knowledge (someone who has done the above and also reached the station of

fearing God). This distinction clearly exists in verse 191 above, wherein Ahmadou

Bamba clearly states that knowledge is not knowing a lot of facts, but it is a light of

understanding. In order to facilitate ease of discussion, the above passage will he

divided into three sections:

a) Seeking knowledge with the wrong intention;

b) Evil consequences of seeking knowledge with the wrong intention;

c) Beneficial knowledge and its positive consequences.

2.3.1 Seeking knowledge with the wrong intention

With this in mind it may be appropriate to discuss verses 160-164. which

focus on seeking knowledge with the incorrect intention. The most serious type of incorrect intention is given first, which is the acquisition of knowledge due to the love

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of being praised. This is because such an attitude is diametrically opposed to the

correct intention with which one should seek knowledge. which Ahmadou Ramha

articulates in verse 106 of Masülik al-Jinün, which states that beneficial knowledge is

that which is sought solely for the sake of God, the Glorious, the One. Therefore

knowledge should be learnt for His pleasure alone not for the sake of the pleasure one

gets from being praised for ones knowledge.

Nor should knowledge be sought for the sake of outdoing people or for

competing with one another. Whereas seeking knowledge for the sake of enjoying the

pleasure of being praised is one type of fault, seeking knowledge for the sake of

manifesting ones superiority over others is another type of fäult. In the first case what

is sought through publicly parading ones learning is the praise of the people. In the

latter case one is seeking praise as a result of outdoing someone in an argument, and

thus manifesting ones superiority over another. In this case there is often a dual

pleasure. Defeating an enemy in an argument, and gaining the praise and recognition

of people. The duality is important as this type of behaviour would have far fewer

practitioners if defeating someone in an argument would lead to public rebuke or

criticism. Therefore ultimately the prey is the same in both cases, which is to win

peoples' praise. What differs is the technique with which this prey is hunted.

Verse 162 speaks of another incorrect intention with which knowledge may be

sought, which is for the sake of rushing to give theological verdicts and harmful

judgements. What the verse is highlighting is that an impetuosity in giving religious

verdicts will lead to harmful verdicts due to their incorrectness. In order to give a

correct theological verdict what is required is patient contemplation and thought, and

ultimately prayer and reliance on God. This fault may be seen as an extension of love

of other peoples' praise and an inappropriate type of competitiveness with regard to knowledge, which comprises both of the aforementioned faults cited in verses 160-

161. In other words, this may be seen as proving ones knowledge through

endeavouring to give theological verdicts before anyone else can do so. due to love of being praised and desire to outdo others.

Knowledge may also be used as a weapon with which one may attempt to

subjugate ones companions. In this sense one may attempt to utilise knowledge in

order to emerge as the forerunner of one's immediate circle of friends, and thus to

gain mastery over them by getting the whole group to follow oneself. "I'his will be

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done by utilising one's learning through eloquent articulation, and thus asserting the

superiority of one's thought over other ideas expressed in the group.

Finally verse 164 gives the example of people who seek to learn knowledge

merely as a pastime. This of course is a very poor orientation for one to adopt with

regard to such a lofty matter as that of knowledge. Ahmadou Bamba views knowledge

as something which should be learnt solely for the sake of God, with a view to fearing

God, and it has a consequence för the seeker beyond his death. How far short of this

lofty conceptualisation of the affair of seeking knowledge is one who regards it as

merely a pastime.

The following saying of the prophet Muhammad is very relevant in this

regard:

The first people against whom judgement will be pronounced will be a man who has died a martyr. Fie will be brought and Allah will make known to him His favours and he will recognise them. (The Almighty) will say: And what did you do about them? He will say: I fought for you until I died a martyr. He will say: You have lied - you did but fight that it may be said (of you): lie is courageous. And so it was said. Then he will be ordered to be dragged along on his face until he is cast into Ifell-fire.

(Another) will be a man who has studied (religious) knowledge and has taught it and who used to recite the Quran. lie will be brought and Allah will make known to him His favours and he will recognise them. (The Almighty) will say: And what did you do about them`? tic will say: I studied (religious) knowledge and I taught it and I recited the Quran for Your sake. Ile will say: You have lied - you did but study (religious) knowledge that it might be said (of you): He is learned. And you recited the Quran that it might be said (of you): He is a reciter. And so it was said. Then he will be ordered to be dragged along on his face until he is cast into Hell-fire.

(Another) will be a man whom Allah has made rich and to whom he had given all kinds of wealth. He will be brought and Allah will make known to him His favours and he will recognise them. (The Almighty) will say: And what did you do about them? He will say: I left no path (untrodden) in which You like money to be spent without spending in it for Your sake. I lc will say: You have lied - you did but do so that it might be said (of you): Ile is open- handed. And so it was said. Then he will be ordered to be dragged along on his face until he is cast into I fell-fire. 231

Much of this is further articulated by Ahmadou Bamba in a slightly diflcrent

manner later on in Masdlik al-Jinün: 783 Safety from delusion is one of the most difficult things in life to acquire

2U Ezzedin Ibrahim and Denys Johnson-Davies, Forty Hadith udsi, (Beirut, Dar al-Koran Al-Kare m. 1981), pp52-4.

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784 Because, as the scholars say, delusion can come about through knowledge as well as through ignorance 785 Perhaps a young man may be deluded through having knowledge, generosity and a proclivity to struggle (spiritually), if through these 786 He seeks for people to say that such a person is more knowledgeable than other men 787 He articulates various statements and narrations before being asked to do

so 788 He is always in the company of scholars in order to outdo others and gain as much as possible 789 In order to be more knowledgeable than others whenever they argue and dispute with him 790 The most useful knowledge for the hearts is the knowledge of servanthood (to God) and the Lordship (of God).

Verses 783-4 make it clear that one can be deluded through having knowledge

as well as through ignorance. Then an example is given of a young man who has

knowledge and the outward appearance of good behaviour in that he is generous and

is ostensibly involved in seeking to undertake spiritual struggle for the sake of' self-

purification. However all of this is undertaken due to the desire to appear more

knowledgeable than other men. Even without being asked to do so he is keen to

articulate his knowledge. He keeps the company of scholars, but not with the goal of'

seeking knowledge for the pleasure of God and to undertake self correction. but rather

in order to gain the weapons he needs in order to be more knowledgeable than others,

and to win in arguments and disputes. This passage is appropriately concluded by the

statement that the most useful knowledge for the heart of' man is to know of' his

servanthood (uhüdiyyah) to God. In fact in the Qur'än the prophet Muhammad is

referred to as `His slave' (17: 1). Therefore it is important to reflect that if the best of'

mankind is given the epithet of His slave', this can be little more than something for

others to aspire to. Coupled with this, the second aspect of' this 'most useful knowledge' is the knowledge of God's Lordship (ruhühitwah). To put this succinctly,

the most useful knowledge that man can acquire is of his servanthood to a (god who is

his Lord.

Finally it may be appropriate to discuss another passage from Masülik al-. Jinäm

which covers similar ground, but which injects the discussion with an apocalyptic

dimension.

106 Beneficial knowledge is that which is learnt and taught for the sake of the Glorious, the One 107 Not that which is learnt for showing of or boastfulness

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108 Nor that which is learnt for worldly gain, love of honour or a high

position 109 Nor that which is learnt for the sake of deceptively attracting people 1 10 Everybody who learns for these reasons 111 And who does not repent before death and old age, realising what has passed him by of his youth 112 Will only gain harm, rebuke and punishment on the day of questioning and accountability 113 Because his knowledge will be a proof against him; so fear this proof.

Herein Ahmadou Bamba repeats that beneficial knowledge is that which is

learnt for the sake of God, not for showing off or txoastfulness, worldly gain, love of'

honour, a high station or to attract people to oneself: Then most importantly in verse

110, he states that learning knowledge for these reasons and then dying or growing

old without repentance, and not realising how youth has been wasted, will be a cause

of punishment on the day of judgement. In fact the knowledge itself will be a proof

against oneself on the day of judgement. here we have some important ideas in that

youth should he used for sincerely learning for the sake of God with a view to self'-

purification, and if this is not done repentance should be sought. The knowledge

which one has acquired for the sake of other than God will itself be used in evidence

against one on the day of judgement.

2.3.2. Evil consequences of seeking knowledge with the wrong intention

If knowledge is learnt with the wrong intentions (see Musülik u! -Jinän verses

159-164 above) it will lead to the evil consequences cited in verses 165-169. For

example, if knowledge is learnt because of a love of being praised (verse 160), it leads

to certain vices of the heart such as . jealousy, rancour, arrogance and lack of guidance

(verse 165). This is because if the goal with which one is seeking knowledge is to be

praised by others, he will feel jealousy and rancour if someone else is praised instead

(or if he feels that someone else is a contender for the praise he is hoping ti)r). If he

actually does secure the praise he is seeking, it will lead to him being afflicted with

the vice of arrogance. The ultimate consequence of all of this will he that he will

suffer from a lack of guidance, as guidance does not enter into a heart that is not pure.

If knowledge is learnt for the sake of' outdoing others and competing like a

hypocrite (verse 161), then this will lead to mutual hatred, mutual rivalry and disagreement (verse 166). This is because knowledge is learnt in this case solely with

the intention of outdoing others, and in that case the intention of inappropriately

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competing with other people leads to dysfunctional relations with others who are

conceived of as competitors.

If knowledge is learnt for the sake of giving theological verdicts and harmful

judgements (verse 162), it will lead to argument, as the one who learns eflcctively has

the desire to enter impetuously into the arena of theological disputation. This in turn

will lead to anger, deception and fighting (verse 168). If knowledge is learnt tor the

sake of subjugating ones companions (verse 163), it will lead to various strategies

being undertaken in order to do so (verse 169). And if knowledge is sought as a

pastime for sport and play (verse 164), then it will lead to great verbosity (verse 169).

as the person is merely passing his time in the vicinity of a learned, eloquent person

with a view to leisure, and so he will merely come away being able to articulate

certain information. Knowledge learnt for leisure purposes does not penetrate any deeper into the individual psyche and lead to self=transibrmation, but it remains

superficial.

What should be noted is that every incorrect intention highlighted in verses 159-164 has its consequent faults explained in verses 165-169. Therefore this should

be viewed as a sophisticated analysis which illustrates that various types of incorrect

intentions with regard to the seeking of knowledge lead to various consequent vices.

Sowing the seed of incorrect intentions with regard to seeking knowledge may be seen

as resulting in reaping the hitter harvest of the consequent vices. Therefore one may

summarise verses 159-169 as being indicative of the fact that knowledge should he

sought solely with the intent of purifying and correcting oneself fi>r the sake of (; od's

pleasure.

2.3.3. Beneficial knowledge and its positive consequences Verse 170 states that 'beneficial knowledge is that which teaches someone his

faults. ' An example of this type of knowledge would be verse 922 of Alasalik al-. lintin

which states:

Pride is the worst of all faults Because it detracts from the religiosity of those who are obedient (to God)

This type of knowledge would be considered beneficial as it unequivocally

condemns pride, to the extent that even obedient peoples' religiosity is diminished as

a result of it. The individual is in a position to utilise this knowledge by undertaking

to avoid this type of behaviour in his ethical praxis, and if he actually has this täult he

should, having learnt of its blameworthy nature, endeavour to correct it.

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Thus having learnt this type of knowledge one would be inspired to adopt

patience, generosity, forbearance, sincerity and modesty (verse 171). 't'his is for two

reasons: In the first instance, on realising his numerous faults, the seeker should adopt

patience and generosity with regard to other peoples' faults, realising that he needs

their understanding and forgiveness as much as they need his, and ultimately everyone

needs the understanding and förgiveness of God. Secondly, on learning of the

numerous personal faults that need his attention, he should realise that he will have to

undertake an extended period of self correction which will take many years of patient

perseverance, generosity and forbearance with himself and others, as well as sincerity

and modesty. With this correct conceptualisation of his existential state, the seeker

will be able to adopt certain ethical practices and spiritual exercises which will be the

beginning of the great struggle for self improvement and spiritual growth. In this

regard verse 172 advocates the usefulness of adopting truthfulness as a practice. Sell-

correction begins with the truthfulness of the tongue. The spiritual practice of

seclusion as an antidote to the world and the spiritually harmful phenomena prevalent

therein is to be undertaken. Inward thought with the heart as well as consideration of

observed phenomena is also to be adopted as a practice. Herein Ahmadou Bamba is

giving an epistemological clue which will be further discussed later in this work. Let

it be stated here, however, that he is indicating the validity of both rational ('with the

heart') knowledge and empirical ('with the sight') knowledge.

Another of the fruits of beneficial knowledge is described in verse 173, in that

it should lead the seeker to adopt good behaviour at all times, secretly and openly.

This adoption of good behaviour at all times, and all of the other fruits of beneficial

knowledge (learning ones faults, adopting patience, generosity, forbearance, sincerity

and modesty with others as well as with oneself; adopting truthfulness of the tongue

and undertaking seclusion and contemplation), should result in the following 2:

174 Leading to fear and reliance (on God), abstinence, hope and selfdenial 175 Eliminating covetousness, and inclination to piety at all times.

Beneficial knowledge and the associated spiritual practices lead to tear ot'God

and reliance on Him. "I'his connection with God leads to abstinence from the base

things of this world and its associated pleasures, and also to sett' denial, as one who

2 12 Though these verses were quoted earlier, they have been restated in order to facilitate case of discussion.

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relies on God and places his hope in Him does not feel the necessity for indulging in

the base things of this world. Rather he places his hope in God and is frugal and

abstinent with regard to other things.

Verse 175 may he seen as a reiteration of this theme in that it speaks of the

elimination of covetousness and inclination to piety at all times. Therefbre

covetousness may be seen as a dysfunctional form of behaviour resulting from inner

emptiness. When man is inwardly satiated through his connection with God, a

connection which consists of both hope and fear, he is inspired to fear God at all

times. This inner balance rids him of those evil traits mentioned in verse 176:

jealousy, arrogance, transgression against others, rancour and pride. It will be noted

that all of these evils are concerned with one's relations with others. Having gotten rid

of these evil traits, one is incited to adopt 'permanent sincerity and perpetual good

relations with other Muslims for the sake of God' (verse 177). Therefore one who is

balanced and God-connected avoids evil traits in his relations to others, and he

reaches the station of sincerity, a station which bears the fruit of having permanently

good relations with other Muslims for the sake of God.

To conclude this section it would be correct to regard beneficial knowledge as

that which shows someone his faults. This leads to the beginning of a life of spiritual

struggle, whereby he adopts the behaviour and spiritual practices of a seeker, which

after a certain time enable him to evolve spiritually until he is able to place his fear

and hope in God, and to rely on Him. Thus spiritually fulfilled, his relations to other

people become free of the evil that they previously entailed, and now he becomes one

of the sincere who undertakes positive social intercourse with other Muslims fier the

sake of God. Therefore beneficial knowledge is intimately linked to man's spiritual

evolution, and it has an important role in inciting man to adopt the spiritual path of

self improvement.

Verse 178 states that if knowledge does not lead to guidance it will lead one to

perdition. This may be regarded as an appropriate summary of the spiritual

didacticism of Ahmadou Bamba, in that beneficial knowledge is to be considered on

the basis of its utility with regard to spiritual growth. Knowledge should never be

information which does not lead to transformation. In fact verses 159-169 which have

been discussed above, give very eloquent expression to the ways in which gaining

knowledge may lead to perdition. Verses 179-180 articulate the fact that knowledge is

a responsibility, and that helping people to gain it who only seek it lirr worldly

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reasons is to be severely condemned. And ultimately, knowledge is not knowing a lot

of things, but it is a light of understanding that God places in the human heart.

Returning to Rabbi zidni 'ilmu, we had reached the point of explaining the

second hemistich of verse 2:

Increase me in beneficial knowledge and sharpen my mind.

In the discussion above as to what constitutes beneficial knowledge, one of the

points that was made clear was that beneficial knowledge gives its seeker greater

insight into certain realities (for example, it teaches him his faults), and inclines its

possessor to rationally-based and empirically-based contemplation. In this sense

beneficial knowledge may be seen as something which activates the intellect. Thus the

intellect becomes an instrument which is utilised as an aid in the religious life of the

seeker.

3 By his honour, and on the basis of this grant me an opening That will eradicate my forgetfulness and baseness.

By his honour' means by the honour of prophet Muhammad. 'And on the basis of this grant me an opening. ' On what basis is the seeker petitioning his lord lör

an opening? There are two possible interpretations here. The first one is rather

obvious from the context of the verse itself, in that the opening is being sought on the

basis of the honour of the prophet. According to the second interpretation the seeker is

praying for an opening on the basis of beneficial knowledge and sharpness of mind.

As the seeker has striven for the attainment of knowledge with the right intention, and

then utilised this beneficial knowledge by striving to correct his fäults and adopt good

behaviour, he is now calling on God for an opening, whereby he will progress further

in his spiritual quest. In fact to put these two interpretations together and thus explain

the verse as a request for an opening on the basis of good knowledge and sharpness of

intellect, and also on the basis of the honour of the prophet is more correct. 2 13 This is

because all good knowledge is coming to us from God via the prophet in the first

place, and thus on the basis of this source of knowledge we attain goodness and

sharpness of'mind.

What is the opening that is being prayed for in this verse'? This is explained

more fully by the following saying of the prophet:

'" This is the interpretation that Sheikh Ali Ndaw explained to me during our discussions in Paris on 12/2/99.

98

Allah the Almighty has said: Whoever shows enmity to a friend of Mine. I

shall be at war with him. My servant does not draw near to me by anything more loved by me than the religious duties I have imposed on him, and my servant continues to draw near to Me with superogatory works so that I shall love him. When I love him I am his hearing with which he hears, his seeing with which he sees, his hand with which he strikes, and his IM with which he

walks. Were he to ask something of Me, I would surely give it to him; and were he to ask Me for refuge, I would surely grant him it. 234

What is clear therefore is that the seeker draws near to God by performing the

acts which God has made obligatory for him. "Then he strives to undertake

superogatory works in order to continue drawing near to God. This continues until

God loves him. At this point God grants him Powers of the ear, eye. hand and foot

which he did not previously have. He attains a station in God's regard of him whereby

were he to ask Him for something. Ile would give it to him. Were he to seek refuge in

Ilim, he would be granted it.

In his commentary on the Qur'än Ihn al-'Arabi (1165-1240 CF) gives a

spiritual interpretation of surah al-nasr (Chapter 1 10) which may be of some help

here. The first two verses of that chapter are :

When the help of God and the opening Vuih) comes And you see people enter into the religion of God in droves

Ibn a1-`Arabi s interpretation of these verses is:

When God aids His servant with celestial förces (mat/ad mulakfiti) and divine

help, and through the manifestation of his names and attributes, the absolute opening

after which there is no other opening occurs. This is the opening of the divine

presence and the unveiling of the essence which comes after the clear opening at the

station of the spirit, which occurs by means of witnessing.

And you sec people entering into the religion of God', which is the oneness of God,

and you see people travelling on the straight path as a result of the eflcct ot'your light

on them, and as a result of you perfecting your ego.

'In droves', as if they were a single soul, due to the profusion of your light, and

through the support gained (by them) from the (lofty) station of your soul. This

pertains to the relation between the prophet and his companions which was

214 Yahya Ibn Sharafal-Nawawi, Forty Iladith, (Damascus, The Holy Koran Publishing Ilouse, 1976), pi 18.

99

appropriate and necessary in order for them to receive his light. 25 In tact the Qur'än

articulates this simile with regard to the prophet by calling him a 'light giving sun'

(s"irüjan munirah (33: 46)). Al-Zamakhshari (d. 1 144 ('F) explains this Quranic simile

by saying that through Muhammad God eradicates the darkness of polytheism and

guides those who are astray. 236

Thus what is being articulated here is the model of an enlightened teacher (the

prophet) and the students (companions) that received his light. As a result of striving,

the aspirant has received an opening from God, which has resulted in the perfecting of

the ego. This is what Ahmadou Bamba is alluding to when he says: '(rant nie an

opening that will eradicate my forgetfulness and baseness. ' Therefore one of the fruits

of such an opening is perfection of the ego.

In his commentary of chapter 48: 5 of the Qur'an (... and remove their ills from

them), al-Säbüni gives an interpretation of this 'removal of ills' (which helps to

explain verse 3 of rabbi ziehe 'ilmu) as a removal of' the attributes of the ego. 237

Therefore it is clear from all of this that the opening enables a spiritual evolution

beyond the domain of the ego and its had characteristics into the realm of the spirit

(rieh).

The opening also enables good qualities to be adopted and attained. Verse 4 of

rabbi zidni 'ilma states:

Beautify my heart and my tongue, 0 beautiful One, With the beauty of the Qur'dn and make me noble

What is being asked for here is for God, the Beautiful One (ul-Jumil) to grant

the seeker inner and outer beauty. In Ihn al-Arab' Fs aforementioned interpretation of

'When the help of God and the opening comes' (Qur'än 110: 1), one ofthe ways in

which the help of God comes that was cited was through the manitirstation of' l lis

names and attributes. Therefore what is being requested here is fier God to manifest

his attribute of beauty in His slave, by making his heart, tongue and character

beautiful. It should be noted that this verse is imploring God to beautitý, the seeker's

heart and tongue by the beauty of the Qur'än. This may he explained by the fact that

the Qur'an teaches us the way to attain inner and outer beauty, and thus the individual

"s Ihn al-'Arabi, Tafsir al- ur'än al-Karim vol. 2, (Beirut, Dar al-Andalus, 1978). p865. Hereafter referred to as Tafsir Ibn al-'Arabi. 216 Cited in Muhammad 'Ali al-Säbüni, Safwatu al-tafasir vol. 2. (Beirut, Dar al-Qur'an al-Karim. 198 I ), p530. 117 Ibid.. p507.

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application of its injunctions will lead us to have a beautified heart, tongue and

character. This can only take place through divine grace, and thus the verse is calling

on (iod to relent by allowing his slave the station of inner and outer beautification

through the Qur'an. In fact divine favours are always a matter of grace. In Mullah al-

a cayni (pages 26 and 27, see appendix 1) Ahmadou Bamba writes:

U Allah, the hope of Your Forgiveness is greater than the fear of our sins and disobedience.

O Doer of Good, we place our hope in Your Mercy rather than in the good works we do, forgive us and all of the Muslims.

Therefore salvation is not dependent on the perlbrmance of' prescribed rituals

and good works alone, but is ultimately a matter of God's grace. One Of the most

unequivocal expressions of this fact is the following saying of the prophet:

`The good deeds of a person will not make him enter paradise. ' They (the prophet's companions) said: 'Not even you, 0 God's messenger'? ' He said: `Not even 1, unless God bestows f (is favour and mercy on me. '`''9

This grace does not pertain to salvation alone, but also to spiritual tävours

gained in the life of this world. The greatest spiritual favour is to he guided to Islam.

Regarding this the Qur'än says: This is the guidance of God. }le gives that guidance

to whom Ile pleases of His worshippers' (6: 88). Theretbre guidance and spiritual

favours in this world, and ultimately salvation in the next world, are subject to divine

grace.

The prophet was able to enjoy the manifestation of God's Beauty whereby he

became the quintessential example of inner and outer beauty in that the Qur'än itself

refers to him as the 'best example. ' (33: 21). Furthermore his wite Aisha referred to

him by saying that his character was the Qur'an. '`''`' Thus he became the locus of

God's self-manifestation in terms of His Beauty, and perhaps it would be appropriate

to regard him as the highest exemplification of what Ahmadou Bamha had in mind in

this verse.

The next verse of rahb zidni 'ilma states:

51 pray to You for goodness and increase And knowledge and good acts and contentment.

"" Muhammad Muhsin Khan (Tr. ), Summarised Sahih Bukhari, (Riyadh, Maktaba Dar al-Salam, 1994), p937. "`' Quoted in Qadi lyad, Muhammad Messenger of Allah, Jr. Aisha Abdarrahman Bewley,

(Granada, Madinah Press, 1991), p5I I.

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The goodness prayed for here is the goodness of faith (7män), which begins

with ones entry into Islam. The increase which is sought here is an increase in faith.

Increase in faith is gained by first gaining beneficial knowledge (which has been

discussed above). Then good works should be undertaken on the basis of this

knowledge. In this regard Masülik al-Jinn states the following:

103 0 my brother, knowledge is better than action, being its foundation The one who attains it succeeds.

104 However its fruits are reaped by acting on it Be of those who join (knowledge and action)

105 A little action on the basis of knowledge undoubtedly earns more reward Than a lot of action undertaken in ignorance.

These verses are extremely important in that they emphasise a number of

significant points. Firstly, knowledge is superior to action. and action should he

undertaken on the basis of knowledge. Knowledge should precede action, but its fruits

are reaped by acting according to it. This is summarised by the statement in verse 105

that one earns more reward for a little action based on knowledge than for a lot of

action undertaken in ignorance.

Anyone with even a basic knowledge of Ahmadou Bamba's works will be

aware that there is great emphasis made in his the writings concerning the connection between knowledge and good acts. In fact even reaching the pinnacle of knowledge

does not absolve someone of the duty of performing actions based on that knowledge,

and in this regard verse 32 of Mallab al-. shi/ü' states:

Make all of the scholars workers The idea of learning knowledge and not putting it into practice is addressed

in Masülik al-Jinän verses 83 1-832:

831 Is it useful lör someone who is starving to hold a sickle without ever cultivating in the field? 832 Is it useful for someone who is thirsty to possess a rope without ever using it to draw water (from a well)?

Therefore possessing knowledge that is never utilised for self-benefit is

regarded as useless and futile. In this regard the Qur'än states: O you who believe, why do you say that which you do not do? It is most hateful in the sight of God that you say that which you do not do. (61: 2-3).

Furthermore in this regard Masülik al-Jinän states:

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836 Knowing innumerable remedies does not profit the sick. 837 As long as he does not use any medicine to combat the affliction affecting him, even if he himself cure thousands of sick people. 838 If your advancement in knowledge does not lead to spiritual growth and detachment from worldly things. 839 You are going backwards and harming yourself as you are distancing

yourself from God Most High. Refer to the saying of the messenger of God: 840 The peace and blessings of God be on him, his family and his noble companions. 841 'Certainly the deed of going hunting without a weapon is the action of an ignorant fool. '

844 Never go hunting without carrying sharp well-prepared weapons, nor have weapons without going hunting. 845 It is necessary to have weapons and go hunting as well, and do your best to obtain your objective.

What is clear from these verses is the importance of uniting knowledge and

action. Various similitudes are made for learning knowledge without combining it

with action, such as a starving person with a sickle not using it to cultivate a field, a

thirsty person with a rope not using it to draw water from a well, and a sick person

with knowledge of medicine not using this knowledge to cure himself by taking the

medicine required. Many other examples are given in the writings of Ahmadou

Bamba to exemplify the condition of someone that has knowledge but does not utilise

this knowledge to benefit himself through good actions. Furthermore verses 838-841

may be seen as concluding remarks on the need to combine knowledge and action.

The purpose stipulated in verse 838 for advancing in knowledge is to attain spiritual

growth and to undertake detachment from base worldly things. Therefore attainment

of knowledge is to be undertaken in order to grow spiritually through undertaking

good actions and avoiding spiritual corruption by refraining from the base things of

this world. Therefore what is important is the utility of knowledge for the sake of

spiritual evolution and moral edification. The weapon of' good deeds is to be used to

hunl for its prey, which is seeking to win the pleasure of God.

Verse 5 of Rabbi zidni 'ilma (which is currently being discussed) speaks of

'knowledge, good actions and contentment. ' The question which arises here is what is

contentment in this context? In the first instance, faith and more faith, knowledge,

action and contentment being prayed for may be seen as stages on the spiritual path.

These are the stages of having faith, growing in faith, being a knower, a worker and a

contented person. Contentment therefore grows through the prior stages of Islam,

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imün, 'i! m and 'uma/. When the seeker accepts Islam he enters into the domain of' faith. The more fully he adopts the teachings of Islam the more his faith increases.

The path that Ahmadou Bamba advocates in order to do this is the path of' knowledge

and action. The intensified application of this panacea of striving to gain knowledge

and act upon it leads to contentment. This needs to be investigated in greater detail,

and in order to facilitate this the yatiiduh S'hukawru will be discussed:

1. I complain of my affairs and my great sin To my powerful, forgiving, merciful Lord

2. Hear my complaint and grant me what I desire By the honour of the generous, interceding prophet

3. Unending prayers be on him And peace be on him forever

4. Be my protector now and in the future And be my helper as I am in deprivation

5. Be gentle with me and grant me contentment And be forgiving unto me for I am blameworthy

6. Help me in my aspirations And grant me power for I am weary

7. Grant me righteousness and grant me piety And enlighten my heart and increase me in knowledge

8. Give me success and increase me in guidance And make my affairs good and increase nie in bliss

9. Eradicate my faults and increase me in elevation Cure my illness and end my sadness

10 Do not humiliate me through my destruction And do not disgrace me by letting me he evil

1I For I am evil, a prisoner of my desires And sinful, but my (lod is forbearing

12. Grant me good health now and in the future For us and for those who tread the path of guidance

13 Prayers be on the chosen one And peace be on him forever.

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Commentary

1. Through this yasidah the seeker is complaining in general terms to his Lord

about the shortcomings in his own practice of Islam. He is complaining in particular

terms about his 'great sin'. Every seeker has at least one major shortcoming. This may be miserliness, one of the evils of the tongue, excessive evil desires, etc. I'heretbre the

seeker is addressing His Lord in confessional terms through His holy names The

Powerful One, The Forgiving One and the Merciful One. God is the Powerful One

who is able to act as Ile wishes, and if He wishes to forgive Ilis servant Ile has the

power to be able to act accordingly. This act of forgiveness pertains to the type of

mercy which is specific to the believer (al-Rahim), which is what this verse is

concerned with, as opposed to the type of mercy which is universal (al-Rahmen),

incorporating both believers and non-believers. 2. With regard to this power of God to be forgiving and mcrciful to the

believer in a manner which will bring about an effective change in the spiritual life of' the believer, the seeker is imploring his Lord to hear his complaint and grant him the forgiveness he seeks. He is asking for this by the honour of the generous prophet Muhammad who has been granted the right to intercede with God on hehalf, of the believers on the day of judgement240. 'T'herefore God is being implored here by the honour of his beloved prophet, who is the best created being. And in the light of this

prayers and peace are invoked without end on the prophet in verse 3.

4. Having complained of his sinfulness and asked God for forgiveness (and

also admitted his state of deprivation), the seeker is asking for the protection and help

of God now and in the future. There are forces which impact negatively on the

spiritual life of the seeker such as the devil, the world and its alluring nature, the human ego, etc., and only through God's protection can man enjoy safety from these

evils. 5. The seeker is asking (iod to be gentle with him and grant him contentment.

In other words, despite his failings he seeks gentleness from his lord. Despite his

blameworthiness he asks God for forgiveness.

6. God is being asked by the seeker for help in terms of'striving to achieve his

lofty aspirations for self-improvement. He is also asking God to grant him power in

order to overcome his weariness. The struggle for seit=improvement often leaves the

240 For a discussion of intercession, see Qadi fyad, pp 114-119.

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seeker weary, and only through God granting him the spiritual desire to carry on the

struggle will he be able to do so.

7. The culmination of this struggle against sinfulness and blameworthiness,

weariness and deprivation, is for God to relent to the hard-working seeker by

rewarding him. It is the state that the seeker is given as a reward which the rest of the

gasidah is concerned with. God is being asked to grant righteousness and piety. and to

enlighten the seeker inwardly and to increase him in knowledge. Therefore what

precedes knowledge is to be in a condition of acting righteously, having piety and

being inwardly enlightened. In other words knowledge comes to the pure.

8. God is being asked to grant the righteously acting seeker (who is at the

stage of' having exoteric knowledge) the success of spiritual growth and increased

guidance, and that all of the aflýirs that he was complaining of to God now be

corrected, and thus leave him in a state of bliss.

9. The spiritual elevation that the seeker wants can only be achieved through

the eradication of his faults. Through this process of striving to eliminate his faults he

grows spiritually to the extent that his (spiritual) illness is cured, and his feelings of

sadness end. This can only take place through God's grace. which is made clear in

verses 10-11:

10 & 11. Only God can prevent spiritual destruction and the consequent

humiliation of the seeker through self-indulgence in the forbidden. It is for the seeker

to realise that he is inclined to evil things and imprisoned by his desires, and only

through God's patience and forbearance is he excused, granted mercy and protected from evil. This is made clear in the Qur'än (12: 53):

''T'ruly the ego incites to evil except the one upon whom my Lord has mercy. '

12. Finally the seeker asks God for good health at all times, for himself and Ihr

those who tread the path of guidance. The real success of a believer is being within

the domain of God's mercy in a state of physical and spiritual health. Finally blessings

are invoked on the prophet through whom all goodness comes.

To summarise this commentary of Shukawtu, what is crucial for our discussion

of verse 5 of Rabbi zidni `ilma is that the contentment that is spoken of in the latter

qasidah should be viewed against the background of the existential state of man

depicted in the former. This state is described as one of sinfulness, deprivation.

blameworthiness, weariness, possessing faults, suffering (spiritual) illness, sadness.

and vulnerability to evil and spiritual destruction. Shakawtu is a qasidah wherein the

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seeker is imploring his lord to allow him to evolve out of this base condition into a

condition of contentment. There are two main reasons alluded to in , S'hakatiriu liar the

base condition of man: Sins committed which have not been forgiven, and faults that

the individual has in his character. Sins distance the seeker from the Creator, and

unless a sincere repentance is made the seeker finds himself outside the domain of

God's mercy and forgiveness. Secondly the taults that an individual has will prevent

him from enjoying spiritual elevation and an end to sadness (verse 9). "Therefore it is

for the seeker to strive for God's forgiveness and to undertake the struggle to

eradicate his faults. This is the path proposed in verse 5 of rabbi zicini 'i/ma, which

advocates faith, knowledge and good acts as the means which finally lead the seeker

to contentment. What may be said about this matter of man's existential reality is that

Ahmadou Bamba asserts an essential distinction between 'being' and 'becoming'.

Man's `being' in this world is essentially a base existence wherein he is endangered

by numerous forces which are detrimental to his spiritual growth. I lis 'becoming' is to

reach the station of contentment through undertaking the path of faith, knowledge and

action.

Verse 6 of rabbi zidni 'ilma makes it clear that God's door does not close to

anyone as long as he avoids the forbidden. If he strives to do this he will remain

within the domain of God's mercy and proximity. What has been said above with

regard to the gasrdah S'hakawtu remains valid as an explanation of this idea, in that it

is necessary for the seeker to strive to eradicate his faults and to seek God's

acceptance by imploring Him for forgiveness for past sins. However more has been

said about this matter in the yasTdah Astaghfiru'Ildh:

0 God send prayers and peace and blessings on our master and protector Muhammad and on his family and companions. Accept my words of' repentance through 'Astaghfirullah' for the sake of your noble face.

1.1 seek the forgiveness of Almighty God and I repent unto Him from all manifest and hidden sins 2.1 ask by the right of God's face for forgiveness from all forbidden things 3.1 repent unto Him from all small and big sins, and from all sinful thoughts 4. Forgive me, 0 Forgiving One, fur all that I have done and for all that I have Ibiled to do and all that is in between 5. Make me understand knowledge and increase me in knowledge and action and behaviour and understanding 6 Unveil beneficial knowledge unto me and make my We free from sadness 7 Unveil unto me secrets and obscure matters, 0 You who are the best of those who unveil obscure secrets

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8 Gather unto me all that has escaped me of good knowledge and grant me the eternal rank 9 Lead me unto contemplation of the Mighty One, 0 my Lord, with *Be' And make my pen free from sin 10 0 Generous One, grant me in my recitation goodness and sweetness from You 110 God bless me in my life, and make my heart the alxxde of Your signs 12 Grant me the happy existence granted to all who repent, and free me from manifest and hidden sins

Acceptance that will make me pure from sins and disobedience and detects until I enter the garden which the righteous are promised by Your mercy and beneficence.

The introductory statement makes it clear that the qa iduh is concerned with

sincere repentance undertaken solely for the sake of God. Verses 1-4 ask God for

forgiveness from all sins, whether manifest or hidden, big or small, outer or inner.

Verses 5-8 are concerned with growth in knowledge. Before discussing these

verses it is important to note that God's forgiveness for man's sins precede his growth

in knowledge. Thus knowledge only comes to the pure. Verse 5 discusses different

stations on the path: knowing, acting, behaving and understanding. This may be

regarded as the essence of Ahmadou Bamba's didactic philosophy, in that learning

exoteric knowledge and practising it intensively leads, over a period of time, to a form

of culturing taking place in the individual whereby goodness will be undertaken

habitually and become the normative state with regard to the seeker's behaviour. An

intensification of this adoption of good behaviour leads to an opening, whereby

esoteric knowledge is learned.

Verse 6 asks God to unveil beneficial knowledge, which pertains to esoteric

knowledge (this will be discussed below when verse 8 of rahhi zidni 'i/ma is

discussed). This verse also asks God to make the seeker's life free from sadness.

Therefore contentment, which has been discussed above, is finally reached after

esoteric knowledge is gained subsequent to an opening. The rest of ' A. s'Iaghfiru '! lah is

not relevant in the context of our immediate discussion. 24)

Returning to rabbi zidni 'üma, verses 7-10 are essentially concerned with

esoteric knowledge which is gained subsequent to an opening. In verse 7 God is

implored through certain of I [is names: God is the Doer of Good (al-Barr) in that Ile

241 This is due to the fact that the discussion is about knowledge, and verses 9-12 are not immediately

relevant in this regard.

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is the absolute source of all good in creation, and goodness and beneficence ultimately

come through Him. He is the Opener (al-Fau[ h) in the sense that Ile is the one who

lifts the veils from the hearts of His holy men, opening for them the gates to the

heavenly kingdoms and the beauties of Ifis majesty. 242God is the Knower (al-'ulTm)

in the sense that his knowledge is the most perfect possible. God is the King of'

Givers (Malik al-Wahhäh) in that it is from Him that benefits pour forth on those who

benefit from Him, but this is not done for the sake of a recompense returning to

Him. 243 This truly makes [Jim the King of Givers, unlike man whose giving always

has a motive behind it. God is the Wise One (al-Hakim) in that He knows the most

sublime things by the most sublime modes of knowing. 244

"Therefore the seeker is asking God for knowledge through these five

attributes, that is the attribute of the one through whom all good comes, the one who

grants an opening to higher knowledge, who has perfect knowledge and gives it

without recompense, and the one who knows the most sublime things by the most

sublime modes of knowing. Through these five attributes the seeker asks God to

`teach my heart knowledge from Yourself, and enlighten my heart and increase me in

understanding. ' (verse 8). The knowledge which is being sought is trans-rational

knowledge which the Sufis refer to as ma `rifah (gnosis). The criterion of gnosis is not

intellectual. Soundness of reason and regard for evidence are a means to gaining

gnosis, but not the cause thereof. The cause is God's will. 245"I'hat is why in this verse

Ahmadou Bamba is asking God to teach knowledge from Himself. In fact as gnosis

pertains to the trans-rational domain, it is not constituted through the intellect, but

pertains to the life of the heart through God, and a turning away of ones inmost

thoughts from all that is not God. 246This is why Ahmadou Bamba asks God in this

verse to `Teach my heart... ' Therefore gnosis is knowledge which is

i) Gained through God's will, and ii) Trans-rational in nature, and therefore constituted by the heart, in that

it is to do with the life of the heart with God.

242 Al-Ghazäli, "The Ninety-Nine Beautiful Names of God, Tr. by David B. Burrel and Nazih Daher. (Cambridge, Islamic Texts Society, 1995), p79. 243 Ibid., p75. 244 Ibid., p 117. 245 Ali bin Uthman aI-Hujwiri, Kashfal Mahiub, Tr. by R. A. Nicholson, (Delhi, 'I'aj company, 1982), p268. 246 Ibid., p267.

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However, even if gnosis is by God's will and is constituted by the heart, what

still needs to be addressed is what the gnostic actually knoHcs. A question like this

must be tempered with a certain degree of circumspection, in that the way in which

the question is phrased seems to seek a tangible response to a question which cannot

be answered within the parameters of western thought and its epistemological

paradigms. This is due to the fact that modern western methods have been geared

toward studying natural and social phenomena. As a result the methodological

concerns of western scholarship have focussed on inductive methods and social

analysis, and western scholarship has made important contributions to the

advancement of empirical methods. 247 However, western methods have been

oblivious to revealed truth and its significance in providing an ethical and ontological

foundation for scientific research. 248 In the absence of a revelatory source to enlighten

human reason about the nature of total reality, rationality is incapable of transcending

its physical surroundings, and thus the trans-rational domain is beyond its scope. In

fact the answers given by the Sufis are deliberately paradoxical in nature, due to the

fact that their originators were aware that they were addressing an uninitiated

audience that was limited to comprehension based on the utilisation of reason. A

typical example of such a definition was that given by Muhammad ihn al-Fall:

"Gnosis is the heart's life with God, "249or that given by Abü '[Jthmdn al-Maghribi:

"The lights of knowledge shine for the gnostic, so he sees by knowledge wonderful

things of the unseen. , 250Furthermore ma'r#, uh is the attribute of one who knows God

by His names and attributes... he enjoys a goodly nearness to (iod... God inspires him

by making him aware of His secrets concerning His destiny . 251Thereföre through the

gnostic's inward connection to God he enjoys a spiritual nearness to I tim, resulting in

God granting him certain knowledge. The secrets concerning divine predestination

and the names and attributes of God, and various other phenomena of the unseen

realm, are examples of knowledge which cannot be accessed through reason alone,

but pertain to gnosis taught by God to man. All of this is summarised by Ahmadou

Bamba in the verse under discussion in that he states: '... enlighten my heart and

'a' Louay Safi, The Foundation of Knowledge, (Petaling Jaya (Malaysia), International Islamic University Malaysia Press, 1996), p166. 248 Ibid.. p 123. 24`' Cited in Al-Qushayri, Principles of Sufism, tr. by B. R. von Schlegell, (Berkeley, Mizan Press, 1990), p324. 25" Ibid., p323. 251 Ibid.. pp316-7.

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increase me in understanding. ' What he means by 'enlighten my heart' is the

increased awareness and closeness to God that enlightenment brings. In fact a good

commentary of this would be the above definition of gnosis by Muhammad ihn al-

Fadl, that gnosis pertains to the heart's life with God. And the subsequent knowledge

of the secrets of God's predestination, His names and attributes and other phenomena

of the unseen realm would be an apt description of what Ahmadou Bamba means

when he says ̀ ... increase me in understanding. '

In verse 9 Ahmadou Bamba states:

Teach my tongue and rid me of its impediment And make it remember You and thank You continuously.

How is it possible that God can teach the tongue of man? This matter has been

addressed in the writings of Abdul Qädir Jiläni.

"True believers have adopted the restraints of silence, decline, languor, and bewilderment. Once they achieve that state and remain thus, should it be God's will, He will cause them to speak in the same way He will make inanimate objects speak on the day of judgement. The believers utter nothing unless He makes them utter it. "252

Therefore as a result of man striving to adopt correct behaviour which is

consistent with the spiritual path, a state is reached whereby, should it be God's will, He will cause him to speak only what He makes him speak. Therefore the seeker will

enter into a state wherein his speech is divinely inspired.

As well as this God removes the impediments from the tongue off [is slaves as follows:

`... security can be maintained only by turning towards [lim. submitting peacefully to His will, and acting blindly towards Ills creation. The power of objecting to I [im is removed from their tongues. "253

Therefore in the same way as God 'teaches the tongues' of those who strive to

adopt the correct spiritual conduct, 1 le removes the power of objecting to 1 {im from

the tongues of those who turn towards Him, submit to Him and act blindly towards

His creation.

Putting these two ideas together, man who submits to God's will and adopts

the conduct which is appropriate to the spiritual path will, at a certain stage of his

252 Abdul Qadir Jilani, The Endowment of Divine Grace and the Spread of Uivinc Merk, tr. by Muhammad M. al-Akili, (Philadelphia, Pearl Publishing House, 1990), p181. 25 Ibid., p72.

spiritual evolution gain an opening whereby he will speak by the grace of divine

inspiration, and any power to object to God's will will be removed from his tongue.

Furthermore his tongue will be in a state of perpetual remembrance and thankfulness

to God.

God orders Moses to go to Pharaoh and deliver the message of Islam to him.

The Qur'an (20: 25) contains the prayer of Moses to God before undertaking this

mission. Part of this prayer is: `Remove the impediment ('ugdatan) from my tongue

(Ahmadou Bamba uses a word from the same root `a-q-d for impediment in verse 9 of

rabbi zidni 'ilma). Ibn al-Arabi interprets this impediment as the impediment of the

intellect (aq[) and thought (fikr), which prevent the tongue from expressing God's

perfection. What is important here is to link the idea of expressing God's perfection

which is beyond the domain of thought and intellect, with the idea of the trans-rational

nature of ma'rifah. 254

What needs to be added here is that these qualities of the tongue thus

manifested are subsequent to, and a reflection of, the inner state that has been

achieved. This state which has been attained has been explained above in the

explanation of verse 8, in that man attains to gnosis whereby his heart is taught

knowledge by God and he attains inner enlightenment and increased understanding.

Eloquence of the tongue is built on the basis of this foundation of inner

enlightenment, which has the associated manifestation of perpetual verbal

thankfulness and remembrance of God.

10 Let me enjoy my life with hearing and sight and strength by the honour of the best of men.

The hearing and sight spoken of in this verse are not of a physical nature, but

the spiritual `hearing' and 'sight' which a seeker attains subsequent to an opening.

The saying of the prophet which was utilised to explain this phenomenon above is

sufficient commentary on this matter, whereby the prophet stated that God said:

'When I love him I am his hearing with which he hears, his seeing with which he sees,

his hand with which he strikes, and his foot with which he walks. ' 255 'Therefore one of

the fruits of receiving an opening is that divine names and attributes are manifested in

the individual. This verse of rabbi zidni 'ilma speaks of the manifestation of God's

"' Tafsir Ibn al-'Arabi vol. 2, p40. 'ss Vide Supra p99.

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attributes of hearing, seeing and strength. The seeker becomes a locus for the

manifestation of these attributes, and therefore his hearing, seeing and strength are beyond the level of ordinary people. The qusiduh ends by praising and sending blessings on the prophet, as all knowledge and goodness comes through him (this is

why the yasidah begins and ends with mention of him).

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CHAPTER 3 The Beneficial Things of this world which are of a Material Nature

So far this study has been concerned with discussing matters which are

spiritual in nature, such as knowledge and action. This study will now move onto

matters which may be regarded as being of a more tangible nature with regard to

everyday life in the world. Therefore in order to facilitate a discussion of the ideas of

Ahmadou Bamba concerning living in the world, it may be appropriate to discuss his

gasidah Mallab al-shifa' (The Means of Healing), which may be regarded as a

general exposition of his ideas with regard to the structure of society.

3.1 The Means of Healing

In the name of God, The Beneficent, The Merciful

`Prayers and peace be on our master and protector Muhammad, and on his family and companions. This is the means of Healing for reaching God The Exalted through Mustapha, prayers and peace be on him. '

I. Praise be to the One who sends down weakness and illness And the One who sends down Healing and medicine

2. Who orders His slaves to supplicate In order to ward off trials 3. Also on the one who when he touches the sick Heals without delay and succeeds

in his purpose 4. Muhammad our wise doctor The purest prayers be on him, our noble Lord 5. And on his eminent family and companions What the sick need for a cure is this

poem 6. "Today I am truly in pain Seeking the help ofthe Answerer of prayers 7. I complain to Him of the harm That has afflicted me to the extent that I am at

the point of death 8. Our Lord Our Lord Our Lord Our Lord Our Lord Rid us of our affliction 9. By the honour of the noble one, the best of creation And also by the exalted

month of'Ramadan 10.0 God, 0 Beneficent, 0 Merciful One 0 Doer of'Good, 0 Generous One, 0

Great One 1. Forgive our sins and accept (our works) And protect us and overlook (our faults)

12. Send down the best of favours 0 Lord In place of what we fear of evil trials 13. Grant us good etiquette and excellence And rid us of faults and calamities 14. Grant us the desire to be obedient And repel all laziness from us 15. Doer of Good, 0 Gentle One, 0 Pardoner, 0 One who controls the afläirs of

mankind, 0 1-Iealer 16. Send down Your cure in place of illness And do not try us with tribulations 17. Send down benefit in place of harm And send down good in place of evil 18. Send down knowledge in place of ignorance And send down generosity in place

of miserliness 19. Send down wealth in place of poverty And send down thankfulness in place of

ungratefulness

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20. Cure all of the Muslims now And protect them from fear and sadness in the future

21. Save them. grant them good health and be gentle with them And do not seize them due to their numerous sins 22. For even if they disobey You 0 God due to forgetfulness They do not associate

anyone with You 23. "f heir bodies do not have the strength to withstand Your trials For their

weakness is manifest 24. Their hearts do not ever incline To other than You now or in the future 25. But the stealer of limbs Leads them to commit evil acts 26. Do not seize them for (evil deeds) which do not diminish You And give to them

from that which does not benefit You (of good things) 27.0 God

,0 changer of the hearts Turn our hearts away from sin 28. Captivate us with the love of every Muslim And save us from the evil of every

rogue 29. Make all of the Muslims our friends So that they may be sufficient for us against

harm 30. Make all the Muslim men and women believers in guidance And grant them

good health in the future 31. Grant all of the Muslim men and women spiritual elevation By increasing them

in the fear of God 32. Make all of the scholars workers And make all of the workers sincere 33. And make all of the sincere abstinent And make all of the abstinent good advisors 34. Make all of the good advisors righteous And make all ofthe righteous successful 35. Entice us 0 Lord that we may always Serve the Muslims and be merciful 36. Grant them guidance and goodness through us And repel from them our hurt and

harm 37. Entice us to love them for Your sake And entice them to love us so that we may

grow (in nearness to You) 38. Place all of my brothers and relations Under Your mercy on the day of difficulty

and hardship 39. Let us be lucky here and in the next world Having beneficial joy so that we may

enjoy good grace 40. Grant us noble behaviour And mutual love without division 41. Make our youth honour our elders And make our elders aid our youth 42. Make our hearts mutually loving And free from rivalry and mutual envy 43. Not argumentative or mutually opposed Nor feeling mutual hatred or mutual

revulsion 44. Until we become humble Muslims And righteous sincere believers 45. Forgive us and pardon us and grant us good health So that we may have the best

health in both worlds 46. Protect us and guard us and keep injustice away from us And save every Muslim

man and women 47.0 Lord grant us a good end At the time of our death and at the resurrection 48. By the honour of the best healer of sickness The bestower of what is desired and

sought 49. Muhammad our generous doctor The curer of illness and sickness 50. Prayers and peace be on him And on his family and noble companions 51. The one who busies himself with prayers succeeds The sick is forgiven by

seeking a cure

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For the poet also, may God increase him in health and light.

Whoever wishes to repel all illnesses, do not leave the 'Means of Healing'. lie

constant with it in the evening and the morning. Be sincere, you will gain healing and success by the permission of your Lord and the honour of Mustalä, may God's prayers be on him, as he was chosen.

lanation256

Ideally, all poetry is a message addressed to society. In this sense the poet is an

articulator of the social problems and shortcomings afflicting a society such as

inequality, social disequilibrium and poverty, as well as undertaking the role of

offering suggestions and solutions to the people of that society. Thus the poet is an

aware and sensitive social commentator, whose consciousness is concerned with

individual and social regeneration. Thus the approach of Ahmadou Bamba in this

gasrdah is essentially didactic, in that on the level of the individual and society he

speaks of physical and spiritual illnesses and their associated cures. Finally he

reconciles this polarity by speaking of the individual within the context of society, and

his responsibility in terms of his engagement therein, thereby making this a gasidah

which is essentially sociological in nature.

Verse I speaks of the fact that in His infinite mercy God has caused both

illnesses and their respective cures to exist. These are illnesses of both an individual

and social nature. This has also been stated by the prophet Muhammad . 'God does

not send down an illness but that He also sends down its cure. '257 It is merely lör man

to strive to find the cure. The manner in which the cure is to be found is twofold:

Firstly the seeker is to undertake supplication in order to ward off illness and trials,

illness itself being a form of trial (verse 2). Secondly the seeker must act to find a

cure. In the social sense, acting to find a cure means the creation of research facilities

to enable the study of diseases and their cures. In the individual sense it means

seeking out and accepting the prescription of those who have the knowledge of individual and social illnesses. Verses 3 and 4 speak of the prophet Muhammad as a healer of illness. There are many examples cited in the hadith literature of the healing

of sick individuals undertaken by the prophet: Whenever the prophet wanted to heal

someone he would take some earth and mix it with his spit and say: in the name of

God. The soil of our earth, with the spit of some of us, heals our sick, by the

2"' This interpretation is based on discussions I had with Sheikh Ali Ndaw during a two week stay in Reunion Island in June 1999. 257 Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Sahih Bukhari, p938.

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permission of our Lord. '258 Then he would apply the mixture to the area sulYering the

illness. Moreover, the prophet undertook the conveying of his message of social

reconstruction in the decadent society of Mecca, before achieving the actualisation of

his vision of social health through the creation of the Islamic society in Medina.

Therefore this poem is proposed as a cure for the afflictions sutlcred by

society (verses 5 and 6). To undertake the task of creating a healthy society we must

begin with the individual. Therefore the individual must undertake the task of asking

God for help in order to overcome his personal physical and spiritual ailments (verses

6 and 7). Prayer must not be seen here as a passive activity, but the supplicant is one

who expresses his inner aspiration to transcend one condition for another. In this

sense the supplication may be seen as an articulation of personal will, the logical

consequence of which is to undertake the required action.

Verses 8-14 develop this theme further as they speak of the cumulative

consequence of numerous individuals striving for physical and spiritual health, which is the achievement of collective piety. Ridding the individuals of the afflictions that

they are suffering from has to begin with the forgiveness of sins, in that unless the

individuals are reconciled with God they will not be able to achieve individual and

social reform, which ultimately can only occur through the mercy of the divine will.

Individuals thus reconciled with God can reasonably request God's acceptance of'

their works, His protection and Ilis favours, etc. (verses 11-14). The important overall

message here is that it does not matter what resources an individual has, if individuals

are not undertaking self-correction and thus seeking to create a collective form of

piety, it is not possible for them to achieve the individual and collective social

reconstruction envisioned in this poem. However, on the basis of this foundation of

completing an appropriate period of education and training of a group of individuals.

the superstructure of a society as it should be may be built (verses 15-19). It is

important to address the names of God that are cited in verse 15. God is the doer of

good, and any good that a society evolves into is ultimately due to Ills grace. I Ic is the

gentle one, and any social reform will ultimately best be achieved as a result of

adopting this attribute, a supreme example of which is the attitude which the prophet

adopted after his conquest of Mecca. lie is the Pardoner, and only it' lie was to

258 Ibid., pp942-943. For a broad study of the various types of healing taught by the prophet see Ihn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Natural Healing With the Medicine of the Prophet, Tr. by Muhammad al-Akili. (Philadelphia, Pearl Publishing House, 1993).

117

overlook the sins of mankind could there be hope of a positive change, in that if Ile

was to take us to task individually or collectively for the shortcomings that we have,

there could be no hope of reform and growth. God is the one who controls the affairs

of mankind, and thus any cure that may be found can only come through I [is healing

power.

Verse 16 asks God to send down a cure in place of illness. Therefore in a

society there needs to be research facilities for individual and social healing, and at

the level of physical healing it will be necessary to have hospitals to provide places

where healing may be administered. God is asked to send down benefit in place of'

harm in the first hemistich of verse 17. Benefit in this sense pertains to natural

resources such as petrol, natural minerals, metals and other utilisable substances.

Through these good things sent down by God society will be able to create viable

economies which will lead to the needs of society being met, instead of the harms of

poverty and underdevelopment. The second hemistich of verse 17 asks Cod to send

down good in place of evil. In this case this is the blessing of having a good living

standard. This standard is a balance between two extremes, which arc extreme poverty

and extreme wealth, both of which Ahmadou Bamba sees as undesirable. The first

hemistich of verse 18 asks God to send down knowledge in place of ignorance, which

means that society must have schools, colleges and universities which will be beacons

of light which will disseminate knowledge in order to overcome the darkness of

ignorance. The second hemistich asks God to send down generosity in place of

miserliness. This is calling for a situation wherein the rich help the poor, this being

extremely necessary in the social context left behind by colonialism, wherein a large

gap between the rich and the poor became the norm in the third world. In verse 19

God is asked for wealth in place of poverty. Wealth in this context is the satisfaction

of the essential needs of the whole society in terms of food, clothing, housing and

peaceful social conditions. And ultimately when such a society is created mankind is

expected to adopt an attitude of thankfulness to the Creator, and not one of

ungratefulness.

Verse 20 asks God to cure all the Muslims now, and to protect them from tear

and sadness later. This is because individual and social illnesses are things which

almost destroy spirituality, and spiritual and social evolution in their wake is difficult

to expect. After this God is supplicated for protection from fear and sadness, which

are more usual existential conditions which a seeker faces. In fact the Qur'än states

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that 'We will test you with something of fear and hunger and loss in your wealth and

lives and the fruits of your toil; and give glad tidings to the patient ones' (2: 150).

Therefore this is the type of test that every seeker is expected to bear with patience.

Here Ahmadou Bamba is asking God to protect the seeker from losing patience with

Him.

Verses 21-26 address God in a manner which seeks His mercy and törgiveness

for the sins of mankind. The logic given by Ahmadou Bamba is that though mankind

may fall into sin, they do not associate anyone with God. Their hearts are inclined to

Him only, but due to their weakness the devil is able to mislead them. Also, God is so

great that the sins of mankind do not diminish His greatness, nor do the tävours l-Ic

bestows on mankind reduce His infinite plenitude. Verse 27 asks God to turn the

peoples' hearts away from sin. From verses 28-44 much of the discussion is

concerned with the subject of the unity of the Muslims. Verse 28 asks God to

captivate us with the love of every Muslim, and verse 29 asks God to make all of the

Muslims our friends. The reason for the importance of unity is given in the second

hemistich of verse 29, in that the unity of the Muslims will prevent harm from coming

to the social body of the believers, in that the strength of any group of people lies in

their unity. Moreover none of the social reforms which this gasiduh articulates can be

undertaken without a united group of Muslims to support one another and prevent

harm from afflicting the body of believers, or any member of that body. The way of

achieving this unity is given in the following verses. The unity sought can only be

achieved if all of the Muslims believe in the same truth (verse 30). This belief (imün)

will provide an ideological foundation for the unity of the believers. The next step is

for the believers to undertake spiritual elevation which will increase them as a body in

their fear of God (! agwü). After this knowledge ('ilm) is required, and the people of

knowledge must act according to it ('amul), and they must be sincere (ikhlü. c) in their

actions (verse 32). They must adopt abstinence (zuhd) with regard to the world, and

be good advisors (ndsihin) (verse 33). Then they must evolve into the station of'

righteousness (sidq) and success (Juror) in both worlds (verse 34). This gives us some

idea of the qualities which are required of a leader in Islam. lie must be someone who

has gone through all of the above stages, and thus become someone worthy of the

lofty mantle of leadership. Also what is illustrated here are the diftcrent levels of

spiritual achievement of the people in society, and this analysis gives each level the

next stage to be aspired to in their spiritual evolution. In this sense the Muslim

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community is composed of people who are judged on the basis of their spiritual

achievement, with each member striving for personal growth and self improvement.

As each member of the community is striving for personal growth, the unity of the

community is based on the collective commitment to high spiritual achievement. This

will lead individuals to service (khidmah) of the community and mercy (verse 35),

giving guidance and goodness to others and seeking never to harm them (verse 36),

and mutual love leading to collective spiritual growth due to good social relations

between believers (verse 37). Verses 38-39 speak of finally being successful in the

next world, which indicates that the individual and social healing envisaged in this

poem will, if it is correctly undertaken, lead to the desired consequences in the

hereafter too. Verses 40-43 speak of certain good characteristics to be adopted, such

as mutual love and integration of the old with the young, and certain evil traits to be

avoided in order to facilitate Islamic unity, such as mutual hatred and revulsion. All of'

this will lead eventually to collective humility, and becoming righteous sincere

believers (verse 44). The cure and healing advocated in this study leads to good health

in this world and in the hereafter (verse 45), and verses 46-47 are concerned with the

final outcome of living in the world.

Verse 51 may be seen as a summary of all of this in that the one who busies

himself with prayers succeeds (the aspect of supplication), and the sick is forgiven by

seeking a cure (the aspect of action). Finally, this poem is to be read every morning and evening with a

consciousness of its meaning in order to enable healing to be effectual.

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3.2 Matlab al-Fawzayni (The way to success in the two worlds)

Whereas Mallab al-Shifü' deals with the general sociological ideas of

Ahmadou Bamba. Matlab a1-Fawzayni ('[he way to success in the two wor)ds) deals

with his more particular ideas, in the sense that it pertains particularly to the city of

1'ouba. "I'ouba itself is a town which is extremely important even up to the present

time. It very much provides the paradigm of a maraboutic state within a state. It is

effectively off limits to state contro1.259 In fact the annual pilgrimage to 1'ouba (the

Maggal which commemorates the return from exile in Gabon of Ahmadou Bamba),

regularly attracts hundreds of thousands of followers. 260

Those who witness it are often struck by the fervour and excitement of the

crowds and the fact that during the days leading up to the event and the days

following it the roads to Touba are choked by huge crowds of travcllers. 261 For these

reasons, and for the fact that Touba was central to Ahmadou ßamba's spiritual

evolution and socio-political legacy, it is appropriate that this study now addresses

this gasidah in its entirety, and seeks to articulate the main points contained therein.

The poem will be explained page by page according to its translation cited in

appendix 1.26`

1. This poem is essentially a descriptive plan of the holy city of Touba. The

purpose of establishing Touba was to revive the practice of the prophet. This revival

was in terms of the fact that the prophet established a territorially based Islamic

society whose affairs were regulated by divine laws wherein the Muslim community

was orientated to spiritual growth, and their material needs were also taken care of.

Ahmadou Bamba's migration to Touba was a mystical phenomenon, and `l'ouba is one

of the few towns after the time of the prophet that was founded by a man of God

under divine inspiration. 263 Under this inspiration Ahmadou Bamba continued to

2'9 Leonardo A Villalon, Islamic sock and state-po wer_in Sene al, (Cam bridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995), pl, E. Ross, and 'Touba: A Spiritual Metropolis in the Modern World', in CJAS 29 (1995), pp245-5 I. 2(. O D. Cruise O'Brien, The Mourides of Senegal, (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971), p 1. `'"' Lucy C Behrman, Muslim Brotherhoods and Politics in Senegal, (Massachusetts, I larvard University Press, 1976), p2. 262 This explanation is based on discussions I had with Sheikh Ali Ndaw in Reunion Island in June 1999. 26 Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, Touba Signes et Symboles, p36, and A. Moustapha Diop, "FOUba au Senegal. Centre de la Confrerie Murid', in Le Culte Des Saints dans le Monde Musulman1 Ii. Chambert-Loir and C. Guillot (Eds. ), (Paris, Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient, 1995).

121

search for this cosmologically significant symbol of celestial holiness for many years.

One day in 1888 he felt impelled by a divine force and by the unveiling of' certain

signs that could guide him to this secret place. He was led to a light, then flames

surged above a bush in the desert. lie did his prayers, and the mysteries of the visible

and invisible worlds were unveiled to him. In that great light he discovered the

epicentre of "l'ouba, the town destined to be his last home. 264

Therefore Touba is a holy city established by a holy man under divine

inspiration, and even today it is still the axis around which the Murid community

gravitates.

On pages 2 and 3 Ahmadou Bamba seeks refuge from all forms of evil. Page 4

articulates various entities that grant protection such as God, the Qur'dn (surah al- Qadr and surah al-Quraysh are cited), and the angels (''very soul has a protector' (86: 4), that is everyone has protective angels with him at all times)265.

Then Ahmadou Bamba quotes the verse of the Qur'än: 'fie who migrates in

the path of God will find in the earth many places of refuge and abounding resources' (4: 100). The many places of refuge here pertain to places of spiritual refuge for those fleeing from misguidance to guidance for the sake of God. That is to say those

moving from one place to another for the preservation of their läith. Abounding

resources pertain to the physical sustenance provided by God for those fleeing for His

sake. Therefore he who moves away from an abode for the sake of (; od will find both

his spiritual and physical needs taken care of")" This pertains to Ahmadou Bamba's

migration to Touba, in that in doing so God satisfied all of his spiritual and physical

needs. Ahmadou Bamba also quotes the Quranic verse: 'Those who believe and do

good works shall have bliss (Touba) and a good final resting place' (13: 29).

The word Touba is found in the following saying of the prophet: "Youba is a tree in

paradise, its expanse is equivalent to a hundred year journey, and the garments of the

people of paradise emanate from its flowers. 267 Therefore Touba is an earthly abode

with great cosmological significance, in that it is the symbol of its celestial

264 Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, pp47-48. 265 Muhammad 'Ali al-Säbüni, Safwatu al-Tatäsirr vol. 3, p545. 't, ̀' Tafsir Ibn Kathir voll, p514. 267 Ibid., vol 2 p494. This hadith is muttafay 'uluvhi.

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counterpart in the heavens, in exactly the same way as the Ka'ba of the earth in Mecca

has its counterpart in the heavens (the Occupied l louse cited in the Qur'än 52: 4)"266

Pages 5-7 are the prayers of Abraham cited in the Qur'än (14: 35-41), which

were made on the occasion when he founded the Ka'ba in Mecca. What is important

to note here is that Ahmadou Bamba is placing himself within the tradition of holy

men establishing blessed places of worship in the earth for the sake of God. i'heretbre

his establishment of Touba may be seen as an attempt to imitate his prophetic

forerunners in the monotheistic tradition. Ahmadou ßamba established "l'ouba for the

same reasons that Abraham established the Ka'ba in Mecca: the worship of God and

the rejection of other gods, so that God may enable people to establish prayers and

that supplications may be accepted, and ultimately that people would gain God's

forgiveness on the day of judgement.

On page 8 Ahmadou Bamba speaks of his own spiritual evolution. F-le received divine favours due to his performance of compulsory and superogatory religious

practices. He then goes on to explain these practices in more detail by speaking of self

effacement, which involves ridding the self of negative traits and characteristics. leading to the receiving of divine adornments wherein God clothes His servant with

noble attributes. These divine gifts lead him to become a man of knowledge, success,

good actions based on knowledge and someone who habitually sends prayers on the

prophet.

Therefore it is important to note that Ahmadou Bamba's physical migration to

Touba was preceded by a spiritual migration, whereby he became a purified servant

that God used as His instrument. Therefore the socio-political theory of' Ahmadou

Bamba may be seen as one fundamentally based on the idea of an enlightened man

acting on the basis of divine inspiration.

On page 9 Ahmadou Bamba cites the example of prophet Muhammad fleeing

to Medina to protect his religion. Then, most pertinently, he states that 'this is my turn

today (to undertake the same as him). ' Therefore Ahmadou Bamha makes an analogy between his migration and the migration of the prophet, as both of these were a flight

to more favourable circumstances which made it possible to create the 'city of (iod'

wherein a community would be formed to live under divine law.

Z"" For a discussion of the cosmological, semiotic and eschatological significances of "I ouba. see E. Ross, pp223-224.

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Therefore in the way that Abraham established the Ka'ba as a place of

monotheistic worship, and prophet Muhammad migrated from Mecca to Medina to

protect his religion and establish the territorial base around which a Muslim

community would gravitate, Ahmadou Bamba migrated to Tuba tier the same

reasons. The rest of the poem is essentially a more detailed explanation and

elaboration of the themes contained in these first nine pages.

On pages 10-14 Ahmadou Bamba's personal spiritual journey to God is

explained. Page 10 gives expression to religious commitment and fervour. and

submission to and reliance on God. With the seed of this inner connectedness to (God

and submission to His will, the state of supplication, thankfulness and contentment are

reached. The major theme of pages 11-14 is human vulnerability to the various

hazards which threaten the spiritual life, and the necessity of divine protection.

favours and grace in order to evolve spiritually. Pages 15-18 more or less continue the

theme of pages 1 1-14, but with greater emphasis on divine protection from evil in this

life and in the hereafter.

Pages 19-23 and pages 46-53 express Ahmadou Bamba's aspirations for

Touba, and are a descriptive plan of his version of the city of (Iod. Ahmadou l3amba

states on page 46:

I beseech You to make it an abode of piety and knowledge and religion and elevation And a paradise for the seeker and aspirant

Making Touba a paradise for the seeker and aspirant is equivalent to the

housing aspect of town planning as paradise is the most excellent dwelling place. On

page 48 Ahmadou Bamba states:

And make its land a land of'sustenance and security and mercy and comfibrt at all times

In a peasant society prosperity signifies working the land and other activities

connected with this, which together pertain to the work . 2611On page 20 Ahmadou

Bamba states:

Make my abode an abode of good health which will lead to goodness and purity.

269 Cheikh Abdoulaye Dieye, "I_ouba Sines ei Symtx)Ics, p84.

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Good health which leads to goodness pertains to the creation of hospitals and

research facilities which will cater for physical health.

On page 20 he asks God to make Touha a place of knowledge and action

according to the sunna. Therefore Ahmadou Bamba's city of (iod also consists of

schools, colleges, universities, libraries, research centres, etc. On page 22 Ahmadou

Bamba asks God to provide security for his family with running water. In West Africa

the importance of running water for survival cannot be overestimated. In thct there

could be no stable community without a constant supply of running water.

Therefore the ideal city of Ahmadou I3amba caters for the material aspects of

town planning (housing, health, work, education, etc. ). The essence of all of this is

that in an ideal city all of the necessities of life must be available in order to enable all

of the citizens' essential requirements to be catered tbr, and so that they may function

in an organised and efficient manner. There are. however, certain transcendental

aspects which Ahmadou Bamba adds which go completely beyond all of this, and it is

to these that we now turn our attention. On page 51 Ahmadou Bamba states:

Make my abode an abode of forgiveness, righteousness. mystical knowledge and acceptance And an abode of sincerity, righteousness and piety An abode of prophetic practice and security from innovation

Sincerity is concerned with firmness in the intention to worship God. Piety

and security from all innovation pertains to the authorisation of God. as the

implication is strictly adhering to what God has revealed in the Qur'An and sunna. and

to the mystical inspiration which saintly men are inspired with (as was the case of

Ahmadou Bamba with regard to the founding of i'ouba). Acceptance may he regarded

as the condition of constantly seeking the pleasure of God. 't'herefore to the

aforementioned material aspects of town planning which may he seen as the

horizontal dimension of the plan for I ouba, Ahmadou Bamba adds three other aspects

which may be regarded as vertical aspects. These are:

1. The firm intention to worship God,

2. The permission or authorisation of(iod:

3. Constantly seeking the pleasure ot'God. 270

Therefore it may be appropriate to state that Ahmadou l3amha's ideal city is

concerned with both the material (horizontal) and spiritual (vertical) dimensions of

270 Ibid., p85.

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human existence. His vision is one in which the population of "fouba lives in

communal harmony with all of their material and other needs taken care of' in order

for them to be able to fulfil their duties to God by evolving spiritually and

intellectually. In this sense town planning is undertaken in order to create a spatio-

temporal environment that will facilitate spiritual growth. In other words the

horizontal aspects are implemented with a view to nurturing the vertical aspects.

"Therefore the community is not a community of' people drawn together tier any

commercial or other material purpose. Fundamentally they are and remain a religious

community moved by an awareness of God and the hereafter. This may be best

exemplified by the example of the Medinan community established by the prophet.

The five daily prayers performed at the prophet's mosque by this community of

believers were an important means of fostering this awareness. "Through constant

strict observance of these prayers the first community of believers was transformed

into a society of thoroughly spiritual people. They became thoroughly permeated by

the Quranic and prophetic light, energy and vitality, and they became a society of

special people whose essence was spiritual energy. 271 Therefore the Islamic city is

designed to foster spirituality, and all aspects of the city and the religious rites

performed therein are established with this purpose in mind.

The vertical aspects are given a clearer articulation on page 47, whereby i'ouba is referred to as a place of pilgrimage ti)r those ruined by weakness, a means to

obedience (to God) and rejection of the devil. Therefore the holiness of l'ouha grants

spiritual benefits and protection against evil to seekers of the truth. Furthermore all of

the good asked for in this poem and all of the harmful things against which protection

is sought are now associated with Touba and its holiness ('an abode that brings all

good and repels all harm'). That is to say that as Touba is an abode that is the earthly

equivalent of its celestial counterpart, and it is a place which enjoys the acceptance

and authorisation of God, its holiness enables the seeker to gain all goodness and he

protected from all harm in order to progress spiritually. l'heretbre the structure of

Ahmadou Bamba's town is designed with a view to enabling the seeker to benefit in

this way from the holiness of the town.

There are certain important overriding elements in the socio-political theory of Ahmadou Bamba:

271 Zakaria Bashier, Sunshine at Medina, (Leicester, The Islamic Foundation, 1990), pp78-79.

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1. The focal point of the theory is the idea of the enlightened man acting according to

the dictates of divine inspiration.

2. The social order established by such a man is one in which all of the needs of the

inhabitants of the city are met in order that they may endeavour to locus on the

spiritual aspect of life and fulfil their responsibilities to God. 'I'hcrefiore the city is

structured with a view to facilitating the collective spiritual life of' its citizens. Thus the material dimension is subservient to the spiritual dimension, and the

former gains its validity through its facilitation of the latter.

3. Touba, in particular, may be seen as the heart of Ahmadou Bamba's socio-

political order, in that it provides spiritual help and guidance to the seekers' of the

community. This is the main purpose of Ahmadou Bamba's socio-political praxis.

and that is why it is such an important component olhis social order. It may be appropriate to further articulate Ahmadou f3amba's ideas on the suhject

of the enlightened man, because on the one hand they form such a fundamental pillar

of his socio-political theory, and they may also be associated with certain broader

epistemological ramifications which warrant our attention. In order to do so it may he

appropriate to quote the gasidah hagq al-hukü "ulna . s" dc i umudl (The appropriateness

of crying over dead masters): 1. The appropriateness of crying over the dead masters

The earth and the heavens cry over them 2.1 cry over them and hope thereby in the future to gain

The grace of He in whom they are sweetly self=annihilated 3.0 the lament of my soul over the loss of the masters

Who are self-annihilated in the Lord who calls them to spiritual ascension'? 4. I cried my nights over them and my months too

Likewise my evenings of ardour and my days 5. They were obedient worshippers of their Lord

And God the Glorious One was generous to them 6. They considered leaving the wird and fulfilling their appetites

To be causes of affliction 7. When the darkness of night comes

They wake up quickly to enliven the dark night 8. They sell their surplus time for the remembrance of God their Creator

They sell their sleep at night for intimacy with God 9. Their sides leave their beds at night

Forgetting Salmd and Laylä for spiritual pleasure and . joy

10. If Laylä approaches in the night in all her splendour They turn away from her and towards the Master in obedience

11. They forget Laylä and Su'dd during their nightly prayers Being intimate with God through prayers and the recitation ofQuranic verses

12. "their speech is remembrance of 'The Enricher, The Beneficial One, The

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Absolute There is no remembrance of l und and Luhnä in their speech

13. With (spiritual) weapons they vanquish their enemies Until they are raised through distinctions and miracles

14. The principal pillars of the house of mysticism are tour With them the foundation of sainthood is established:

15. Silence, long periods of hunger, sleeplessness And seclusion under the guidance of a Sheikh

16. (Mystics are) a people whose way protects the seeker From the harm of the rebel and from delusions

17. Their way is seeking God without concern for other desires Applying guiding principles (which eliminate frivolity):

18. Repentance, fear and hope Much sadness and perpetual conviction

19. Abstinence from all temporal things (zuhd) and piety Reliance on God and patience at all times

20. Struggling against the ego, thankfulness, contentment with God's decree And disinclination to the conditions of created beings

21. Their way is to commit themselves to ten things Which are indispensable for all seekers:

22. Purposefulness which leads to spiritual wayfaring Which is a proof of being guided like a sheikh who has spiritual openings

23. The provision of piety (iagwü) through which spiritual weapons are acquired And also ablution which eliminates impurities

24. The light gained from the remembrance of God, The Glorified, "I'he Exalted And also through lofty aspirations

25. Leaning on ones incapacity And having true resolution regarding the people of(ariyuh

26. Commitment to the shari 'ah is necessary At the beginning (of the path) and at the end

27. "Taking as companions brothers who have noble aspirations and täithfulness And sincerity in brotherhood

28. Each of the masters of high rank Is sufficient for the protection of the seeker against a perverse rebel

29. Each of them is a knowledgeable pious master Some of them educate through prayers (adhkälr) and mystical states

30. Some of them educate through a single state And some of them educate through signs (ishiiril)

31. Each of them is an expert regarding the diseases of the heart And is sufficient for the seeker against all types of evil

32. Each of them is noble, pious, guided and generous And is sincere to all created beings

33. With piety they wholly wipe out the ego's portion I laving received holy knowledge from the Master

34 They clearly demonstrate the way of the people ofGod through illumination For all those who would be guided

35 Each of them has zeal through which he is elevated Strengthened by the grace of spiritual openings (Junuhäil)

36 He sees hidden things as manifest through the eye of the heart As he sees things that are veiled in darkness

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37 He possesses a light like the light ofthe sun From which everyone seeking illumination can benefit

38 Absent from creation, present with the Creator Possessing piercing light and a secret from the unseen

39. Wiping away from the heart the rust that covers it Like one who washes away impurities from a dirty cloth

40. They are the people whose companions will not he sad As seekers gain contentment from them

41. Blessedness is for the aspiring slave who is sincere to them Through service, love or granting them gills

42. They gain a high rank through following the chosen prophet May the One who grants excellence send prayers on him

43. They gain through following the trustworthy prophet (My prayers be on him at all times)

44. Virtuous traits that the pen cannot describe Nor can the tongue express

45. Amongst their traits are to deeply study both the . shari'ah and Knowledge of reality (`ilm al-haqiqah) before undertaking spiritual practices

46 Because practice and guidance before acquiring these two Is one of the things which brings delusions and evil

47. Amongst their traits are to abstain from speech and action Until it is appropriate and can be defended with proofs

48. Amongst their traits is commitment to fearing God their master At the beginning and at the end

49. For at the beginning fear of sin restrains them And at the end it is the glorifying of llis glories

50. Amongst their traits is commitment to consuming the ego without watering it Because it is cunning and treacherous

51. They always see themselves as being without piety And they consider themselves as being unworthy of miracles

52. And that they are amongst the most disobedient And that they are unworthy of a response from God

53. And amongst their traits is patience tier the sake of God Against the tyranny of sinful ones and all kinds ofdifliculties

54. When harm visits them They turn to God repenting for their many sins

55. Amongst their virtues, may God be pleased with them always Is to be sad at all times

56. Amongst their excellent qualities is the fear of hypocrisy And the fear of disgrace during the horrors of judgement day

57. Amongst their traits is submissiveness beirre the Compeller And sincerity and abstinence and the purification of faults

58. Amongst their traits is to always seek relüge in the Merciful One Seeking to attract the good and repel evil without complaint

59. Knowledge is their characteristic and forbearance is their habit They are far from claims and contestations of spiritual states

60.0 the sadness of losing the masters of the spiritual path The path of Mustapha the best of creation

61. Prayers and peace of the Dispatcher hei on him And on his family and his companions who gained paradise

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62. Prayers and peace ofthe Sender be on him The purest of prayers which rid one of illusions

63. Prayers and peace of his Creator be on him And on his family and companions who gained (spiritual) gifts

64. Prayers and peace of the Master be on him And the purest prayers by which openings are gained

65. Prayers and peace of the Sustainer be on him And on his family and companions who are obedient

66. Prayers and peace of the Generous One be on him The purest prayers by which miracles are gained

67. Prayers and peace of the Grantor of Dominion be on him And on his family and companions who gained divine care

68. Prayers and peace of 11e who grants honour be on him And the purest prayers by which mystical unveiling is gained

69. Prayers and peace of He who openly placed him in the fhrefront And on his family by the number of'created beings

70. Prayers and peace of He who raised him he on him And the purest prayers through which elevation is gained

71.0 the sadness of losing my masters who passed away And what passed away of excellence and wonders

72. On the one put forward in the two worlds as their model Be the prayers of the One Who Is Pleased who calls them für an encounter

73. On the beloved one, son of Abdullah, our master Prayers that will keep them away from all sadness

74. On the one who intercedes on the day of gathering för the noble ones Prayers that deliver them from plots

75. On the one whose bounty never ends Prayers which guide unto forthrightness

76. On the one who is honoured, the best of creation Prayers that enrich with the best of recompense

77. I ternal prayers and peace be on him And on all his illustrious family at all times

78. And on the companions and on all of the masters May there he the good pleasure of the Lord of the heavens and the earth

After articulating the evil of Pharaoh and his people and the subsequent

punishment meted out to them of being drowned in the sea, the Qur'än states: The

sky did not cry over them nor did they receive any respite' (44: 29). The famous

Quranic commentator al-Qurtubi (d. 671 All) further explains this verse by saving that

when one of their leaders died the Arabs would say that the sky and the earth are

crying over them. This is by way of metaphor to emphasise the tcelings of' sadness

and the necessity of weeping over them. 272 "Therefore für an evil people like the

people of Pharaoh and his fbllowcrs the sky and the earth did not cry over them due to

272 Cited by ai-Säbüni, SafwatuaI_f of sir vol. 3, p 174.

13 0

their baseness and ignobility, or in terms of the metaphor, there was no need for

feelings of sadness or weeping at their passing away. Therefore verses 1-4 of Ahmadou Bamba's poem emphasise the

appropriateness of crying over the dead masters due to the great loss at the passing

away of these noble souls.

Verses 5-13 describe some of the qualities of these great masters, thus giving

some tangible reasons why their passing away may be considered a great loss. These

verses describe the excessive worship that these masters engaged in, which was a

manifestation of their obedience to God. This resulted in [Jim being generous to them

(verse 5), granting them spiritual weapons with which to vanquish the enemy, as well

as other distinctions and miracles (verse 13). They were excessively scrupulous in

their worship of God, to the extent that they considered it possible that they would

suffer afflictions merely for missing their wird (a sequence of daily prayers

undertaken by advanced seekers on the spiritual path), or for eating to the extent of

satisfying their appetites. They were very devoted to leaving their beds at night and

doing their superogatory night prayers (lahujjud). They would turn away from profhne

passions (symbolised by Salmä, Laylä and Su'dä, who were beautiful women of

Arabian folklore) in order to attain spiritual pleasures and intimacy with God (verses

10-11). They attained a level of behaviour whereby they would not speak of mundane

matters, but their everyday speech would solely consist of conversing about God.

After these introductory statements the yusläuh goes on to establish certain

spiritual principles regarding sainthood and spirituality in a more theoretical manner.

Verse 14 states that the foundation of sainthood is established on the basis of four

principal pillars. Silence, long periods of hunger, sleeplessness and seclusion (periods

of isolation solely devoted to worship) under the auspices of a spiritual master. The

last point stresses the importance of the spiritual master's role in the fäcilitation of the

successful spiritual quest of any would-be spiritual seeker, and thus sainthood is to be

striven for by undertaking a period of apprenticeship under the tutelage of a spiritual

master.

7'he principles applied by mystics in order to regulate their spiritual lives and

their relationship with God are explained in verses 18-20: The beginning of the path is

to repent from past sins, and then to have fear of one's sinfulness and shortcomings,

and to have hope in the mercy of God. To feel much sadness at being separated from

God the Beloved, and yet at the same time to have conviction in his justice and

131

mercy. Abstaining from temporal things (zuhd) and adopting piety, reliance on God,

patience at all times, struggling against the ego, thankfulness. contentment with God's

decree and disinclination to the conditions of created beings are a part of these

principles.

The way of the mystics is to commit themselves to ten things (verse 21) which

are crucial for those who seek the acceptance of God: The first important commitment

is that of purposefulness, which urges the seeker along on the path to aspired spiritual

enlightenment. Ahmadou ßamba considers this a proof of the rightly guided nature of

the seeker, as much as the rightly guided nature of a master who has spiritual

openings which enable him to receive inspirational guidance from God. Verse 23

speaks of a commitment to piety (tagwü) and ablution, which constitutes inward and

outward purity respectively. '[his will eventually lead to the acquisition of spiritual

weapons. Also there is commitment to the remembrance of God, which brings light.

and to the lofty aspiration of becoming God's beloved through striving for purity.

Verse 25 articulates a commitment to leaning on one's incapacity. This is

important in that it is stated in the Qur'än that 'Man was created weak. ' Part of leaning on one's incapacity is that when one is asked about something that he does not

know he says `I do not know. ' To say 'I do not know' is a sort of knowledge. Some

scholars are of the opinion that it is half of knowledge. It should be known that the

statement `I do not know' as a response from a scholar who is asked a question does

not decrease his honour. Rather it raises him higher in dignity, because it bears

testimony to his strength in religion, his fear of' (God, his purity of heart and his

prudence in religion. 273 Recognising this incapacity (as well as many others), it is

necessary for man to know that he has many weaknesses, and his incapacities should lead him to realise that any spiritual success can only be attained by the grace of God.

Therefore a realisation of one's incapacity is also a realisation of' God's limitless

capacity. Verse 25 asks for true resolution regarding the people of lariquh, which

constitutes a respect for and brotherhood with fellow seekers of the same (or other)

spiritual brotherhoods.

Verses 26 and 27 speak of a perpetual commitment to the shari'ah and a

commitment to seeking good companionship.

'" Ibn Jama'ah, 'The Memoir of the Listener and the Speaker in the Trainin , of Teacher and student,

'Er. Noor Muhammad Ghifari, (Islamabad (Pakistan), Pap-Board Printers (PVT. ) Ltd, 1991), pp29-30.

132

Verses 28-59 discuss various attributes of' the spiritual masters, and it is to

these that we now turn our attention:

Verse 28 states that each master is sufficient for the protection of the seeker

against a sinful rebel. This is extremely important as what is articulated here is the

ability of the master to utilise his spiritual powers to grant the seeker protection

against potential harm. Verse 29 asserts that each of them is knowledgeable of' both

the inner and outer dimensions of Islam, and that he grants education to others, be it

through prayers (adhkar), through one or many mystical states, or through signs. That

is the master may give the seeker certain prayers to do (from the Qur'an for example) in order to facilitate spiritual growth, or he may grant him access to certain spiritual

states (as seeing the sheikh, for example, creates a state in the disciple), or he may

teach him through signs (indirect allusions to certain matters) which the seeker has

reached a level of preparedness to benefit from.

Each of the masters has knowledge of the diseases ot'the heart, and the ability

to cure them in the seeker, and each of them has certain qualities which are

manifested in their sincerity to all created beings (verses 31-32).

Due to piety they have wiped out the ego's portion, having received higher

knowledge from God. In other words they have cultivated piety which has lead to the

Master granting them holy knowledge, and this has culminated in wiping out the

ego's portion. Being recipients of a mystical light from God, they clearly demonstrate

the way of the people of God through illumination. In other words their embodiment

of this mystical light places them in the position of' being the locus of' divine

endowment. In this sense they demonstrate the way for all those who would be

guided.

Verses 35-39 and 47-59 further describe qualities which the masters

themselves have: Each of them has zeal (himmuh) through which he is elevated, in

that the desire of these spiritual masters for purification and proximity to God is very

great. This zeal is strengthened through spiritual openings (1111üha1). wherein the

masters start to receive direct inspiration from God whereby lie becomes a more intimate guide to him (verse 35).

Verses 36-39 describe the higher spiritual qualities of the master in that the

eye of his heart has become operational so that he sees more than other people see. In

fact his light is so much that other people can benefit from it, and he is so engrossed in

his Creator that he is absent from creation. Also he possesses a secret from God due to

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his intimacy with Ilim, and his heart has become completely pure due to his striving

to clean away impurities from it.

Verses 47-50 describe some of the practical ethical principles practised by the

masters, in that they abstain from speech and action until it is appropriate and can h

defended with proofs (verse 47). The fear of sin restrains them at the beginning of the

path from undertaking inappropriate actions, but the experience of the overwhelming

glory of God restrains them at the end of the path. 'T'hey are committed to consuming

the ego as it is cunning and treacherous (verse 50). and falling a prey to it can only be

detrimental from the perspective of the spiritual life.

Verses 51-58 describe the inner characteristics of the masters. For example.

they always see themselves as being without piety, and that they are unworthy of'

miracles (verse 51), and they regard themselves as disobedient and unworthy of a

response from God (verse 52). In other words, extreme humility is their characteristic.

They adopt patience for the sake of God against the tyranny of sinful people, and also

when afflicted by difficulties. This humility and patience is exercised to such an

extent that when harm visits them, instead of blaming the one who is afflicting them

with harm, they seek forgiveness fror their sins and repent unto God, as they fear that

the harm with which they are being afflicted may be a just recompense for their sins.

They are sad at all times in that they are separated from their Beloved (verse 55).

They fear hypocrisy in themselves, which is an attitude manifesting extreme humility

and scrupulousness in terms of faith. Also they fear disgrace on the day of judgement

(verse 56). They are submissive before God and sincere and abstinent with regard to

creation, and they always strive for the purification of their täults (verse 57). They

always seek refuge in God from evil, they are always forbearing, and they are Ihr from

contestations of spiritual states or any other associated form of arrogance (verses 58-

59). These verses therefore give an indication of the inner qualities and characteristics

of the masters. Being men that embody such sublime qualities, they are able to guide

others. and this is articulated in verses 40-41: 1'heir companions will not be sad as

seekers gain contentment from them. Therclbre the company of' these men itself'

eliminates sadness and brings joy. Furthermore the aspiring slave who is sincere to

them shall attain blessedness. That sincerity may be in the firm of service rendered

unto them in order to help them to fulfil their earthly mission, or in the form oflove

which the seeker has for them in his heart, or by granting gills to them. Finally, verses

61-78 of the poem comprise prayers on the prophet.

134

The main points articulated by Ahmadou Bamba in this yu. siduh concerning

spiritual masters are as follows:

1. "These masters have striven Rör purity and have been elevated through becoming

the locus of the manifestation of divine light;

2. They have therefore become the embodiment of certain praiseworthy inner

characteristics and qualities such as knowledge, humility and forbearance:

3. Their actions are such that they manifest the highest calibre of' behaviour with

regard to their relationship to the Creator and to creation,

4. Spiritual seekers may benefit from them by being educated by them, protected by

them from harm, spiritually purified through discipleship to them, etc.

The fourth point is the one which this study now seeks to further articulate. If the

seeker may benefit from gaining an education from these masters, any study of

Ahmadou Bamba's epistemology would be deficient if it did not thcilitate greater

understanding of his point of view regarding the relationship of' master and disciple.

However Ahmadou Bamba suggests that great care must be taken in the process of

selecting a sheikh. Therefore before entering into a detailed discussion of'the teacher-

pupil relationship according to Ahmadou Bamha, it may be appropriate to address the

caution that he advocates in the choosing of a sheikh. In this regard it may he

appropriate to quote the following verses from MasOlik al-Jinän:

1467 Do not incline to everyone who seems to be a sheikh 1468 Because everything that looks round is not a cake

And every light is not the moon 1469 Not every water is sulsuhil

And not every fluid is like honey, 0 noble one 1470 Not everything in the dark is a flame

By which the traveller is guided 1471 Test a man before accepting his company

Do not accompany the inexperienced or those driven by desire 1472 Perhaps you will revile someone

And he has all the praiseworthy qualities 1473 Do not revile a man due to his simple dress

Which is wrinkled and very dirty 1474 Perhaps he who wears wrinkled clothes is filled with light

And with divine secrets which elevate him 1475 And perhaps a slave is exalted in the eyes ot'people

Like the pole of the universe wherever he goes 1476 And his reputation has spread in the land

But he is like a monkey in the eyes ofthe Merciful One

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In verses 1467-1470 Ahmadou Bamba gives various examples to emphasise the

point that one should not be taken in by the apparent qualifications of a supposed

-sheikh'. Such a person should not be taken at face value, but rather a man should be

tested before one accepts him as a teacher and undertakes to enter into spiritual

companionship with him (verse 1471). It would be enlightening to give an example of

this phenomenon of testing a man before accepting him as a teacher from the time of

the prophet and his companions. The example of the Persian companion Salmän al-

Färsi is particularly instructive in this regard. Ile narrates his own tale of discovering

his teacher:

I came from Isfahan, from a place called Jai, and I was the most beloved son of my father, who was a figure of high esteem among his people. We used to worship fire. I devoted myself to fire worship and I became the custodian of the fire which we lit and never allowed to be extinguished.

My father had an estate. One day he sent me there. I passed by a Christian church and heard them praying. I went in and saw what they were doing. I was impressed by what I saw of their prayers. I said, 'This is better than our religion. ' I did not leave them until sunset, nor did I go to my father's estate, nor did I return to my father until he sent people to search for me.

I asked the Christian's about their religion and their prayers which had impressed me so much, and also about the origin of their religion. They answered that it had originated in Syria. I said to my father when I returned to him, 'I passed by people praying in a church, and I was impressed by their prayers, and I could see that their religion is better than ours. ' Ile questioned me and I questioned him, and then he put fetters on my feet and locked me up.

Then I sent word to the Christians saying that I had decided to enter into their religion, and I requested that whenever a caravan came from Syria that they should tell me before its return in order that 1 may travel with them, and so they did.

I broke loose from the iron fetters and went away. I set out with them for Syria. While I was there, I asked about their most learned man, and I was told that he was the bishop, leader of the church. I went to him and told him my story. I lived with him, serving, praying and learning.

But this bishop was not faithful in his religion, because he used to gather money from the people in order to distribute it, but instead he would keep it fier himself. Then he died.

They appointed a new leader in his place. I have never seen a man more godly than he in his religion, nor more active in his hid for the hereafter, nor more pious in the world. I loved him more than I had ever loved any other person before.

When his death came I asked him. ''l'o whom would you recommend me to go? And to whom would you leave me? ' Ile said, '0 my son, 1 do not know

anyone who is on the path I am and who leads the kind of' life 1 lead, except a certain man in Mosul. '

When he died I went to that man in Mosul and told him the story, and I stayed with him as long as Allah wished me to stay. Then death approached him. So I asked him, To whom would you advise me to go'? ' Ile directed me to a pious man in Nisibin. So I went to him and told him my story. I stayed with him as long as

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Allah wished me to stay. When death overtook him. I asked him as betöre. He told

me to meet a person at Amuria in Byzantium. So I went to Byzantium and stayed with that man, earning my living there by rearing cattle and sheep.

Then death approached him and I asked him, "Fo whom should I go'? ' l le said. '0 my son, I know no one anywhere who is on the path we have been on so that I can tell you to go to him. But you have been overtaken by an epoch in which there will appear a prophet in the pure creed of Abraham. lie will migrate to the place of palm trees. If you can be sincere to him then be so. He has signs which will be manifested: he does not eat of charity yet he accepts gifts. and between his shoulders is the seal of prophethood. When you see him you will know him. '

A caravan passed by on that day. I asked them where they had come from, and learned that they were from the Arabian peninsula. So I told them, 'I will give you these cattle and sheep of mine in return tör your taking me to your land. ' They agreed. So they took me into their company until they brought me to Wadi al Qurra. and there they wronged me. They sold me to a Jew. I saw many palm trees and cherished the hope that it was the land that had been described to me and which would be the future place of the advent of the prophet. but it was not.

I stayed with this Jew who had bought me. until another Jew from Bani Quraidhah came to him one day and bought me from him. I stayed with him until we came to al-Madina. By Allah, I had hardly seen it when I knew that it was the land described to me.

I stayed with the Jew, working för him on his plantation in liani Quraidhah until Allah sent his prophet, who later emigrated to al-Madinah and dismounted at Quba. One day I was at the top of a palm tree with my master sitting below it when a Jewish man came. He was a cousin of his and said to him, May Allah destroy Bani Quba. 'They are spreading a rumour about a man at Quha who came from Mecca claiming that he is a prophet. ' By Allah. he had hardly said it when I was seized by a tremor, and the palm tree shook until I almost fell on my master. I climbed down quickly saying, 'What are you saying'? What news? ' My master gave me a nasty slap and said, 'What have you got to do with this'? Return to your work. ' So I returned to work.

At nightfall I gathered what I had and went out until I came to the prophet at Quba. I entered and found him sitting with some of his companions. Then I said. 'You are in need and a stranger. I have some food I intend to give out as charity. When they showed me your lodgings I thought you most deserved it, so I have

come to you with it. ' I put the food down. The prophet said to his companions, 'Eat in the name of Allah. ' He abstained and never took of it. I said to myself.

his, by Allah, is one sign. He does not eat of charity. ' I returned to meet the prophet again the next day. I carried some fbod with me

and said to him, '1 see that you do not partake of charity. I have something I want to give you as a present. ' I placed it before him. He said to his companions. 'Fat in

the name of Allah, ' and he ate with them. So I said to myself', this indeed is the second sign. He cats from what is given as a gill. ' I returned and stayed away fier a while. 't'hen I came to him, and I saw him sitting, having returned from a burial

and surrounded by his companions. He had two garments, carrying one on his

shoulder and wearing the other one. I greeted him, then bent to see the upper part of his hack. Ile knew what I was looking liar, so he threw his garment oil' his

shoulders and, behold, the seal of prophethood was clear just as the Christian

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monk had described it. At once I staggered towards him, kissing him and weeping. He called to me to come forward and I sat before him. I told him my stony. "274

This may be regarded as a very instructive example of a sincere seeker striving to

find a true guide and testing the prospective teacher before accepting his

companionship. There are two important issues in this story which need highlighting.

First of all, as a result of instructions based on scriptural knowledge which he had

received from his teacher, Salmän al-Färsi was able to utilise appropriate criteria with

regard to the selection of a suitable teacher. This was because the Christians were in

receipt of God's revelations which had foretold of the coming of prophet Muhammed.

Secondly, Salmän al-Färsi may be regarded as an excellent example of a scrupulous

and sincere seeker of the truth whose whole life seemed to represent a single minded

devotion to the spiritual quest. His evolution out of fire worship and into monotheistic

belief may be regarded as a compelling example of the journey of the sincere soul in

its search for enlightenment. These, then, are the two essential requirements tier a

seeker if he is to find a true teacher: sincerity and correct guidance.

Furthermore if a man appears to be unimpressive outwardly, in terms of his

clothes for example, that should not cause one to shun such a person as he may in tact

be someone who is blessed by God with divine secrets (verses 1472-1474). And

finally, public acclaim is no criterion for the validity of accepting someone as a

teacher, because even someone who is widely acclaimed may be a monkey in the eyes

of God (verse 1476). The consequences of being 'educated' by someone who is

unworthy are illustrated by the following anecdote: There was once a skinny person, treble and contemptible as a sparrow,

exceedingly contemptible to behold, so much so that even contemptible forms looked on him with contempt, and gave thanks to God, though betöre seeing him they used to complain of their own contemptible form. For all that he was very rough in his speech and bragged enormously. lie was in the court of the king, and his behaviour pained the vizier; yet for all that he swallowed it down. Then one day the vizier lost his temper.

`Men of the court, ' he shouted, 'I picked this creature out of the gutter and nourished him. By eating my bread and sitting at my table and enjoying my charity and my wealth and that of my ancestors he became somehody. Now he has reached the point of saying such things to me! F

'Men of the court, ' cried the man, springing up in his face. 'and nobles and pillars of state! What he says is quite true. I was nourished by his wealth and

'" Khalid Muhammed Khalid, Men around the M_ essenger, Tr. Sheikh Muhammed Gemeiah. (Egypt, al-Manar Publishing, 1998), pp33-37.

138

charity and that of his ancestors until I grew up, contemptible and ignominious as you see me. If I had been nourished by someone else's bread and wealth, surely, my form and stature and wealth might well have been better than this. Ile picked me out of the gutter; all I can say is, 0 would that I were dust. It'someone else had

picked me out of the gutter, I would not have been such a laughing stock. '27

The disciple who is nourished at the hands of a man of (iod has a clean and chaste

spirit. But he who is nourished at the hands of and impostor and a hypocrite and learns

from him is just like the man in the foregoing story, contemptible and feeble, weak

and with no way out, unable to make up his mind about anything. deficient in all

senses. 276

Therefore the question arises as to what are the criteria one should judge by in

seeking to test a man whom one regards as a prospective teacher. This question has

already been answered in verses 5-13 and verses 28-59 of the ga. cTdah hagq

al-hükä ''a15 sädüt amwät. 277

Criteria which are to be fulfilled by a teacher of the path, and those which are to

be considered as disqualifications for someone who purports to be a teacher, find an

extensive literature dedicated to their elucidation. For example, Ahmad Zarrüy (d. 899

AH) succinctly deals with this subject in a manner very much in the spirit of

Ahmadou Bamba's ideas. He states that the following are the criteria that need to be

satisfied by a Sheikh for a disciple to confidently entrust him to his care:

1. Sound religious knowledge;

2. true experience of the divine;

3. exalted purpose and will; 4. a praiseworthy nature:

5. and penetrating insight.

Also. someone with all of the following characteristics is not tit to lxs a Sheikh:

1. Ignorance of the religion;

2. disparaging the honour of Muslims;

3. involvement in what does not concern him;

4. hollowing caprice in everything; 5. and showing bad character without a second thought. 278

''` Cited in A. J. Arberry jr. ) Discourses of Rumi, (Surrey, Curzon Press, 1993). p44. 276 Ibid., p44. '" Vide Supra pages 127-130. ''R Nuh Ha Mim Keller, Al-Nawawi's Manual of Islam, (Cambridge (USA), The Islamic I cats Society, 1996), pp110-111.

139

If there is no sheikh who is a true guide. or there is one but he lacks one ofthe live

conditions, then the disciple should rely on those of' his qualities that are perfected in

him, and deal with him as a brother (meaning that the sheikh and the disciple advise

one another) regarding the rest . ̀'7`'

Regarding the teacher-pupil relationship it may now be appropriate to quote sonne

verses from the qusiduh Nahju gadl 'ii hail (The way to the fulfilment of needs).

which is a gasidah concerned with the behaviour (add h) expected of a seeker, one

aspect of which is the seeker's conduct with the sheikh:

189, Respect your sheikh to the utmost extent , Fake him as a master and give him of your best

190. Fulfil his needs for as long as you live Through ef%rts and service as much as you are able

191. In front of your sheikh avoid laughing, joking and shouting If you want to strive for good behaviour

192. Do not turn your head in his presence Or move to the side

193. And do not talk too much in his presence But rather be silent in order to gain from his righteousness

194. Do not accompany him without honouring him As the people of this generation do

195. Do not act with him as you do with someone familiar to you Except when forced to do so

196. Listen to his commands and strive to fultil them Even if your ego refuses to do so

197. Avoid that which he forbids you And flee from it, and turn away from your desires

198. Do not cease to grant him donations To the extent that you are able to do so

199. Even if it is only a little, so that you conform to what is mentioned Because this increases the affection ofone who loves

200. The things that you see him incline towards Be of those who attend to them

201. And strive to fulfil them Because the best action is to fulfil them

202. Respect all who are associated with him His family, servants and others

203. In order that he may grant unto you And through one glance you will attain your desires

204. With one glance your Lord can be sufficient for you Saving you from a lot of hard labour, so wake up!

205. The look of love from the sheikh to his disciple Is a source of distinctions and elevation

206. And be in the hands of the sheikh

279 Ibid., pill.

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Like the corpse in the hands of the washer, you will benefit 207. If you wish to learn knowledge

Strive for the sake of God to please your teacher 208. Be like a slave in front of your sheikh

Through this you will attain the rank ofa king 209. And know that benefit is not attained

Except through honouring what has been said 210. To the extent that you honour your sheikh you will succeed

In attaining what you wish, and gaining (spiritual) prosperity 211. Anyone who does not please his sheikh

Will not gain what he hopes tör in his disciple 212. Perhaps a person claims to have knowledge

But does not find anyone inclining to him 213. We seek refuge in God for ourselves and for you

From all knowledge that does not profit the one who has it.

Before giving a commentary on these verses, it may be appropriate to state

that discipleship to an enlightened man is considered fundamental to Ahmadou

Bamba's epistemological program. In this regard he states in Masulik al-. Iin, n that:

294 Whoever is not educated by a Sheikh will encounter severe trials 295 Because whoever is without a sheikh, Then wherever he goes Satan is

his sheikh

This. then, may be taken as a normative rule tör the spiritual path, in that the

journey to God must be taken under the auspices of a spiritual master. The main theme of verses 189-195 is respect för the sheikh. This relationship

is depicted with regard to the prophet and his companions as follows in the Qur'än:

1.0 you who believe, do not be forward with God and his prophet And fear God. Truly God is hearing, knowing.

2.0 you who believe, do not raise your voices above the voice of the prophet, and do not speak loudly to him as you do to one another Lest all your good deeds become futile while you perceive it not.

3. Those who lower their voices in the presence ot'God's apostle, those are the ones whose hearts have been tested tier piety. For them is forgiveness and a great reward.

4. Those who shout out to you from behind the apartments, most of them have no sense.

5. If they were patient until you came out to then it would be better fier them God is forgiving, merciful. (49: 1-5)

These verses are taken from the chapter of the Qur'än called al-Ilujuräl, which due to its emphasis on good behaviour is sometimes referred to by commentators of'

the Qur'än as the chapter of good etiquette (akhlüq). 28"Verse 1 asks believers not to be

'"Ö AI-Sdbüni, Safwatu al-Tarasir vol 3, p230.

141

forward with God and his apostle. Not to be tbrward with God is to believe in his

book. As for not being forward with his apostle, this has been interpreted in various

ways, such as not speaking when the prophet is speaking, not to pre-empt the

prophet's answer when a matter arose, not to start eating hetbre him when the food

arrived at meal time and not to walk in front of him when going somewhere

together . 28'In other words not being forward with the prophet means showing him all

manner of respect and consideration.

Verse 2 asks believers not to raise their voices above the voice cif the prophet

when he is speaking, and not to speak loudly to him as you do to one another.

Then, importantly, the Qur'än adds, 'Lest all your good deeds become futile

while you perceive it not. ' In other words this act of ti olishness could lead to all of

one's works being rendered futile, and to becoming one of the people of the fire. 22

Verse 3 gives the example of those who lower their voices in the presence of God's apostle, stating that they have been tested fier piety, and that they shall attain to

forgiveness and a great reward. Verses 4 and 5 give the opposite example of' those

who shout out to the prophet from behind the apartments (the houses of the wives of'

the prophet). This verse was revealed about a delegation that came from the tribe of

Rani Tam-im, and as they did not know which apartment the prophet was in they

shouted out to him `() Muhammad, Come out to us. -'N1 -['hose people are described in

the Qur'dn as having no sense, and it is stated that it would have hexen better ifthey

had waited until the prophet had come out to them.

"Therefore respect for the prophet (the teacher) from the companions (his

students), and avoiding all forms of disrespect is a crucial Quranic injunction.

Likewise verses 189-195 of Nuhju gadä'ii hüji are also concerned with respect fier the

teacher. Verses 189-190 establish the general overriding principal of conduct required

with the teacher, in that he must be respected to the utmost extent, and he must be

taken as a master. He must be given of one's best, and his needs must be fulfilled

through effort and service. Verses 191-195 give more specific expression to the

respect incumbent on the disciple with regard to his master. Verse 191 states that good

behaviour consists of not laughing, joking and shouting in tront of the sheikh.

Ibid., p232. Ibid., p232.

293 Ibid., p233.

142

Therefore before the sheikh a certain decorum is necessary which is neither too

frivolous nor too abrasive. In the presence of the sheikh attention should be paid to the

sheikh's conduct and instruction, and one should not be distracted or show

inattentiveness by turning one's head or moving from side to side (verse 192). or by

talking too much in his presence so that one would not gain from his righteousness

(verse 193). Furthermore the sheikh should be honoured by all who accompany him

(verse 194) and not be treated as someone who is a familiar everyday associate (verse

195).

Furthermore obedience is a fundamental requisite of discipleship. From the

perspective of the Qur'dn there is no doubt that the believers are required to obey the

messenger of God:

It is not fitting för a male or female believer when a matter has been decided by God and his apostle to have a choice in the matter. If anyone disobeys God and his apostle, he is clearly on a wrong path. (33: 36)

Verses 196 and 197 of the qasidah embody this principle of obedience to the

teacher, wherein one should listen to the commands of the sheikh and strive to fulfil

them even against the wishes of one's ego. Therefore obedience and submission

should be undertaken against one's own personal desires, preferring the dictates of the

master's wise council over them. Also one should stay away from what the master forbids.

To be generous to the sheikh is another principle of the teacher-pupil

relationship, no matter how much or how little is donated (verses 198-199). If the

disciple sees the sheikh incline to something he should strive to fulfil it (verses 200-

201). In other words the relationship to the teacher should have a certain degree of

subtlety whereby the student does his teacher's bidding without receiving direct

instructions. Furthermore the disciple should respect all associates of' the sheikh.

whether they are relations or not. In tact the Qur'an states:

Say: I ask you no recompense for it except love of my near ones (42: 23)

In other words the prophet Muhammad is ordered to say that he wants no

reward for delivering the message of Islam to the believers except that they should love his close relatives. If these conditions of good behaviour are fulfilled the disciple

will have fulfilled the state of preparedness to receive spiritual gifts from the sheikh (verses 203-205). This transference of blessing takes place through the love of the

master for the disciple, and the love of the disciple for the master. This state of mutual

143

love existed between the prophet and his companions. The prophet's love and care ('or

his companions is depicted in the Qur'än as follows:

'T'ruly there has come to you a messenger from among yourselves It concerns him greatly should you go astray Ile is greatly desirous for you (to lxs rightly guided) Ile is compassionate and merciful with the believers (9: 128)

It was of great concern to the prophet that the companions were saved from

the danger of going astray. Going astray in this sense is to be understood as harming

oneself spiritually by either leaving the faith or falling into sin. Also the prophet was

greatly concerned that his contemporaries would be rightly guided. in the sense that

those who did not believe would enter into belief . 294 Therefore his love and concern

was not for the sake of his companions alone, but he also had regard fier humanity at

large, whereby he was extremely concerned for the spiritual well-being of all of the

community. Finally the prophet was compassionate (ru'iifl and merciful (rahim) with

the believers. Compassion is an extreme form of mercy, and so the compassion and

mercy of the prophet are cited together in this verse tör the sake of emphasis. 'K5 In

fact this verse highlights the most perfect attributes of the prophet as well as his great

tenderness for the believers, and the verse also emphasises that he is the greatest

favour of God to them. 2S6 In fact as emphasised above, the sphere of concern of the

prophet extended to the unbelievers too. "I'his may all be summarised by the following

Quranic verse concerning the prophet:

And we only sent you as a mercy to all of the worlds (21: 107)

Therefore the mercy, compassion and tenderness of the prophet may be looked

upon as being for the companions and disciples who were educated under his gentle

care in particular, but also für all of humanity in general. The point that this study

seeks to make is that the relationship of the prophet with his companions may be seen

as a prototype of the love that the enlightened teacher has for his disciples.

Also, from the perspective of studentship, further utilising the model of' the

prophet and his companions, the companions fulfilled the requirements of' discipleship

by having the greatest devotion to and love for the prophet. In fact Islam considers

t adl Ibn itasan al-labarsi, Majma' al-Bain vols5 and 6, (lehrdn, Matba' al-Islamiyyah. 1966), p86.

Abdulläh Ibn 'Umar al-I3aydawi, Anwar al-Tanzil waAsrar al-: I; a'wil vol. 1, (Beirut. Dar al- 'llmiyyah 1999), p427. Hereafter referred to as 'l atsir al-Uaydäwi.

Muhammad al-Amin al-Shingiti, Adwa' aIBa n ti'I Idäh al-Qur'än hi_I-Qur'an vol. I, (Beirut, Dar Ihya' al-Furäth al-'Arabi, 1996), p508. Itereatler referred to as l atsir al-Shinqiti.

144

this love of the prophet to be a requirement of faith, and in this regard one of the

chapters in the book of belief in Sahib al-I3ukhdri is entitled ''l'o love the Prophet is a

part of faith. ' 't'his chapter records a saying of the prophet wherein he says:

By I [im in whose hand is my life, none of you will have faith till he loves me more than his father and his children and all of mankind. If we interpret this saying as a demand for loving the ultimate teacher sent by

God for the guidance of mankind, then the success of the companions of the prophet in reaching lofty spiritual heights may be seen as partly due to reaping the fruits of fulfilling this important requirement of faith. Ahmadou ßamha's yasiclah in fact

makes it clear that the mutual love and respect of teacher and pupil are central to the

success of the relationship (see verses 189 and 205 above). It may be appropriate to

quote an example of the love ofthe companions for prophet Muhammad by way of' illustration:

When the number of Muslims around the prophet was small they practised their religious convictions secretly. When, however, the number of Muslims reached 39 Abu Bakr made a suggestion for the open practise and preaching of Islam. The prophet would not agree, but when Abu ßakr insisted he gave his consent and so they all went to the sacred precinct of Mecca to preach to the people. No sooner had Abu Bakr started speaking than the disbelievers attacked the Muslims. Despite the fact that Abu ßakr was considered to be the noblest and most respectable of all the people in Mecca he was beaten to such an extent that his nose. ears and täce were besmeared

with blood. Fie was kicked and trampled underfoot. He became unconscious, and none hoped that he would survive this brutal onslaught. The people of' his clan came and carried him to his house. They also announced that if he died from his injuries that they would undertake retaliation. Abu 13akr remained unconscious for the whole day. People around him called his name again and again to bring him to his senses, but he remained unconscious. Late in the evening however he opened his eyes and showed signs of consciousness. As soon as he was able to speak he enquired:

'[low is the Prophet'? ' The people were most disappointed with him and they said:

'Now is it that despite all of this calamity and aller virtually remaining in the jaws of'death all day long on account ofthe prophet, as soon as he has come back to consciousness he has nothing else to talk about but the prophet himself. ' They left Abu Bakr, much disgusted at his devotion for the prophet,

while they were satisfied that he was out of danger. They advised [lmme Khair. his mother, to give him something to eat. But Abu Bakr kept on asking incessantly and impatiently the same question again and again :

'How is the prophet'. " On her showing ignorance about the welfare of the prophet, Abu Hakr

entreated her to seek out news about him. The mother could not refuse the request of the son in this pitiable condition, and hurried out to find news of the

145

welfare of Muhammad. Eventually news came to Abu Bakr that the prophet was well and that he was at the house of a certain companion called Argam. Abu Bakr still refused to eat any Ibod until he had actually looked at the prophet. Now his mother was very anxious to tied him and she knew that he

would not eat under any circumstances until he had seen the prophet. Eventually she took him to Arqam's house, and when Abu Bakr saw the prophet he clung to him and wept profusely. The prophet and all of those present also began to weep over the condition of Abu ßakr. ̀ ,

In fact the love of the companions for the prophet was so much that even the

enemies of Islam were struck by this. Wrwah bin Mas'üd al-'I'hagati was an envoy

sent by the enemies of the prophet to negotiate with him. Ile had been observing the

behaviour of the companions with the prophet during these negotiations. When he

returned to the disbelievers he said to them:

'I have been an envoy to many great kings. I have seen the courts of the Qaiser. the Chosroes and the Negus. By Allah nowhere have I seen the people around a sovereign so respectful to him as I f6und the companions of Muhammad. When Muhammad spits, they rush to receive the sputum in their hands before it touches the ground and anoint their Laces with it. Hardly a word escapes his lips before all of them run to carry out his wish. When he

makes ablution, they fight with one another to collect some drops of the used water. If anyone fails to get that water, he touches the wet hands of the person who had got it and then rubs his own hands on his täce. When they speak in his presence. they speak in a low voice. They do not lifi their gaze to look at his face out of respect for him. A hair falling from his head or beard is

preserved to get benediction from it and is looked upon as a sacred relic. In

short, I have never seen any group of people so devoted to their master as I have seen the companions of Muhammad to him. ̀ 8

These observations regarding the extraordinary devotion of the companions to

the prophet are all the more pertinent as they are made by a disbeliever and an enemy

of the prophet. Some may argue, however, that this great love and respect is

appropriate in the case of the prophet, but should not extend beyond him to other

scholars and righteous men. To this type of thinking it would be appropriate to point

out that since the time of the prophet and throughout the history of Islam the scholars

and sheikhs have been respected with the utmost love and reverence. After the time of

the companions, the followers (tühi'in) and those who came after them fbIlowed this

customary practise. It may be appropriate to quote a few examples in this regard:

"" Maulana Muhammad Zakariyya Kandhalvi, I_abl jghi Nisah, (Dewsbury (UK), Anjuman-c-Islahul Muslimeen of UK, n. d. ), pp244-247. 28' Ibid., pp252-53.

146

Mugheerah said, We used to have awe of Ibrahim (al-Nakha'ce) just as people would have awe of their ruler. ' Ayoob said, 'A man used to sit with al-f lasan but not ask him anything out of respect and awe of him. ' Abdur-Rahman Ihn Ilurmulah al-Aslamee said, No person would be bold

enough to ask any question of Sa'ccd ihn al-Musayyih until he asked permission of him. ' lbnul Khayyaat said in praise of Malik ibn Anas, 'Answers would be left and he would not be asked again out of awe, and the people asking questions would lower their heads with their chins hanging down. lie manifested the light of nobility and the honour of a king in piety. Ile was one held in awe though he was not a ruler. '289

Verses 206-210 tend to re-emphasise many of the points already made above.

For example, verse 206 states that in the hands of the sheikh the disciple should he

like a corpse in the hands of the washer. This is meant in the sense that when a corpse

is being washed in preparation for its eventual burial, due to its lifeless state the

washer is able to turn the corpse any way that he wishes. Likewise the student should

allow the master to have control over his will, and obedience is demanded of him.

This will enable the master to educate the student and enable him to grow spiritually.

Verse 208 continues with this theme of obedience, in that it states that one should he

like a servant in hont of one's sheikh, in order that one eventually attains the rank of a

king. This point is very important, in that this great emphasis on obedience to the

sheikh is not an end in itself, but it is to be undertaken with a view to benefiting

oneself spiritually. Ultimately the only 'servant hood- in-itself' that the Muslim accepts

to undertake is servanthood to God, and any other absolute servanthood is to be

considered deviant and unacceptable. "Thus obedience to the sheikh is obedience to

someone who is enlightened, and is himself absolutely obedient to (iod. and it is to be

undertaken with a view to similarly becoming absolutely obedient to God oneself.

Verse 207 states that if you wish to learn knowledge strive tier the sake of God

to please your teacher. 't'herefore striving to please the teacher through undertaking all

of the actions highlighted in this qasidah (obedience, service, generosity. etc. ) is

necessary if the disciple seeks to learn knowledge. It may be useful to restate the idea

expressed to explain verse 208, that seeking to please the teacher is not an end in

itself. Verse 207 states that there is a condition which needs to be fulfilled it' one

wants to learn knowledge. 't'hat condition is that one must strive to please one's

289 Shaykh Saleem al-Hilaafee, The Manners ofthe Scholar and Student of Knowir e. (Birmingham, Salafi Publications, I988), pp43-44.

147

teacher. The fulfilling of the condition is not an independent sell-contained end in

itself, but it is a condition to be fulfilled with a view to facilitating spiritual growth.

Therefore this qasidah of Ahmadou Bamba clearly undermines the thinking ofthose

who would view his prescriptions of obedience, love, service and generosity with

regard to the sheikh as in some way resembling 'sheikh-veneration. ' It should be

clearly understood the sheikh is a created being who is a servant of God. 1 lowever. it'

he is a true Sheikh, he will be enlightened and knowledgeable, and he may help the

seeker to reach certain lofty spiritual heights. Therefore the behaviour expected of the

disciple with his sheikh as articulated in this gasTdah may be regarded as an ethical

code which will enable those spiritual goals to be successfully accomplished in the

most appropriate manner possible. Verses 209-210 further emphasise this point. Verse

209 states that benefit is not attained except through honouring what has been said (in

this gasidah that is). Verse 210 may be seen as a summary statement ol'much of this,

in that this verse states that to the extent that you honour your sheikh you will succeed

in attaining what you wish and gaining (spiritual) prosperity.

Verses 21 1-213 state some of the consequences of not pleasing one's sheikh.

They are that one will not attain what is hoped for in one's own disciples when one

eventually comes to attain the rank of a teacher oneself, and even if the person himself

possesses knowledge he will not find people inclining to him. This is because the

requirements of discipleship were not fully satisfied and therefore the light of the

master did not fully transform the disciple due to a lack of preparedness in the

disciple. This results in certain deficiencies in the disciple which will have certain

negative ramifications when he eventually becomes a teacher himself: Not only does

he not gain what he hopes for in his own disciples, but people do not incline to him

either, and finally his knowledge does not profit him as it should have done.

All of this should highlight the centrality of' the teacher-pupil relationship in

the epistemology of Ahmadou Bamba. This is particularly illustrated by the last three

verses of the yusidah, which highlight the fact that it is possible to have knowledge

(verse 213), but due to not satisfying the requirements of discipleship one may not

attain the requisite light and blessing (harakah) to make this knowledge as profitable

as it should he. 290

21XI See Edward Westermarck, Ritual and BelieIin Morocco vol. I, p41 for a discussion of the transference of hurukuh between master and disciple. Westermarck's work (particularly pages 35-261) represents a thorough discussion of harakah and its manifestations. See also C'lifli+rd (icerz, Islam

148

A further development of this teacher pupil relationship is alluded to in

Ahmadou Bamba's gasidah entitled Sindidi which has already been discussed in this

study. `'' Verse 2 of this yusidah cites Musa and Khidr. It may be appropriate to 2

further articulate this rather cryptic reference by articulating the Quranic story of Müsa and Khidr in order to ascertain the didactic purpose of the retcrence:

60. Moses said to his servant, 'I will journey on until I reach the point where the two rivers meet, even if I journey for a long time. '

61. When they reached the point where the two rivers meet they törget their fish, and it slithered into the sea.

62. When they had journeyed further on Moses said to his servant: Tiring us our meal, surely we have been tired out by our journey. '

63. Ile replied: 'Did you see when we betook ourselves to the rock I forgot the fish? And it is only Satan who made me forget it. So it made its way into the sea in a strange manner. '

64. Moses said: 'That is what we were looking tier. ' So the two turned back retracing their footsteps.

65. There they found one of our servants on whom we had bestowed Our mercy and to whom we had imparted a special knowledge from ourselves.

66. Moses said to him: 'May I follow you that you may teach me something of the wisdom which you have been taught'? '

67. He answered: 'You will surely not be able to be patient with me. 68. For how can you be patient with something which you cannot encompass

in your knowledge? ' 69. Moses said: 'You will find me patient. God willing, and I will not disobey

you in anything. ' 70. He said: `If you follow me, then don't ask me anything until I myself

speak of it to you. ' 71. 't'hen the two of them went forth until, when they embarked on a trat, he

made a hole in it, whereupon Moses exclaimed: 'Have you made a hole in it so as to drown the people in the boat? You have surely done an awful thing. '

72. Ile replied: 'I)id I not tell you that you will not be able to be patient with me? '

73. Moses said: 'Do not take me to task for my törgetfülness, and do not be hard on me. '

74. Then the two went forth until they met a lad, and he killed him. Moses exclaimed: 'What! Have you slain an innocent person without his having slain anyone? Surely you have done a horrible thing. '

75. Ile said: `Did I not say to you that you will not be able to be patient with me? '

76. Moses said: 'If I ask you of anything after this then no longer keep me in

your company. You will then be fully justified. ' 77. Then the two went forth until they came to a town. They asked its people

fier food, but they refused them hospitality. They found there a wall that was on the

Observed, (New Haven, Yale University Press LA., 1968), pp50-52, and Vincent J. Cornell, pp xxx- xxx. 291 Vide Supra page 53.

149

point on falling down, so he built it up. Moses said: 'lf you had wished, you could have asked for some payment for it. "

78. fie answered: This is the parting between me and you. Now I shall explain to you the full meaning of things about which you could not remain patient.

79. The boat belonged to some poor people who worked on the sea, and I desired to damage it for beyond them lay a king who seized every boat by türce.

80. As for the lad, his parents were people of faith and we teared he would grieve them with transgression and disbelief.

81. And we desired that the Lord should grant them another in his place, a son more upright and tender-hearted.

82. The wall belonged to two orphan boys in the city, and under it was a treasure that belonged to them. Their father was a righteous man and your Lord intended that they should come of age and then bring tbrth their treasure as a mercy from your Lord. I did not do this of my own accord. This is the true meaning of the things with which you could not be patient.

(18: 60-82)

Verses 60-64 may be explained by an incident wherein Moses was one day

preaching to the children of Israel when he was asked: Who is the most learned of'

men`? ' He answered by saying that he himself was. God rebuked him for not

associating Him with knowledge, and he revealed to Moses: 'I have a slave who is at

the meeting of the two rivers who is more learned than you. ' Then he ordered Moses

to take a fish in a basket and to go to find this man. Wherever he came to lose the fish,

he would find the man there. 292

When Moses and his servant (Yusha' bin N(in) came to lose the fish they

retraced their steps, and there they found Khid r. Verse 65 describes Khidr as a servant

of God on whom mercy had been bestowed. and who had received a special

knowledge from (iod. This knowledge which Khidr had received was knowledge of

the unseen ('i1m aI-ghayh), 293which is aptly demonstrated in the rest of the story.

Khidr manifested these spiritual gifts in the first meeting he had with Moses, in that

when Moses first came to him and greeted him, Khidr replied by saying: And peace

be upon you 0 prophet of the children of Israel. -294 Thus though Khidr had never met

Moses he knew him to be a prophet sent unto the children of Israel. This type of

esoteric knowledge is an essential qualification of this type of spiritual teacher.

'92 The Hadith is muuaf q 'alavhi, and is cited in Abi 'Abdulldh al-Qurtuhi, Al-Jümi' a1-Ahk5m aI- Qur'än vols 11-12 (Beirut, Ddr al-kutub al-'Ilmiyyah, 1996), pp8-9. Ilereatler referred to as fakir al- Qurtubi. "" Ibid., p13. 214 Ibid., p12.

150

ý Ahmadou Bamba clearly states this in verse 36 of hagq a1-bukü ' 'alit sädät amwüL. 2t). 5

Only if a master has this qualification (as well as numerous others cited in hugq

al-hukü' above) should he be accepted as a teacher.

Moses then asks if Khidr will accept him as a student (verse 66). Herein

Moses is manifesting a desire to undertake the spiritual journey and to progress

toward perfection. Khidr knew that Moses was not informed of and knowledgeable

about the unseen, and of certain spiritual truths, due to a lack of spiritual unveiling. ̀ '

Therefore he told Moses that he would not be able to be patient with him because he

did not have sufficient knowledge to encompass certain matters. Here Khidr is

manifesting a certain type of spiritual insight which is given to spiritual masters. With

this light he was able to look into the heart of Moses and to know that Moses would

not be able to be patient with him. This quality of the masters is alluded to in verse 36

of the qasidah haqq al-huka -ulü sädnl ummal. wherein, regarding the masters.

Ahmadou Bamba states: He sees hidden things as manifest through the eye oi'the heart And he sees things that are veiled in darkness

It must be restated that only if a teacher has this type of insight will he be a

qualified guide for any would-be seeker. This type of' insight was alluded to by the

prophet in the following narration from Sahib al-Rukhäri:

Among the nation of Bani Israel that lived before you there were men who used to be inspired with guidance though they were not prophets. and if there is any such person amongst my followers, it is Umar. 291

This may be seen as a most pertinent rebuttal to those who reject the idea that

anyone other than the prophets could be inspired. Quite the contrary, in previous

nations and in this nation that tbllows prophet Muhammad, there are such men. In

fact, as has already been stated, a certain aforementioned saying of the prophet

Muhammad 299 explains that a point in spiritual evolution occurs whereby subsequent

to a spiritual opening the seeker reaches a point wherein God becomes his hearing by

which he hears, his seeing by which he sees, his hand by which he strikes, and his tbot

by which he walks. ' Therefore an enlightened man 'hears' and 'sees' through (; od.

further reinforcing the idea of saintly men receiving trans-rational knowledge of the

295 Vide Supra p 128. ""' "Iafsir Ibn al-`Arabi vol I, p768. "" Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Sahih Bukhari, p716. 298 Vide Supra p99.

151

unseen dimension of existence wherewith they are able to judge. In tact, the Quranic

conceptualisation of God's revelation (way) is much broader than what has been

articulated so far in this work. Wuby is defined as a swift, secretive speech. 299 By way

of example the Qur'dn states: Your Lord revealed to the bee to make its home in the mountains, trees and the places men build (16: 68).

This verse gives an example of God's revelation, whereby he grants inspiration (ilhüm) to the bee which enables it to build its home in the various places

mentioned in the verse. This inspiration may be seen as a transterence of intbrmation

to the bee which establishes in the bee the ability to perthrm this amazing teat which

men marvel at. What is being emphasised here is the noteworthy manner in which the

bee builds its home. The beehives are built from cells which come together to firm a hive which has no gaps in it due to the hexagonal nature of these cells. Thus God's

inspiration enables this small and weak creature to perform this splendid act. '.. " "There

are in fact two schools of thought regarding the nature of the inspiration established in

the being of the bee. On the one hand it is not improbable that these creatures have a lower level of intelligence to which (God's) commands and prohibitions could be

addressed, and thus obeyed. A Quranic example lending weight to this view is:

Till when they entered the valley of the ants an ant exclaimed: '() ants. enter your dwellings lest Solomon and his armies crush you without realising it. '

(27: 18)

Therefore ants are an example of insects which have some level of intra-

species communication wherewith they are able to warn one another of some

impending danger. If they are able to give commands to one another it may be

reasonably inferred that they are able to comprehend the commands of their Creator

also. 301

Fxperimental scientific research has been undertaken which proves the intra-

species communication which takes place between the types of insects that have been

mentioned. A bee may, for example, discover a feeding place. As soon as one has

found a place of sustenance, many more will appear in a short time. It transpires that

AI-Zamakhshar ,

Al-Kashshäf vol 4, (Beirut, Dar al-Kitäb al-'Arabi, 1987), p233. ""' AI-Räzi, Fakhr al-din, AI-Tafsir al-Kabir, (Multän. Dar al-IlHadith, n. d. ) vol 7, p236. Itereatler referred to as l afsir al-Räzi. `O1 Ibid., vol 7, p237.

15?

they have all come from the same hive as the first forager.; "` This bee must have

announced its discovery at home. On further investigation it is found that as soon as

the foraging bee gets hack to its hive it performs a 'dance', turning around on the

same spot, once to the right and once to the left, repeating these circles again and

again with great vigour. 303 This 'round' dance is undertaken if the sustenance found

is nearby. If the sustenance is faraway, however, the bee performs a 'wagging dance',

whereby the bee runs a short distance in a straight line while wagging its abdomen

rapidly from side to side. Then the bee makes a complete 360-degree turn to the left,

runs straight ahead once more, turns to the right, and repeats this pattern again and

again. 304 From this wagging dance the bees learn the direction that they must travel to

reach the newly discovered sustenance, in that if, for example, during the straight

portion of the dance the bee heads 60 degrees left of vertical, then the tceding place is

situated 60 degrees to the left of the sun. 305

The other school of thought is that God has endowed the bee with certain

instincts and characteristics which grant it the ability to carry out the actions that it

does. 306 In other words the actions of the bee may be regarded as being based on

inherent characteristics with which God has pre-programmed the species. In fact this

innate preparation for learning is such that honey bees often learn in the manner of a

computer program, pausing for input at prearranged steps in the program. 307

A Quranic example of God's revelation to humankind is:

37. And we favoured you (0 Moses) on another occasion 38. When we revealed (awhd) to your mother what we revealed 39. 'Place the child in a chest and throw the chest into the river, then the river should cast it up to the bank where he shall be taken up by My enemy and his enemy. (20: 37-39)

This 'revelation' to the mother of Moses was in the form of inspiration

(ilhüm)3011, whereby God revealed to her that she should put the baby Moses in a chest

and cast the chest into the river Nile where it would be taken up by the pharaoh and

his people (the very people who were in the process of killing the male children in the

Karl Von Frisch, Bees. Their vision, Chemical Senses and Language, (London, Jonathon Cape Ltd, 1983), p63. '0' Ibid., p65. 104 Ibid., p77. ... Ibid., p83.

Tafsir al-Razi vol 7, p237. '7 Gould, James L. and Gould, Carol Grant, The Ilong Bee, (New York, Scientific American Library,

1988), p185. 30" AI-Säbüni, Safwatu al-Tafasir vol. 2, p33.

153

first place, and from whom she was trying to save the child by casting him into the

sea). This inspiration could have been in the form of a dream. or it could have been in

the form of a conviction God placed in her heart'309 or an angel could have been sent

to her. "" Of course this revelation is merely inspiration sent down through one of the

aforementioned channels, and it is not revelation of a prophetic nature. God chose the

mother of Moses to bear the future prophet and to be the locus of divine inspiration

due to her preparedness and receptivity for this higher communication. As a righteous

woman she was able to become the locus of divine endowment. though she was not herself'a prophet.

This is similar to the case of Mary the mother of Jesus '. about whom the

Qur'an states:

17. She placed a screen to seclude herself from them. Then we sent our spirit to her, and he appeared to her in the form ofa man. 18. She said: 'I seek refuge in the Merciful One from you, if you tear the Lord. ' 19. Ile said: `I am only a messenger of your Lord to give you the gift of a pure son. ' 20. She said: 'I low can I bear a son when no man has touched me. neither have I been unchaste? ' 21. He said: `So it shall be. Your Lord says This is an easy thing t<or me. And we shall make him a sign for mankind and a mercy from us. ' It is a matter decreed. ' (19: 17-21)

While Mary was secluded from the people at the eastern side of the holy

temple in Jerusalem the angel Gabriel ('our spirit') appeared to her in the lbrm of a

man. Thinking that he really was a man she sought refuge in God from him, thus

manifesting her purity and chastity. Gabriel pointed out that he had been sent by God

to convey to her the good news of a son. She asks how can she have a son when she has had no sexual relations with a man, nor has she in any way been unchaste. Gabriel

states that it shall be so as this is the decree of God, and tör flirr it is an easy thing. '12

For the purposes of our discussion it is important to note that God is sending the news

of the blessing of a son to Mary through the intermediary of an angel. This should

therefore be regarded as an unequivocal Quranic example of a believer who is not a

? Ö" Tatsir al-Rai vol 8, p47. i lo IFakir al-Baydaºwi vol 2, p47.

Ibid., p47. 'I2 Ibid., pp28-29.

154

prophet receiving God's glad tidings from the unseen realm through an angelic intermediary.

Another occurrence of a Quranic example of' non-prophetic recipients of

(iod's message are the disciples of Jesus:

I revealed to the disciples of Jesus that they should believe in me and My prophet. They said: We believe. So bear witness that we are Muslims. '

(5: 111)

The meaning of revelation here is inspiration (ilhüm) which (God placed in the

hearts of the disciples of Jesus. They accepted the inspiration by adopting the path of

belief. 3'3 This may be regarded as an excellent example of God granting inspiration to

those pious people that were from amongst Ilis friends (aw1iyi-, ').; 14

Therefore numerous Quranic examples have now been cited of revelation (way) being received by people other than prophets, whether to the smallest of

animals such as the bee, to saintly women such as the mother of' Moses and the

mother of Jesus, or to holy men such as the disciples of Jesus. In these cases

revelation was through inspiration via dreams in a sleeping state, or through

inspiration by receiving ideas into the heart in a waking state, or through angelic

bearers of news. In fact the Arabic word wa&y (revelation) can have two meanings. It

can either mean inspiration (ilhüm), examples of which have been cited above, or it

can mean revelation received by one of the prophetS. 315 It is to the second of thcsc two

types of way that we now turn our attention. In this regard the Qur'än states:

It is not for a human that God speaks to him except through revelation (wuhyan), or from behind a veil, or by sending a messenger who then reveals (yuhiya) by His permission whatever Ile wishes. Verily F Ic is most high and wise. (42: 51)

This verse was revealed on the occasion that the Jews asked the prophet 'If you are a

prophet why do you not talk to God and sec Ilim as Moses talked to God and saw

Him? ' The prophet answered by saying that Moses did not see God. Then this verse

was revealed. 316 Therefore this verse indicates that God communicates with the

prophets in one of three ways. The first way is through revelation, whereby God puts

something into the heart of his chosen prophet through inspiration in a waking state,

Tafsir al-Räzi vol 4, p261. Ibid., vol 7, p236. Tafsir al-Qurtubi vol 16, p234. Cited in Tafsir al-Qurtubi vol 16. p35.

155

or He shows him something in a dream. 117, Bis is the sending of revelation to a

prophet without any intermediary, and without the prophet hearing the words of'

God. 31 K The second manner in which revelation can come to a prophet is from behind

a veil. In other words, without an intermediary but with the prophet hearing the words

of God. 319An example of this was the way in which God conveyed revelation to

Moses. 320The third way in which revelation is conveyed to a prophet is through an

intermediary, 321 which is the angel Gabriel who has been charged with the job of

conveying God's revelation to the prophets. . 322 The question now arises that if non-

prophetic believers are able to receive inspiration through dreams, through inspiration

in a waking state or through an angelic intermediary, does this verse not stipulate the

same means of receiving revelation in the case of prophets. If the idea is accepted that

a non-prophetic believer can receive inspiration through the same channels as a

prophet receives revelation, then what is the difference between the inspiration

received by a non-prophetic believer and the revelation received by a prophet in terms

of its content? Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi (1564-1624 CE) was perhaps the most well

known Sufi scholar who grappled with this issue. lie accepted the idea that the

prophet shares a lot of experiences with the saint. lie sees dreams and visions,

receives ideas directly into the heart, hears voices and talks to appearances. 'these

extraordinary forms of revelation are called kashf (mystical unveiling) and are

common between the saintly man and the prophet. The most important theoretical

contribution of Sheikh Sirhindi was to assert that whereas all of the revelations of the

prophet are true and certain the inspiration received by the saint is tällihle and

uncertain. A corollary to this is that the revelation of the prophet is binding on people,

whereas the kashf of the saint is not. Kashf' is not an independent and sufficient

argument, and it needs to be confirmed by the prophetic revelation. The destiny of

man, his eternal happiness or damnation, depends on his acceptance of the prophetic

revelation. This is not true of the kashfof the saint. . 123 Perhaps the most enlightening

aspect of Sheikh Sirhindi s analysis is that it goes beyond a statement of his

'" Ibid., vol 6, p35. Tafsir al-Razi vol 9, p61 I.

"9 Ibid., vol 9, p61 I. 'Ö Tafsir al-Qurtubi vol 16, p36 and Tafsir Ibn Kathir vol 4, p 123. 2i 'Iatsir al-Raz vol 9, p6I 1.

322 Tafsir al-Qurtubi vol 16, p36. ' Muhammad Abdul Haq Ansari, Sufism and Shari'ah, (Leicester, [he Islamic Foundation, 1986),

pp85-86.

156

orthodoxy, and gives an exposition of some of the reasons why error may creep into

the kashf of a saint. In one of his published letters he himself asks how is it possible

that error occurs in the revelations of a saint and something other than what he 'sees'

comes to pass. 1 le answers his question as follows:

The revelation may depend for its occurrence upon certain conditions whose details the recipient of the revelation could not discover, yet he told about it in

categorical terms. There may be another possibility: The gnostic may come to know from the preserved tablet (Lawh Mu/üz) about a particular event, but that event might change, as it belongs to the category of conditional decrees of whose nature and liability to change he is unaware. In such a case. theref6re, it he tells what he knows that might not happen...

Know that the decrees of God are of two kinds: alterable and non- alterable. The former is subject to change and alteration, the latter is not. God says: `My decrees do not change (50: 29). " This refers to the non-alterable decrees. About the alterable ones He says: He effaces what lie wills and confirms what Fie wills, and with Him is the mother of the books (13: 39). '

Let me return to our subject. An error may sometimes occur in inspired ideas when intellectual premises that are well established to the recipient of' inspiration but are in reality false, combine with the inspired ideas of the mystic such that he is not able to differentiate between them, and consequently, takes the whole thing as inspired. Thus error creeps in, and the whole business becomes wrong, because a part of it is wrong.

It may also happen that a Sufi sees in a vision, or in a dream, some transcendental truth, and takes it on its face value as it appears. lie interprets it literally and commits a mistake; he does not realise that the apparent liºrm is not meant, and that he should understand it symbolically. This is another reason für error in revealed ideas.

In short, what is categorically true belongs to the Quran and the sunnah that was given in the indubitable (prophetic) revelation, and was brought h-, the ange1.3`4

In verse 69 Moses assures Khidr that he will be patient and obedient, thereby

manifesting his preparedness to adopt the etiquette expected of a disciple with his

master. Khidr states that if Moses is to become his disciple he should not ask anything

until Khidr himself speaks to Moses about it (verse 70). That is to say that tbllowing

should be through works, spiritual exercises, ethics (ukhlaq) and striving. The realities

and meanings of things should not be sought betöre their time. 32 With this

understanding of the relationship between master and disciple the two proceed

together.

"' Ibid., pp208-209. 32 ` Tafsir Ibn al-'Arabi, vol. I pp768-69.

157

Verses 71-82 then give the details of three separate episodes wherein Khidr

does things which rationally speaking are inexplicable. Ile breaks the bottom of a boat

belonging to others, kills an apparently innocent boy (both of these acts are, of course,

formally forbidden by Islamic law), and finally he builds up a crumbling wall without

demanding any payment from the people of the village nearby, and without there

being any obviously apparent benefit. This last act was undertaken after the people of'

the village had refused to extend hospitality to them. It transpires from Khidr's

explanation of all of these events that the boat was slowed down to save it from a

pirate ship ahead, the boy was killed because he would grow up to be evil and his

parents were pious people, and the wall was built up to save the treasure of' sonne

orphan boys that was buried under it, so that they could benefit from their treasure

when they got older. After explaining all of this Khidr states that: 'I did not do this of

my own accord. ' In other words Khidr did not do all of this according to his own

opinion, but by the order of God . 326 Therefore for a teacher to be a true teacher he

must act according to inspiration that he receives from God, and sacrifice his opinion

to the inspiration that he receives when necessary.

This, then, very much represents the Islamic paradigm of the teacher-pupil

relationship. Therefore all of the major ideas contained in the Moses-Khidr story

proliferate throughout Ahmadou Bamba's own elucidation of the teacher-pupil

relationship.

326 Tafsir al-Baydäwi vol 2, p21.

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4. THE HARMFUL THINGS OF THIS WORLD

In A4aghüliq al-nirän wa AlgMlih al-Jinün Ahmadou E3amba discusses certain

things that may be harmful to the spiritual progress of a believer:

60. Undertake the struggle against the ego (nufs), 0 brother, and tomorrow you will have paradise

61. Whoever does not struggle against his ego will not obtain any benefit 62. Whoever struggles persistently against his ego will succeed at the time of the

journey to the grave 63. Whoever wants to undertake the (spiritual) struggle, begin by considering the

numerical value of the letter 'dal' (i. e. 4) amongst your enemies 64.1 swear by my life that this is the greater struggle (jihüd ul-ukhar), as has been

reported 65. The ego, the world (dunyü), the accursed Satan and desire (haw ä) are all

intractable enemies 66. Each of them is imprisoned by a trap and also has a well known weapon (at its

disposal), so enter and destroy - you will be safe 67. The ego is imprisoned by long periods of hunger, and there is no other trap

known for it 68. The weapon with which it obstructs the seeker from guidance is satiety 69. The world is imprisoned by withdrawing from it into knowledge and good

actions for the sake of the giver of understanding 70. The weapon with which it causes harm is involving oneself in things which are

not beneficial 71. It is unanimously agreed that Satan is imprisoned by the remembrance of God

(dhikr), the protector, the forgiver

72. The weapon with which he attacks the obedient is forgetfulness 73. Desire is imprisoned by silence from that which has no profit or benefit 74. The weapon with which it attacks an individual is excessive vain talk

These verses of Mughüliq at-nfrdn wa Murtih al-Jinün make it clear that there

are four enemies against which any spiritual seeker must struggle in order to gain

success. These are the ego, desire, Satan and the world. Fach of these tour will now

be discussed in turn in order to gain an understanding of its importance with regard to

the spiritual quest.

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4.1 The Ego

Regarding the ego. Ahmadou Bamba states the following in Musdlik u! -Jinün: 685. Take precautions against your ego, for it is the most dangerous enemy of mankind (as has been reported) 686. Never incline to it, young man, nor be content with it, but rather establish its subservience 687. The honour of man is gained through enduring the adversities of the ego and enduring a measure of hardship 688. Struggle against the ego in obedience to God so that the word of God's order will be elevated, 0 intelligent one 689. Always take account of it at each moment, so that your future judgement before the Eternal One will be easy 690. Commit the soul to remembrance of death and its terrors, and be wary that you will pass away 691. Always be on guard from it. like someone who meets a lion who wishes to cause him harm 692. lle will be frightened at all times, for a moment's forgetfulness will put him at the mercy of a lion 693. This opposition to the ego is God's favour to man 694. Because he is obliged to have recourse to God if he wants (to oppose the ego)

Before articulating the ideas of Ahmadou Bamba regarding the ego. it is

necessary to clarify the metaphysical commitments presupposed in his discourse in

order to facilitate a contextualised discussion of the spirituality of the 'self: ' Man is

composed of three elements, viz. soul, ego (or lower soul) and body, and each of'these

has an attribute which subsists therein. The attribute of the soul is intelligence, of'the

ego is passion, and of the body is sensation. The soul corresponds to paradise whereas

the ego corresponds to hell. Paradise is the result of God's satisfaction whereas hell is

the result of God's anger. Similarly the soul of the true believer reflects the peace of'

knowledge, and his ego reflects the error that veils him from God. At the resurrection

the believer must be released from hell before he can reach paradise and attain to real

vision and pure love, so in this world he must escape from his ego to reach proximity

to God and gnosis. Therefore the believer's soul calls him to paradise and his ego

calls him to hell, and the soul may be considered to be a this-worldly paradise and the

ego a this-worldly hell. It is in this regard that the prophet Muhammad said: 'Your

worst enemy is your lower soul which is between your two sides'327 This is the report

327 Cited in al-Ghazäli, Ihyä''Vlüm al-Din vol. 3, p4. Narrated by al-Bayhagi, a muwLlü' hadith.

160

which Ahmadou Bamba is referring to in verse 685 above. Verses 686-688 speak of'

the necessity of struggling against the ego för the sake of God in order to establish its

subservience. In fact the honour of' man is associated with his endurance of' the

adversities ot'the ego. This is due to the fact that the ego is the source and principle of'

evil, and it is the immediate cause of blameworthy traits. Such traits are of two kinds,

on the one hand sins, which are external attributes, and on the other base qualities

such as pride, envy, avarice, anger, hatred, etc., which are internal attributes. Evil

external attributes can be removed by disciplining the inner self, for example sins are

removed by repentance, whereas evil internal attributes can be removed by outer

discipline, which is an external act. Thus a base quality that appears within is purged

by excellent outward attributes, and one that appears without is purged by laudable

inward attributes. To summarise all of this, the soul is the seat of goodness whereas

the ego is the seat of evil, hence resistance to the ego is the chief of all acts of devotion, and only thereby can man find the way to God, because submission to the

ego involves his destruction and resistance to it involves his salvation. 328

In verse 689 the seeker in encouraged to take account of his ego at all times.

The necessity of evaluating the actions of the ego is articulated in the following

Quranic verses:

0 you who believe fear God And let every soul (nafs) look to what it has sent forth for the morrow And fear God, truly God is aware of all that you do And do not be like those who forgot God And so f le made them forget themselves, they are the disobedient ones The people of the fire and the people of the garden are not the same The people of the garden are the successful ones. (59: 18-20)

In these verses the believer is asked to fear God, and to this fear of God is

linked the incitement to look into and ponder over the deeds which have been done,

the consequences of which will be borne on the day of judgement. The deeds which have been ̀ sent' forth are referred to in the past tense, which suggests that the believer

should adopt the attitude of fearing God with regard to the actions which he has

undertaken in the past. This is not to be regarded as a morbid fear of' past failings, but

rather a form of scrupulous self-analysis and self evaluation underwritten by a God-

conscious attitude. Furthermore the seeker should then fear God with regard to his

future actions, and he should know that God is aware of all that he does. Therefore

328 Al-Hujwiri, pp 196-197,199.

161

taking account of the ego involves a rigorous analysis of past actions leading to

vigilance with regard to future actions. 329

Just as tear of God is linked to restraining the ego, so equally forgetfulness of

God is linked to carelessness and spiritual irresponsibility. Thus the seeker is asked

not to be like the one who forgot God by overlooking the rights that God has (over

His slaves), which led God to make him forget the right that his soul has over him.

Al-Ghazal has written the following regarding the method to be adopted in

taking account of one's past actions:

Just before going to sleep each night the devotee should take account of what his nafs has done during the day, so that his profits and losses get separated from his investments. The investments here are the necessary actions; the profits are the recommended actions; and the losses are those actions which have been prohibited.

Just as one would purchase with care from a wily merchant, so must one bargain with caution in dealing with the self - for the self is a tricky and deceitful impostor that has a way of presenting its purposes in the garb of spiritual obedience so that one considers as profit what was really loss. In fact, in every action which is questionable, the devotee should examine his

motivation carefully. If it is determined that the motivation came from the sell; then compensation should be demanded of it. '30

Therefore it is necessary to adopt self-examination as a regular part of one's

daily spiritual exercises. The compensation for the shortcomings one finds on

examining one's actions is to do a good deed in lieu of the inappropriate egotistical

motivation which ruined the deed of the previous day. Forgiveness should also be

sought for the spiritual failings of the previous day.

The Quranic passage above is concluded by the obvious statement of the

difference between the people who gain admission to heaven as opposed to those who

are admitted to hell. This follows on from the previous verse which speaks of those

who forget God, and so He made them forget their own selves, in the sense that these

people will be the people of the fire. "' And equally, taking account of the soul leads

to the future judgement of an individual being easy (verse 689). It is in this regard that

Umar used to say:

Take account of yourself before you are taken account of Weigh yourself before you are weighed' 32

329 Tafsir al-Shingit vol. 5, pp296-297. 330 Cited in Javed Nurbaksh, In the Paradise of the Sufis (New York, Khaniqahi Nimatullah Publications, 1979), pp92-93. "' Tafsir al-Shingiti vol. 5, p303. "- Cited in al-Ghazäli. Mukäshafat al- ulüb, (Beirut, Där al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyyah, 1982), p380.

162

A man's weighing himself can only consist in his sincerely repenting of every

sin before he dies, and in remedying his inadequacy in discharging his obligations to

God, and in remedying the wrongs that he has committed and in reconciling himself

with all of those he has injured by his tongue, his hands, and the bad opinions he has

harboured about them within his breast. He should set their hearts at rest so that when

he dies not a single injustice or obligation will remain to his discredit. This will enable

his future judgement to be easy (verse 689), and he will enter heaven without any

reckoning. . 333

Verse 690 teaches the seeker to commit the soul to the remembrance of death

and its terrors, and to adopt an attitude of wariness with regard to passing away. It

may facilitate greater understanding of this issue to give a brief' exposition of death

and some of its associated terrors: The first aspect of the death experience pertains to

the extremity of the pain experienced at death. As life slowly ebbs away from the

body of a dying man his screams are cut off due to the severity of his pain. The pain is

such that it overwhelms his mind and strikes dumb his tongue, so that though he longs

to be able to seek relief in groaning, screaming and calling für aid, he cannot.

Regarding this pain the prophet once made mention of death and its choking pain, and

said:

It is equal to three hundred blows with a sword. 34

The second of the terrors of death concerns the angel of death, and the fear and

terror he inspires in the heart. For even if the strongest of men were to see him in the

appearance he assumes when taking the soul of a sinful bondsman, he would not be

able to bear the sight. It is related that Abraham once asked the angel of'death: Are you able to show me the form you take when taking the soul of an evildoer'? T

'You could not bear it, ' he replied.

`But yes I could, ' he said.

`Then turn away from me, ' he commanded, and he did so. Then Abraham turned

around and there before him stood a black man with hair erect, evil smelling and

garbed in black, from whose mouth and nostrils sparks and smoke were issuing tbrth.

'" Al-Ghazäli, Ihyä' 'Ulüm al-Din vol 3, p404. 234 Cited in Al-Ghazäli, Iha' 'Ulüm al-Din vol 4, p402. Narrated by Ibn Abi al-dunyä, its narrators are trustworthy. For a more detailed discussion of the pain experienced at death see Khawaja Muhammad Islam, The Spectacle of Death, (Lahore, Tablighi Kutub Khana, 1976), ppi 8-21.

163

At this Abraham fainted, and when he regained his wits the angel had assumed his

former guise.

`O angel of death, ' he said. ' Were the evil doer to confront nothing but your visage

after his death, it would quite suffice him. 335

The third calamity is the witnessing by the sinful of their places in hell, and

the apprehension they feel before this vision obtains. The soul of the dying person does not leave his body until it has heard the voice of the angel of death conveying

one of two tidings. Either it shall be: 'Rejoice 0 enemy of God at the prospect of hell. ' Or: 'Rejoice 0 friend of God at the prospect of heaven. '330

These are some of the terrors of death with which the seeker must acquaint himself in order that he may adopt an attitude of wariness with regard to his eventual

death. This wariness should not be regarded as a form of passive moroseness leading

to a paralysing fear of the inevitability of death, but rather it should be an incitement

to dynamic anticipation of this-worldly temporality and other-worldly eternity, with

the requisite adoption of actions which will facilitate an easier journey to the life aller

death. This attitude should have profound ramifications for the spiritual litt of an

individual within the context of his overall struggle against his ego. For it is in this

context that the prophet Muhammad said: 'Remember offen the ender of pleasures'.

by which he meant make pleasures distasteful through the remembrance of death until

your inclination to them is broken, and you devote yourselves to God. 3; 7lt is in this

context that al-Rabi ibn Khuthaym dug a grave in his house, and he used to sleep in it

each day so that he may thereby remember death unceasingly. 'Were the

remembrance of death to leave my heart for an hour, ' he would say, it would become

corrupted. '3381n other words on forgetting death the heart would become corrupted by

love for this temporal worldly abode. This corrupting love of the world may be driven

form the heart by faith in the last day, and the great punishment and generous reward

that will then be assigned. In proportion to ones degree of certainty therein, the love of

the world will leave one's heart. When the meanness of this world is perceived as well

; 35 Cited in al-Ghazäli, Ihyä' 'Ulüm al-Din vol. 4, pp403-404. See also Khawaja Muhammad Islam, pI26.

Cited in al-(; hazdli, lhyä' 'Ulüm al-Din vol. 4, p404. '" Ibid., p391. Narrated by al-1'irmidhi, a hasan hadith. 138 Ibid., p393.

164

as the preciousness of the next world, one will despise any inclination to worldly

things.; -

To summarise these ideas, the remembrance of death and its terrors acquaints

the seeker with the gravity of the eventual consequences of the limits of' his mortality,

and is undertaken as an incitement to training the ego, whereby a certain temperance

with regard to indulging the ego and its associated desires is adopted.

Verses 691 and 692 state that the seeker should always he on guard from the

ego in the manner in which one would be on guard when encountering a lion that

wishes to cause him harm. He would be frightened at all times, for a moment's

forgetfulness will place him at the mercy of a ferocious beast. This analogy between

the ego and a lion seeks to concentrate the seeker's attention on the dangerous nature

of the ego through an illustration. For the slightest lack of vigilance in the proximity

of a lion would put the seeker at its mercy, in the same manner that lack of spiritual

vigilance would place the seeker at the mercy of a spiritual beast (the ego), whose

attack will either injure or destroy his spiritual life. Similar analogies between the ego

and various animals have been made by other thinkers. A certain companion of Imam

Junayd called Muhammad ibn `Ulydn said that one day he saw something like a

young fox come forth from his throat, and God caused him to know that it was his

lower soul (naft). 't'his analogy of the nafs and a young fox conveys its crafty. wily

and tricky nature. When he cast it under his feet, at every kick he gave it. it grew

bigger. He said:

`Other things are destroyed by pain and blows, why do you get bigger? '

'Because I was created perverse: that which is pain to other things is pleasure to me,

and their pleasure is my pain, ' it replied. Shaykh Abu'l `Abbas Shagäni saw his ego in

the form of a sleeping, yellow dog. Once again the vicious, predatory nature of the

ego is illustrated by the analogy. Shaykh Abu'l Qäsim Gurgäni saw his ego in the

form of a snake. This analogy seeks to highlight the dangerous, poisonous nature of

the ego. A dervish one saw his ego in the form of a mouse. This example illustrates

the elusive and evasive nature of the ego, whereby it is like a mouse in that it is

difficult to catch hold of and bring under one's control..; 40 All of these analogies

Ibid., p398. 340 Al-Hujwiri, p206.

165

depict a certain aspect of the ego's danger to the spiritual life of the seeker, and thus

the seeker should endeavour to be on guard from these evil machinations of the ego.

To oppose the ego is God's favour to man, because if someone wants to

oppose the ego he must have recourse to God (verses 693 and 694). This is

unequivocally stated in the Qur'än:

Truly the ego incites to evil, except for those on whom God has mercy (12: 53)

Therefore it is necessary for the believer to receive the grace of God in order

to avoid the evil insinuations of the ego, and to avoid acting according to the evil

dictates of the ego. Only at those times when the protection of God is received by the

believer is he free from the evil whisperings of the ego. 34 'Therefore without divine

mercy the believer will remain a prey to the evil whisperings of the ego, and will not

progress spiritually. In the light of this the believer's righteous actions and his

recourse to God, may be seen as a form of preparation for the receipt of divine grace

and the facilitation of spiritual progress. With regard to seeking such divine grace in

order to gain victory over the ego, verses 68-69 of Maghelliq al-nirein wa Mu/üiih al-

Jinün quoted at the beginning of this chapter make it clear that hunger is the only

weapon known which imprisons the ego, and thus this may be regarded as an action

which will facilitate gaining the grace of God. Thus the hold of the ego over the

seeker may be broken by periods of hunger, and this may be utilised by the seeker to

defeat the ego. 342 On the other hand, satiety of the appetite is an obstruction to the

spiritual progress of the seeker. These matters are lucidly depicted in the hollowing

teaching story:

When God created the soul He held it in the place of questioning and addressed it saying, 'Who am IT - that is, `O soul, do you know me? ' The soul, coquettish and rebellious, raised its head and said, 'Do you know nie? ' God kept it in the prison of affliction for a thousand years, then brought it out and asked, 'Who am IT The soul said 'Who am IT 'Do you know who I am'? ' (God asked); the soul replied, 'Do you know who I am'? ' God commanded that it be held in the prison of affliction for a thousand years; then it was released but it had no fear of that either. When (God) said, 'Who am IT the weary soul replied 'Who am I? Do you know me or not'? ' God commanded that it be held another thousand years in the prison of nakedness, that it might be tamed; then he brought it out and asked, '() soul, who am IT The soul did not fear that either, and said, `Who am IT It claimed to be all-powerful. 'Put it in the prison of hunger! ' God commanded, and they did so; when they brought it out it had become weak and thin and humble, and was afraid. When God asked, 'Who

"1 Tafsir al-Räzi vol. 6, pp470-471. 342 AI-(; hazäli, Mukäshafat al-Qulub, p21.

166

am IT it answered, You are the Omnipotent, all-Conquering Lord, and 1 am the sinful, blaming soul which commands to evil. '343

Thus, though the lower soul is shown the torments of the seven stages of hell,

it will not be afraid until it experiences hunger. Therefore its discipline is through

hunger, and it is for this reason that the prophets and saints fasted often. 344

'" Cited in Julie Scott Meisami (Tr. ), The Sea of Precious Virtues, (Salt Lake City, The University of Utah Press, 1991). p 15. 344 Ibid., p15.

167

4.2 Desire

Desire (haw) is another enemy of the spiritual life. It may be appropriate to

commence by establishing the relation between the ego and desire. Regarding this the

Qur'dn states:

He who fears to stand bcti re his Lord And forbids his ego its desires Will dwell in paradise (79: 40-41)

He who fears God's questioning on the day of judgement when he stands för

judgement before Ilim, and denies his ego desires which are illegitimate and disliked

by God, and restrains himself from them thus opposing his own desires in adoption of

the orders of God. will be rewarded with paradise as his eternal home. 345 Therefore

opposing the illegitimate desires of the ego is a path to paradise. This Quranic

quotation makes it clear that desires pertain to the ego, but the following maxim sheds

light on the specific relationship between the two:

The ego is the source of wanting Desire is the breath of the ego346

Therefore the ego is the entity that longs for, wants and desires, and desire is

the breath (or life) of the ego, whereby the ego is sustained by its desires. Therefore

the ego is the ontological entity which desires. Looked at from another angle, desires

are everything that the ego longs for and inclines to. 347Ahmadou Bamba states the

following in Musülik al-Jinün: 665 Let your intellect guide your desire and not the contrary Otherwise you will earn the anger of the Master 666 For the believer submits to his Master and not to his desires Blessedness is for the one who is led by his intellect and not his desires to the pleasure of' his Lord

These verses depict the existential condition of man whereby he is continually

being called by intelligence and passion in contrary directions. If he obeys the call of

intelligence he attains to faith, but if he obeys the call of passion he arrives at error

and infidelity. Therefore passion is a veil and a false guide, and man is commanded to

resist it. Passion is of two kinds:

L The desires of pleasure and lust;

2. the desire for worldly honour and authority.

, 45 Muhammad Ihn Jarir al-Tabari, Jämi' aI-Bayän (Beirut, Där al-Fikr, 1999) vol. 15, p62. 346 AbT T_älib al-Makki, üt al ulüb voll, (Beirut, Där al-Kutub al-`Ilmiyyah, 1997), p470. 347 Ibn 'Ajibah, Tgaz al-HHimam fT Sharh al-Ilikam, (Dimishq, Dar al-'Tmän, 1986), p35.

168

The most manifest attribute of the ego is lust (. shahwwwuh). Lust is a thing which

is dispersed in different parts of the human body. and is served by the senses. Man is

bound to guard all of his members from it, and he shall be questioned regarding the

acts of each. The lust of the eye is sight, that of the ear is hearing, that of the nose is

smell, that of the tongue is speech, that of the palate is taste, that of the body is touch,

and that of the mind is thought. It behoves the seeker of God to spend his whole life in

ridding himself of these incitements to passion which feed themselves through the

senses, and to pray to God to make him such that this desire will he removed from his

inward nature, since whoever is afflicted with lust is veiled from all spiritual things. It'

anyone should attempt to repel it by his own exertion alone, his task would be a long

and painful one. The right way is resignation. lie can get his base attributes changed

by the grace of divine aid, and by resigning himself to God's will, thus divesting

himself of his own power and strength. In reality, when he resigns himself; God

protects him. Man is not able to abstain from anything by his own exertion, and it is a

matter of God relenting unto man. '48Verses 74-75 of Maghüliq u! -Nirün Nu Ma/ülih

al-Jinn quoted at the beginning of this section make it clear that desire is controlled

by long periods of silence, and is fuelled by excessive vain talk. This is because

excessive vain talk can include speech about sinful matters such as women, drinking

places, the actions of sinners, etc. 349To speak of these types of matters excites forbidden desires, and therefore silence represents safety from this danger.

AI-}{ujwiri, pp207-209. '``' AI-Ghazäli, Ihvä''Ulüm al-lein vol. 3, p103.

169

4.3 The World

The world is another enemy to the spiritual life, and Ahmadou Ramba has the

following to say about it in his gatiidah AMunaivwir a! -S'udür: 35 Anyone who looks at the world without contemplation will be lettered by it 36 It is like a hideous old woman who is disguised in costly clothes 37 When a stupid person sees her dazzling clothes he considers her beautiful 38 Gradually falling in love with her; a love which destroys the one who loves her 39 Until she takes off what she had worn, he finds what was covered up to be disgusting 40 One-eyed, greying, smelly, her spit being like repugnant water moss 41 Though having no eyelashes and a stunted physique, her external appearance attracts every transgressor 42 Who bites his hands out of sorrow over what he has spent his life für 43 As for the man of insight, when he meets her he examines her, and if he

sees danger he rejects her 44 1ler example is like a dream, whoever sells it gains much booty 45 The world turned itself towards me. I sold it and my chains were untied 46 After that it turned its back on me, and I never again placed my hopes in it for it is the abode of darkness 47 Again it turned to me and I turned to God. and He sustained me 48 Everything that is of use in this world to me 49 Is as a provision for the hereafter, after selling it, struggle and gratitude 50 1 praise the Lord through the best of creation As through him You guided me to the chapters of the Qur'dn 51 1 praise Him at the end of my journey to Him And also the effacer Preserve my provision 0 God 52 I inform you all of the hardships I endured before I gained eternal joy 53 Therefore struggle against the ego and do not follow your desires. but

pursue the path of contentment 54 0 seeker of the world, remember my advice, because it is solely based on my good intention 55 Flee from the world if you are not in command of your ego, you will gain spiritual powers 56 For it will make you laugh today and cry tomorrow, as long as you do not forsake it, therefore forsake it and your lüe will be pleasant 57 It grants humiliation and dishonour, but he who fbrsakes it is preserved from this dishonour 58 Blessedness is for the one that the Master enables to abstain from it, he will gain exaltation

Verse 35 states that looking at the world without contemplation will cause one

to be fettered by it. Verses 36-44 give one example of the type of contemplation

required it order to avoid being trapped by worldly attachment: The world is like a hideous old woman who is disguised in costly clothes. The apparent attractiveness of

170

an old woman clad in this manner causes a stupid person to fall in love with her. until

she discards these clothes and the lamentable reality of what lies beneath becomes

apparent. The foolish person who fell in love with her is now afflicted with sorrow. In

these verses Ahmadou Bamba is paraphrasing various slightly differing narrations,

one of which is narrated by Ibn 'Abbäs wherein he states:

The world will come forth on the day of judgement in the term of an old, grey haired, dark coloured woman with protruding tangs who has a deformed appearance, who, when she approaches the creation they will be asked :

Do you know her`? ' 'We seek refuge in the exalted Lord from having any knowledge of'

her. ' they will say. ''t'his is the world over which you had mutual pride, over which you

cut the ties of kinship, over which you envied and hated one another and over which you were conceited, ' it will be said. Then the world will be thrown into hell. It will cry out:

'What about my followers and partisans? ' 'Unite her followers and partisans with her, ' God will say. 350

In other words the foolish person who only takes a superficial view of things

and does not penetrate any deeper than surface reality falls in love with the world because outwardly the world is alluring, though in reality its true nature is not as it

seems to be. When in the next world the true nature of all things will become

manifest, he is filled with sorrow at what he has spent his life pursuing (verse 42).

As for the man of insight, he examines the world, and if he sees danger he

rejects her. Ilis deep contemplation of the world leads him to realise its true nature,

And thus to avoid the dangers associated with worldly existence. As the necessity of

contemplation is such an overriding factor in the spiritual quest it may be appropriate

to say a few more words about this matter. In Musülik al-Jinün Ahmadou ßamba

states that the best subject of contemplation is the heavens and the earth (verse 442).

and also the rest of creation (verse 450). "Therefore the world and its inhabitants is

considered to be the essence of the subject matter of contemplation. Furthermore he

cites Imam al-Ghazal s 1yü' Ulüm al-Din in verse 410, wherein it is stated that

contemplation enables the acquisition of the best fruits of religion. Taking Ahmadou

Bamba's lead it may be enlightening to consider what al-Ghazli has to say about

contemplation of the world in the 1hyü':

3so Abi l'älib al-Makki vol. I, p471.

171

The world is a contingent reality which is moving towards destruction.

Though it promises permanence, it does not fulfil this promise. The world looks

motionless and steady, but really it is moving. Therefore though the world looks still

and permanent, the one who studies and contemplates the matter will realise that it is

continually in motion (both in terms of its motion as a whole around the sun, as well

as the sub atomic motion of each constituent part of the world), and that it is finite and

contingent in nature. 351

The life of this world is like someone asleep seeing what he likes and does not like in a dream. Likewise people are asleep and when they die they wake up. And

nothing of what they inclined towards or were happy with in the worldly litt remains

in their hands. Therefore as the life of this world is like a dream, whoever sells this

worldly life in order to purchase eternal contentment in the next life will gain

spiritually (verse 44).

Another aspect of this issue which is worthy of contemplation is that the world

should be considered as a passage. The life of a man may be considered in accordance

with three phases of existence. In pre-eternity (azal), after his death to his eternal

afterlife (äkhirah), and the intermittent period between pre-eternity and eternity which

are the days of his life in this world (hayätuhu . /i 'l-dunyä). Now consider the short

time he has in this world in comparison with his pre-eternal and eternal existences,

and it will be realised that the life of this world is like a short resting place during a

long journey. Regarding this the prophet said: `What have I got to do with this world?

My example and the example of this world is like a rider on a warm day who comes

under the shade of a tree for an hour and rests. "l'hen he leaves. ' . 352 Whoever looks at

the world in this way will never incline to the world, and will not worry if the days of his life are spent in hardship and difficulty, or in ease and luxury.

Entering into worldly things is easy, but emerging from worldliness is hard.

The prophet said: `The worldly person is like someone who walks in water. Is it

possible for the one who walks in water not to get his feet wet'? '153 This saying serves

as a lesson for the ignorant people who think that they can enter into worldliness with

their bodies, whilst their hearts remain pure, and that the connection of the world to

351 Al-Ghazäli, Ißä' 'Ulüm al-Din vol 3, pl9l. 352 Cited in aI-Ghazäli, lhyä' '111äm al-Din, vol 3 p192. Narrated by Tirmidhi and Ibn Mäjah. Al-Hakim declared it suhih 353 Ibid., p193. Narrated by al-Bayhagi, a husten hadith.

172

their inner self will remain severed. This is a trap of the devil, for if they were to be

parted from the world they would become greatly distressed. Just as the one who

walks in water will get his feet wet, likewise the one who enters into worldliness will find his heart affected by darkness due to worldly attachment. In fact worldliness

affects the heart in such a way that it deprives the heart from enjoying the pleasure

and sweetness of worship. Jesus said: 'Just as the one who is ill looks at töod but does

not gain any enjoyment from it, likewise the worldly person does not gain any

pleasure from worship, nor does he enjoy its sweetness due to his love of the

world. '354 In fact desire for the world seems pleasant just as desire for food seems

pleasant to the stomach. At death each person will find the effect of worldly desires

on the heart to be dislikeable, rotten and ugly, just as he finds delicious tbod

unpleasant when it passes out of his system. The more delicious the food is, the more

the faeces give off an obnoxious smell. Likewise, the stronger and more alluring that a desire is to the heart, the more rotten, dislikeable and harmful are the consequences at

the time of death. The more that a person covets the things of this world such as

property, family, wealth and children, the harder and more painful it will be losing

these things at the time of death. In fact there is no meaning to death except for losing

what is in the world. It should also be understood that fulfilling one's desires in the

worldly life does not lead to satisfaction of the individual. Regarding this Jesus said `"The seeker of this world is like the one who drinks sea water. The more he drinks the

more thirsty he gets, until it kills him. '355

Another example of the people of the world and their preoccupation with the

pleasures of this world, and their forgetfulness of the hereafter is that they are like a

group of people that sail on a ship. They stop off on an island. They are asked to get

off and answer the call of nature if necessary. They are warned of the dangers of the island, and the short time for which the ship will stay at the island. Some of them

quickly relieve themselves and go back to the ship and find it empty, and so they get

the best seats. Some of them stay on the island to look at the wonderful plant and bird

life there, and the beautiful rocks, pearls and jewels. Realising that the ship may leave.

they go back to occupy narrow and uncomfortable seats. Sonne of' them are so

enamoured by the rocks and wonderful things on the island, that they will not allow

's' Ibid., p193. 355 Ibid., p193.

173

themselves to leave them behind. They return to the narrowest places on the ship. and

are further burdened by the things that they have brought back from the island. They

regret bringing these things with them but are unable to throw them away. They lind

no place on the ship to put these things so they carry them on their necks and hacks.

and become sorrowful at having brought these things with them in the first place.

though this sorrow does not avail them. Some of them go to the far corners of' tile

island into the dense jungles and forget the ship as they are so preoccupied with the

things on the island. When they finally hear the call of the sailors they are so weighed down by what they have gathered on the island that by the time they get hack to the

ship there is no place on it, so they are left on the shore and die of'hunger. '. "'

Therefore, to summarise all of this, the seeker is to look at the world with

contemplation considering its contingent and finite nature, the shortness of his stay in

the world, the negative spiritual consequences of entering into excessive worldliness,

and the fact that desires are of such a nature that they are never satisfied. I lowever this

type of intellectual understanding based on deduction and logic is tier people at the

preliminary stage of the spiritual quest. At a more developed stage of spiritual

evolution intellectual understanding gives way to spiritual understanding and insight,

wherein the enlightened seeker comes to realise that 'all phenomenal being is

darkness, only the manifestation of the Real in it gives it light. ' In other words,

existence which the senses perceive is total darkness (non-existence), because it veils

the one who cannot see beyond it from his Lord. It is like a cloud which veils the sun

of meaning for the one who stops at the outward sensory törms (of the vessels). Al-

Shashtari alludes to this when he says: 'Do not look at the vessels, but rather delve

into the sea of meaning in order that you may see Me. ' 7 At this spiritual level of

analysis all creation is darkness, it is only the manifestation of the Real in it which

gives it light. Therefore whoever perceives merely the outward aspect of creation.

perceives total darkness. Whoever penetrates to the inner aspect of creation perceives

the light of His dominion. Creation is darkness to the people who are veiled firom tile

truth because the outer form of creation is stamped on the mirror oftheir hearts. But in

the case of those that know, their insight has penetrated to the level of witnessing the

Real, therefore they see creation as light emanating from the sea of Ills power. and

's" AI-Ghazäli, Ihyd' 'Ulüm al-Din vol. 3, p194. 157 Ibn 'Ajibah, p39.

174

therefore all creation is light to them. This level of' spiritual understanding is an

experiential matter, and cannot be realised by the intellect. l'herel re these may be

seen as two different levels of understanding. The intellectual level of' understanding

is for the people who are veiled, who need to resort to evidence and demonstrable

proof: They witness being, but do not witness the maker of' being. They use proofs to

deduce His existence through the existence of'being. The people who are at a spiritual

level of understanding witness the Real simply by their sight falling on phenomenal

beings. 3 58

Verses 45-47 allude to two different levels of abstinence (_uhcl) from the

world. In verse 45 Ahmadou Bamba states that the world turned itself towards me, I

sold it and my chains were untied. After that it turned its back on me, and I never

again placed my hopes in it for it is the abode of darkness. 't'his represents the first

level of abstinence whereby the seeker adopts a scrupulous attitude of piety which

enables him to abstain from the world. Verse 47 states that again the world turned to

me and I turned to God and He sustained me. This represents the second level of

abstinence, whereby the seeker achieves the love of (iod and His intimacy. Therefore

he who adopts the path of abstinence and turns his back on the world will attain to the

love of' God. In this condition of intimacy with God, He grants the seeker whatever he

hopes for. 359Therefore when the seeker fulfils the duties of abstinence, (iod sustains

him from I-Iimself. 360

If abstinence from the world is to be adopted by the seeker, this raises the

question as to what portion of the world is appropriate tier the seeker to utilise fier the

fulfilment of his needs? Ahmadou Bamba answers this question by stating that

everything that is of use in this world is as a provision tbbr the hereafter. after selling it,

struggle and gratitude (verses 48-49). In other words, that aspect of the world and

what it contains that may be regarded as a provision for the hereafter. In fact two

categories of worldly elements comprise these non-blameworthy aspects of existence:

I) That which accompanies the seeker to the hereafter, the fruits of' which remain

with him after death. "These are knowledge and good actions. By knowledge is

meant knowledge of' God, Ills attributes and works. I lis angels. books and

'S" Ibid., pp39-40. 'S"Abi Tälib al-Makki voll, p474. 160 Ibid., p472.

175

prophets, and knowledge of the sacred law. Good works comprise worship

solely undertaken for the sake of God:

2) Every temporal thing which is used to aid the work for the hereafter, like fi od,

one coarse shirt, and anything necessary kör the preservation of' litc and health

which will facilitate a life of seeking knowledge and doing good works. This

is to be looked upon as the necessary material pre-requisites to a IiIi of'

seeking knowledge and doing good actions. Therefbre to whatever extent a

seeker utilises material things to aid his Islamic life, he will not be

blameworthy. 361

However as Ahmadou Bamba states in verse 49, this utilisation of' worldly

things for a spiritual purpose is only valid after selling these worldly things (in other

words 'selling' the materialistic lifestyle for the spiritual reward of the hereaflcr),

struggling in the path of God (in order to secure one's spiritual needs through learning

and worship and one's material needs through work), and adopting an attitude of'

gratefulness to God for providing the material things necessary fier the seeker to live a

spiritual life.

In verses 50-53 Ahmadou Bamba praises God and the prophet, then he speaks

of the spiritual struggle he undertook in order to reach contentment. Being a man who

is experienced in spiritual evolution, he now advises the seeker to flee from the world

if he has not gained command over his ego (verse 55), fier this will enable the seeker

to gain spiritual powers. For if the seeker is not in command of' his ego he '. N ill not be

able to take what is merely necessary from the world, avoiding what is harmful to his

spiritual life. When the seeker has spiritually evolved, there will conic a time when

nothing temporal will be considered by him as having any value.

I'he world will make you laugh today and cry tomorrow as long as it is not forsaken (verse 56). In fact if anything of a worldly nature is given tu anyone, he

receives three types of test with it: one third worry, one third preoccupation, and one

third accountability on the day of judgement"". "hheretbre no matter what types of'

pleasure one gets from things of a worldly nature, they are accompanied by worry and

preoccupation from higher duties in this world, and accountability in the next world.

'''' AI-Ghazäli. Ihyä'_ ̀ Ulüm al-Din vol 3. pp195-196. 62 Abi 'I'älib al-Makki vol. I, p471. 363 Ibid., p466.

176

As this is the case it is better to forsake the world and live a life free from such

hardships and difficulties. (verse 56).

The world grants humiliation and dishonour, but whoever tbrsakcs the world is preserved from this dishonour and is blessed (verses 57-58). In what was revealed

to Moses the following saying was found: `Whoever loves the world. God hates him.

And whoever hates the world, (God loves him. Whoever honours the world. God

dishonours him, and whoever dishonours the world, God honours him. "`'a Therefore

to love the world and to honour it is to be hated by God and dishonoured by II im. And

to hate the world and to dishonour it will earn the blessing of the love of God and I lis

honouring of the seeker. A further discussion of the world and the need to abstain from it is given in A'fasülik al-Jinün, wherein Ahmadou Bamba states:

695 The world is base (daniyah) and despicable in the eyes of religious people 696 Detach the heart in abstinence from it in order to purify your actions 697 True abstinence according to one who is critical is to abstain from seeking the world and attaching your heart to God 698 Do not be happy with gaining or losing anything of a worldly nature 699 Because love of the world is the cause of all ruin, but people do not realise it 700 And each of its evils is many sided, and that is why the pious ones leave it 701 Its forbidden things lead to banishment, punishment. the hardship of deprivation and veiledness 702 Its doubtful matters are blameworthy on the day of judgement. and bring darkness, argumentation and criticism 703 Taking of its permitted things ostentatiously will be accounted tor, and amassing worldly things will lead to punishment 704 Taking from it för fulfilling ones desires will be accounted fier and he an obstruction, do not doubt that 705 Taking from it moderately, or out of compassion for creation, or in order to avoid relying on creation för subsistence 706 So that they will have no objection to him, and his religion will be sate with them. this will permit him to have the best reward 707 Having just enough to live on is better than poverty or riches, so that difficult situations may be overcome 708 The rich person who is grateful is better than the poor person who is patient 709 When you take a meal be like one who is forced to eat from a corpse 710 Or be like a traveller undergoing hardships who is imprisoned in the world, Endure without complaint trials and hardships 711 For the troubles of this world such as poverty, illness and calamities 712 Or misfortunes, or tests like hunger, problems and difficulties 713 Are bounties from the Glorious One to I Iis slaves (so says al-YadaIi) 714 Whoever is exempt from tribulations is pleased with the world, and the world becomes his paradise as he feels at home in it 715 Ile hates to meet God as he abhors death

"'' Ibid., p473.

177

In verse 695 the world (dunyü) is described as base (dan{vah) and despicable

in the eyes of religious people. Here Ahmadou Bamba is alluding to the etymological

origin of the Arabic word for world (dunyd), whereby it is derived from the trilateral

root da-na-ya, literally to be low, lowly, to be or become mean, base, vile. despicable.

contemptible. 365 Therefore for people of a religious disposition who are seeking

spiritual purification and the reward of the hereafter, the world is base and mean. This

statement very much reflects the Quranic philosophy with regard to the world:

Know that the life of this world is play and distraction and ornamentation and mutual boasting and amassing of wealth and children. Like rain which pleases the planters (by the greenness of the growth it causes), then it dries and withers and becomes straw-like. And in the hereafter there is a painful punishment, and forgiveness from God and His pleasure. And the litt of' this world is nothing but the chattels of deception. (57: 20)

Therefore the life of this world is play and distraction from the hereatler

through spending time eating, drinking and enjoying sexual pleasures. The

disbelievers are enamoured by the beauty and ornamentation of worldly things. and

engage in boasting to one another about their physical forms, strength. lineage and

ancestry, and strive to amass wealth and have numerous children. Therethre the world

which is considered base and despicable by religious people may be regarded as

comprising these types of transitory, perishable things. The similitude of these types

of things is the green growth caused by rain falling on arable land, which leads to the

pleasure of the planters of the seeds. But for all of the apparent attractiveness of the

growth, it eventually withers and becomes straw-like. Similarly for all of the apparent

ornamentation of worldly things in the eyes of the disbelievers, these things are

transitory and will perish. To emphasise all of this, the Qur'dn states that the litt of

this world is nothing more than the chattels of deception. In other words the

disbelievers are deluded by these ephemeral worldly things. In the eyes of' religious

people however, these things are of little value in themselves, and are only legitimate

as means to a higher end. -166

Therefore the seeker is asked to detach his heart in abstinence from the world in order to purify his actions (verse 696). This needs to be done because the world

represents the abode of' preoccupation of' the heart with mundane affairs. 11,7 -I'hus

"'s Hans Wehr, Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, 3"d Edition, (New York, Spoken Language Services, 1976), p294. ""' Tafsir al-Qurttibi vol. 17, pp 165-166. 367 Abi Tälib al-Makki voll, p468.

178

abstinence may be seen as leaving aside care for worldly affairs and avoiding too

much preoccupation with non-spiritual matters. Only when the seeker overcomes such

preoccupation and concern will his actions be purified, so that his sole concern will be

the pleasure of God and seeking success in the afterlife, and his actions will not be

soiled with worldly concerns. Al-Muhäsibi summarised this by stating that abstinence

occurs when the value of things of the world is removed from the heart, and that the

heart does not consider any temporal thing as having any weight. 368

True abstinence is to abstain from seeking the world, and attaching the heart to God (verse 697). This represents a very high level of abstinence. tiways al-Qarni

spoke of this when he said that abstinence is to not seek for that which is guaranteed. Haram ibn Ilahbän said: I met him (i. e. Uways al-Qarni) on the banks of the Fuphrates

washing a piece of bone and a rag which he had gathered from what people had

thrown away. I asked him about abstinence. He asked: `What made you come out today? T

'To seek my livelihood' I replied. if you seek in this way, abstinence departs, ' he said.

Ahmad ibn fianbal said that there is not abstinence except für the abstinence

of Uways. 369 Therefore at a high spiritual level the seeker solely has recourse to God

for the fulfilment of his needs, and does not seek through his own etlorts. 't'his is a

spiritual station wherein what is in the hands of God is more certain to the seeker than

what he has in his own hands. 370

Verses 698-700 state that gaining or losing anything of a worldly nature

should not be the cause of joy or sorrow, because love of the world is the cause of all

ruin. Not only this, but each of its evils is many-sided, and thus the pious leave the

world aside. Regarding this the prophet said: 'The love of the world is the source of

all error. '37' This is because in their pursuit of worldly things people become enticed by their glamour, brushing aside any concern for the life to come, if in tact they had

any such concern in the first place . 372 Therefore to be too greatly attached to worldly

things whereby they become causes of joy and sorrow in one's worldly litt is to he

avoided, as love of the world is the source of all error. Ahmadou Bamba asserts that

368 Ibid., p471. "'`, Ibid., p468. 370 Ibid., p470. ", Cited in al-Ghazäli, Ihyä'_JACim al-Din vol 3, p181. Narrated by al-Bayhagi, a huscur hadith. 372 Mufti Muhammad Shafi vol 2, p35.

179

the evils of the world are many sided, therefore it may be appropriate to consider what

these evils are, and also the multi-faceted nature of their evil. Regarding the things of

this world the Qur'dn states:

lt has been made attractive for people to love the desires für women and children and heaps of gold and silver, branded horses. cattle and land. That is the enjoyment of the worldly life. And with God is the best final abode. (3: 14)

This verse speaks of some of the things of this world that are attractive to

people. Of these women and children come first. This is because whatever man goes

about procuring is because of the needs of his family. Then conic other forms of*

wealth and possessions which attract people secondarily.; '' Love of power is also

considered as pertaining to worldliness, whereby the man of power owns the hearts of'

people, and gains their praise and obedience. 374 Therefore a part of abstinence is to

abstain from seeking leadership over people, as well as status and honour. Abstaining

from the love of being praised by people is important as according to the scholars this

is one of the most enticing aspects of worldliness. Al-Fadil said that moving the rocks

from a mountain is easier than removing the love of leadership once it is established

in the heart of an ignorant person. 375 These, then, may be regarded as some ofthe

evils of the world. These evils have a multi-faceted nature, regarding which the

prophet said: 'Whoever wakes up and the world is his greatest concern, will gain

nothing from God. God places four characteristics in his heart: 'Worry which is

unending, preoccupation from which he is never free, poverty which no amount of'

wealth can eradicate, and vain hopes which never come to an end. '"`' '['he re 16 re

whoever engages in excessive worldly pursuits will have worry, preoccupation.

feelings of' poverty no matter how much wealth he gains, and vain hopes which never

find fulfilment as some of the evils suffered as a consequence.

Verses 701-704 articulate three different levels of abstinence: abstinence

which is compulsory, the abstinence of blamelessness, and abstinence over what is

surplus to requirements. 377 Verse 701 describes abstinence which is compulsory,

whereby it is compulsory to abstain from the forbidden things of' this world. as they

lead to banishment, punishment, the hardship of deprivation and a veil (from God). In

"' Ibid., p35. 174 Al-Ghazali, Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din vol. 3, p247. 35 Abi T_51ib al-Makki voll, p468. "' Cited in al-GhazdIT, Ihyä' 'Ulüm al-Din vol 3, p182. Narrated by al-Tabar5ni and al-IIäkim. A dlu'il

hadith. 377 Abi Tälib al-Makki vol. I, p470.

180

other words, if someone indulges in the forbidden he will sutler spiritual deprivation

and banishment from the mercy of God, and will be veiled from the light of God.

Verse 702 describes the abstinence of blamelessness. whereby the seeker abstains

from doubtful matters wherein there may either be some ditlercnce of' opinion

amongst the scholars, or wherein he himself does not have sufficient knowledge to

know the permissibility or otherwise of a certain matter. On the day of judgement

doubtful matters will be blameworthy, and in this world doubtful matters bring

spiritual darkness due to their proximity to the impermissible, as well as bringing

argumentation and criticism from people who hold a contrary view.

Thirdly there is abstinence over what is surplus to requirements (verse 703),

wherein taking from the permissible things ostentatiously and amassing worldly

things will be taken account of on the day of judgement. Taking from the world

beyond necessity. and merely for the sake of fulfilling one's desires will he an

obstruction to spiritual progress and will be accounted tör on the day of judgement

(verse 704).

Verses 705-713 articulate what Ahmadou Bamba considers to be the correct

policy with regard to worldly existence. Verses 705-706 state that taking from the

world moderately for ones own use, or out of compassion fier creation, or in order to

support oneself and not to rely on creation thus avoiding being a target tier their

objections and enabling one to be religiously respected by creation, all of' these are

approved reasons for the utilisation of worldly means. Verse 707 states that having

enough to live on is better than the two extremes of poverty and riches. It' wealth

becomes excessive it leads to irreligiousness. An example of this is given in the

Qur'än:

Woe to every taunter. slanderer and backbiter Who amasses his wealth and keeps counting it again and again Ile thinks that his wealth will make hing eternal Nay, we shall throw him into the crushing one (104: 1-4)

Most of the commentators of the Qur'än regard these verses as pertaining to

anyone who has these characteristics. and not to any specific individual. In other

words the Qur'än is depicting a certain personality archetype who taunts, slanders and

backbites, and amasses wealth thinking that this will give him eternal life. Ile will be

thrown into that part ofthe hell fire which crushes such people. 47S'I'he extreme wealth

178 Tafsir al-Qurtubi vol. 20, pp124-126.

181

of this type of person makes him behave and think in an irreligious manner. Whereby in terms of his outer conduct he taunts and slanders other people. and in terms of his

inner conduct he regards his wealth as possessing the power to give him eternal life.

Regarding excessive poverty the prophet said: `Poverty is close to disbelief' '"`'

Therefore extreme poverty is also undesirable. The better alternative is to have just

enough to live on. In fact the prophet prayed: 'O God make the sustenance of the

family of Muhammad just sufficient.. 380

The rich person who is grateful to God is better than the poor person who is

patient (verse 708). Sutyän ibn Vyaynah and al-Thawri were asked whether a man can

be abstinent if he has money. They replied that he could, for when he is tested by

straitened circumstances he is patient, and when God showers him with His favours

he is grateful (to God). 181 Ahmadou Bamba considers the latter condition to be more

praiseworthy than the former, for regarding this the prophet said: `How excellent is

the good wealth of a good man. '. 382 Good wealth is that which is earned through licit

means, and a good man is one who spends day and night, secretly and openly in the

path of God, seeking His pleasure. 383

Verse 709 asks the seeker on taking a meal to be like one who is breed to cat from a corpse. In other words he should adopt the attitude of eating out of necessity

merely to survive, and not eating for the sake of pleasure.

Verses 710-715 articulate the attitude that should be adopted with regard to the

trials and hardships of worldly existence. One should consider oneself to be like a

traveller who has been forced to stay in the world, in the sense of being a temporary

visitor to a transitory abode who will soon move on to his final destination. The

hardships of the journey should be endured without complaint, for the troubles of this

world are bounties from the Glorious One, as they make the seeker aware that the

world is a temporary abode of trial, wherein he can never be truly at home. Otherwise

his condition will be like someone who is exempt from trials and thus pleased with the

world, and so the world becomes like a paradise for him, and he hates to leave it and

meet his lord.

"9 Cited in al-Ghazäli, Ida' 'Ulüm al-Din, vol. 3 p209. Narrated by al-Bayhagi. 3R" Ibid., p210. This hadith is mullaf zq aluyhi. 'R' Abi "1älib al-Makki vol. I, p473. 38' Cited in al-Ghazäli, Ihyä' 'Ulümal-Din vol 3, p209. Narrated by Ahmad and al-Taharani, a . 'uhih hadith. 38; Ibid., p474.

182

4.4 The Devil

The devil is another enemy of the spiritual life which Ahmadou Bamha

discusses in the qa duh Shayd(Tn al-Unds: The Devils of Mankind

In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful

Prayers and peace be on our master Muhammad and on his family and companions. That the devils of mankind may be in despair of me.

I. It was too difficult for Iblis to prostrate for the Forbearing One. the Existent

2. The Everlasting one who has no beginning repelled the enemy of Ills

creation to the fire without doubt 3. The Just One, The Abaser, The Self Sufficient One abased him, and he

was deprived of the garden 4. He was turned away in his arrogance by the One, to the great tire to cry in

solitude 5. Ile was rendered weak by The Owner, The One who has good qualities.

who has conceptual attributes (ma'nawiyyah) and real attributes (ma'cinfl 6. The One who has Power, Will, Knowledge and Litc, who destroys

whatever He wishes to 7. And the One who has Hearing, Sight and Speech rendered him

blameworthy 8. The Powerful One, the best of those who Wills, the Knower, who

humiliates every unjust rejecter 9. The Living, the Hearing, the Seeing punished him, and there was none to

help him 10. The One who has Speech turned the accursed one away to other than me 11. The devils of mankind despair of me because I am protected from all

wretchedness 12.1 asked the one who ordered prostration to make me one of those who

prostrates willingly to him

Turn the devils of the jinn to other than me. and to other than those who have been chosen fror me, until I enter heaven which is chosen for the pious. Arien O Lord of the worlds. Make this gasidah a shield fib me always against all evil. harm. delusion, and all that lures to destruction or mocks (the truth). Amen 0 Lord of the worlds.

This qasidah is alluding to the following Quranic episode wherein (god orders

the angels and Iblis to prostrate to Adam:

And when your Lord said to the angels: 'I am going to create my deputy on the earth. ' They said: `Will You create thereupon one who will spread disorder

and cause bloodshed while we glorify and praise You and proclaim Your purity. ' Ile said: 'I know what you do not know. ' And Ile taught Adam the names of all things, and then presented them before the angels and said: 'Ich l

183

me their names if you are truthful. ' They said: 'Glory be to You, we have no knowledge except for what You have taught us, truly You are Knowing. Wise. ' lie said: 'O Adam, tell them the names of these. ' When he told them their names God said: 'Did I not tell you that I know the secrets of the heavens and the earth, and I know what you disclose and what you conceal. ' And when we said to the angels: 'Prostrate before Adam. ' They all prostrated except fier Iblis. lie refused and became a disbeliever. (2: 30-34)

The episode recounted in these verses shows that the angels came to learn that

Adam was superior to them in so far as he possessed the forms of knowledge

necessary for the function of being a representative of God, while they themselves did

not. Now God wished to manifest this superiority in a visible and concrete form, so He commanded the angels to prostrate before Adam in his honour. They obeyed

except Iblis, and he became a disbeliever. 3841t may be appropriate to look into the

reasons given in the Qur'an for Iblis's refusal to prostrate to Adam:

We created you and We formed you, then we said to the angels prostrate to Adam. They all prostrated except Iblis, he was not amongst those who prostrated. God said: `What prevented you from prostrating when I ordered you to do so. ' He said: 'I am better than him, you created me from tire and you created him from earth. ' God said: 'Get down from here, it is not for you to be arrogant here, you are of the despised. ' He said: 'Give me respite until the day of judgement. ' God said: `You are of those given respite. ' He said: 'Because you have misguided me I will sit in wait for them on your straight path. Then I will come to them from in front of them and behind them, and from the right side and the left. And You will not find most of' them grateful. ' God said: 'Get out as one rendered blameworthy and rejected. "Those of them that follow you, I will fill hell with you all. ' (7: 11-18)

God addresses Iblis by asking him as to what prevented him from prostrating

when he was ordered to do so. Iblis answers by saying that he considered himself to

be better than Adam, for whereas Iblis was created from fire, Adam was created from

earth. Iblis was a victim of his own arrogance and incorrect thinking, in that he did not

consider the fact that he had received an order from God, which naturally by its very

nature necessitates obedience and submission, but rather applied his own 'logic' to the

situation. For this reason God banished him from the celestial assembly, as there is no

possibility of manifesting arrogance and rejection of' divine ordinances in God's

384 Mufti Muhammad Shafi vol 1, ppI70-171.

184

presence; RS. And thus he became one of the wretched ones. He asked God to grant

him respite until the day of judgement. This is a request that he may be allowed to live

until (and not be punished until) the day of judgement. He was granted this period of'

time by God, whereupon he stated that because God had misguided him he would

attempt to misguide mankind through any means possible. Ile will come from in front

of them and from behind them, and from the right and from the left. A narration by

Ibn `Abbäs explains this statement of Iblis by stating that in front of them pertains to

the hereafter, behind them pertains to the world, the right side pertains to their good

deeds, and the left side pertains to their bad deeds. Therefore Iblis will encourage

mankind to do bad deeds and indulge in worldliness, and avoid good deeds (or spoil

them through the duplicity of showing off, for example) and not work for the litt

hereafter. God promises that Iblis and his followers will end up in hell. 186

This is the Quranic episode which forms the necessary background tier

understanding the quscduh ShayJtTn al-Unds, quoted above. Verse one states that it

was too difficult for Iblis to prostrate for God. This led God to repel him to the tire

and deprive him of the garden (verses 2 and 3), as this type of arrogance was not

acceptable on receiving an order from God. Verses 4-9 describe the pathetic state of

Iblis on being banished by God, whereby he was turned away in arrogance to the great

fire to cry in solitude, rendered blameworthy and humiliated with none to help him.

Verses 10-11 describe Ahmadou Bamba's own spiritual station, wherein God turned

Satan away from him, and the devils of mankind despaired of him because he enjoyed

divine protection from all wretchedness.

From the perspective of the believer's spiritual life, the above exposition of the

devil leaves him with another enemy to combat in his spiritual quest to win the

pleasure of God. This opposition of the devil to human submission to the Divine is the

subject of the following verses of the qasidah Masdlik aI-Jinün: 667 We seek refuge in the Merciful One from the accursed one and from all blameworthy transgressors 668 Satan is continually at war (with man), neither making peace nor sofleninp (in his enmity) 669 Every time that you bring him to his knees, he again stands in opposition to you without delay 670 His only occupation is to engage in implacable opposition against every worshipper

'RS For a broad discussion of the arrogance of Satan see Peter J. Awn, Satan's Tragedy and Redemption: Iblis in Sufi f chology, (Leiden (The Netherlands), E. J. Brill, 1983). ; a6 Tafsir al-Baydawi vol. 2, pp333-334.

185

671 He orders him not to worship, and if he performs his devotions he orders him to hurry so that his devotions will be deficient 672 If the worshipper refuses even this, he orders him to show off to others in his worship. and if he is saved from this by hiding his worship 673 He orders him to be proud, and to adopt other inappropriate attitudes until his efforts will be made deficient and he will succumb to his blows 674 Therefore be vigilant against him at all times and defend yourself through struggle, you will avert his danger 675 Defend yourself' against him by the remembrance of your Lord when he comes to whisper to you, and you will become one of the holy ones 676 Seek refuge from him in your gracious Lord so that you will be saved from his great plot 677 Because he is like a dog that your Lord has unleashed against you, so seek his help and do not fäll into error 678 For if you fight him without seeking His help, you will come to sufTer humiliation 679 If you disdain him he may wound you, and if you fight him alone he may destroy you 680 It is sufficient for you to consider what the sources say about his story with the youth Birsis387 681 Or his episode with the knowledgeable Bal'am388. which is a sufficient lesson for the one who ponders 682 Never feel safe from the plot of the devil, until the time comes fier the soul to leave the body 683 Because at the time of death he comes to a man to prevent him obeying his Lord 684 1 make God my refuge between me and him when he attacks me

In verse 667 refuge is sought in God from Satan and all blameworthy

transgressors. The question arises as to the identity of these blameworthy

transgressors. Chapter 114 of the Qur'an makes it clear that Satan whispers into the

hearts of men through certain jinn and certain men. 81) "Therefore amongst the

transgressors are spirit devils and human devils which are part of the forces of evil

that mankind has to contend with. '`'"

Apart from this Satan also has children, as is stated in the following verse of

the Qur'dn:

We said to the angels 'Prostrate to Adam. ' They prostrated except Iblis, he was a jinn and he disobeyed the order of his Lord. Will you now take him and his offspring as protectors instead of me whilst they are enemies to you. Evil is the exchange that the unjust ones make. (18: 50)

'R' For the story of Birsis see Peter J. Awn, p82. 'R" Ibid., p94. "'' Ibid., p634.

3 'X' l'afsir al-Qurtubi vol. 20, p 180.

186

Iblis is able to have children by having the male organ in his right thigh and

the female organ in his left thigh. On procreation ten eggs are laid each day. and

seventy male jinns and seventy female jinns are produced from each egg. 39ITherefore

the offspring of Satan is another evil force to be contended with.

The Qur'än also addresses Iblis by saying '... and gather against them your

cavalry and your infantry... ' (17: 64). What is meant by the cavalry and infantry of the

devil is anyone who is riding or walking in transgression of God. Furthermore Ihn

`Abbas narrates that the devil has forces of human and jinn that are both mounted and foot soldiers .

392Therefore devils amongst the human and the jinn, Satan's children,

and his cavalry and foot soldiers are evil transgressors against whom refuge must be

sought.

Verse 668 states that Satan is continually at war with man, neither making

peace nor softening in his enmity. It may be enlightening to consider some of the

types of strategy Satan and his forces use against mankind: Zalanbür is the devil of the

market place. Ile places his flag in every market in the world. He puts his flag on the

first shop to open in the market place and the last one to close. Thabar is the devil

associated with problems. lie orders the afflicted to beat their faces and tear their

clothes. A`war is the devil associated with fornication. He is also said to be the devil

that stands at the gate of the sultan. Masüt is the devil associated with false tales. lie

places them in the mouths of people, and the people who narrate these tales are unable

to find an origin for them. When a man enters his house and he does not give the

greeting of peace and does not mention the name of God, a devil called Däsim looks

to his provisions which have not been put away or guarded. And when he eats and does not mention the name of God, he eats with him. Abyad is the devil that whispers to the prophets, and Sakhr is the one who seized the ring of Solomon. Walh5n is the devil that whispers doubts into the hearts of worshippers during their ablutions. Khinzab whispers to worshippers in their prayers in order to distract them. Murrah is

the devil who distracts people through songs. I lataf and Ghayldn are the devils of the desert who mislead people on their journeys, making them go astray. Some regard

'`'' Ibid., vol. 10, p273. 392 Ibid., p187.

187

I latäf as also being the devil of drink. l, agiis is the devil that sets people against one

another.; ̀ "

"I'herelbre it is clear from all of these narrations that Satan and his thrces seek

to misguide mankind in every conceivable sphere of life, from personal worship to

economic activity, from distracting them through time wasting to encouraging them to

perform sinful acts. The only occupation of Satan is to engage, with the help of his

forces, in implacable opposition against every worshipper (verse 670). A very lucid

depiction of this phenomenon is given by prophet Muhammad, in that he stated that

Iblis places his throne on the water, from where he dispatches his satanic raiding

parties. The devils that he grants the honour of being closest to him are the ones who

sow the greatest discord on earth. One of them comes back to Iblis and says I did such

and such an act of evil. Iblis says You did nothing. ' One of them says I managed to

separate a man from his wife. ' So Iblis brings him close to himself and says You are

the (best) one. '394 't'his narration is important as it illustrates the way in which Iblis

rules over the kingdom of evil, marshalling his troops to engage in the mission of

furthering the spiritual destruction of mankind. The closest to him arc the devils that

are most harmful to the well-being of mankind.

Verse 669 states that every time you bring him to his knees, he again

immediately stands in opposition to you. Verses 671-674 may be seen as a

commentary on this verse, whereby Iblis orders you not to worship. If you defy him

and undertake acts of worship, he orders you to hurry in your devotions in order to

spoil your worship. If the worshipper refuses to hurry in his worship, Iblis encourages

him to show off about his worship. If the worshipper avoids this danger by hiding his

worship from public gaze, Iblis orders him to be proud off his success, and to adopt

other inappropriate attitudes so that he will eventually fall a victim to the plot of

Satan. Therefore blocking one satanic blow after another will be the only course to be

adopted by the seeker, and therefiöre the utmost vigilance will he needed at all times to

avert the danger of His (verse 674).

Verses 675-679 articulate the weapons which are at the believer's disposal in

his struggle against Satan. Verse 675 states that the remembrance of God defends the

'', ' Ibid, pp273-274. 39' Ibid., p274. Narrated by Imam Muslim.

188

believer against the devil when he comes to whisper to him. Chapter 114 of the

Qur'dn sheds some light on this:

Say I seek refuge in the Lord of men The King of men The God of men From the evil whispering of the devil (al-khunnis) Who whispers into the hearts of men Through the jinn and the men

In this, the final chapter of the Qur'an, refuge is sought with the Lord, King

and God of men against the whispering of the devil. A1-khunnüs is the epithet by

which the devil is referred to in this chapter, and literally it means the one who

withdraws when God is mentioned. -'95 Therefore when the devil comes to whisper into

the hearts of men, mentioning the name of God is a shield against his evil. The most

appropriate formula to recite when being targeted by a satanic blow is to seek refuge in God from Satan:

When you experience a satanic prompting seek refuge (fa-sla'idh) in God, Ile is the Hearing, the Knowing. (7: 200)

Thus on experiencing satanic whisperings the seeker is to seek refuge in God,

because it is only possible to seek refuge from a dog with the owner of the

dog. 396Ahmadou Bamba has written a qasidah called A 'füdhu hi 'llühi min al-Shavlün

which is solely devoted to seeking refuge in God from Satan:

1.0 Lord save us from Satan, and the evil of the ruler and his agents 2. And every blower on knots, and unjust and envious one 3. And people who follow devious ways, and every argumentative student 4. By the supplication that wards off tests, And by hopes that bring spiritual

gifts

Seeking refuge in God is not complete except through certain knowledge, the

spiritual states associated with this knowledge, and the resultant actions. The

knowledge that seeking refuge in God is based on is that the servant of God is aware

of his inability to procure the benefits of this world and the next, and to repulse the

harms of this world and the next. When the heart gains this knowledge, a state of'

humility and brokenness is born which makes the seeker submissive to God. This

state of the heart leads to another state in the heart and one on the tongue. The heart of

"S Tatsir al-Bavdäwi vo12, p634. "'6 i'afsir al-Qurtubi vol. 7, p22I I.

189

the slave becomes desirous of the protection of God from all harm, and the grace of

God in granting goodness. The tongue of the servant seeks these things from God.

This is done by saying 'I seek refuge in God. ' 'I'heretbre the most important aspect of

seeking refuge in God is for the slave to have knowledge of God and knowledge of

himself. Ile realises the totality of the knowledge and power of God, and thus lie has

knowledge of and power over the one seeking refuge in [Jim, and the one being

sought refuge from. He needs to be aware that God is generous and will help him, and

that no one but God can help him. The seeker also needs to know that he does not

have independent control over events, otherwise what would be the point in seeking

refuge in another. Therefore to conclude this part of the discussion, seeking refuge in

God is underpinned by knowledge of the Might of Lordship and the baseness of

servanthood. 397

Also, saying '1 seek refuge in God' is a process of ascension from the creation

to the Creator, and from the possible to the necessary. Therefore in this act of seeking

refuge the seeker flees from himself and from every other thing to the One. To say 'I

seek refuge' is an admission of absolute need, and to say in God' is an assertion of

God's absolute lack of need. . 398

Verse I states `O Lord save us from Satan, and the evil cat' the ruler and his

agents. ' 't'hus in this verse refuge is sought from the evils of Satan and from the evils

of worldly power, both the root of worldly power which is the ruler, and the branches

emanating from that root, which are his agents. Verse 2 seeks refuge from 'every blower on knots, and every unjust and

envious one. ' In this verse refuge is being sought from two invisible destructive

Ibrces, magic and envy (as well as from injustice, of which envy is a particular form).

`Every blower on knots' is an allusion to the Quranic term for a förm of magic which

was worked on the prophet by women who tied knots in a piece of string and blew on

them. 3`'`9 Protection is also sought from the envious one. Envy is a condition wherein

the envious one wants the good things which someone else has been favoured with to

be taken away. The scholars say that the envious person does not cause harm except

''" Tafsir al-Räzi vol. I, p71 198 [bid., p91. "'`' Tafsir al-Baydawi vol. 2, p632. For a broad overview of the types of magic existing in various parts

of Arabia from the pre-Islamic era onwards, see Toufic Fahd, La Divination Arabe (Paris, Editions Sindbad, 1987), pp39-176.

190

for if his envy is manifested through actions or words.; 0°There orc this is what

protection is being sought from.

In verse 3 protection is being sought from people who follow deviant paths, in

that their desire may be directed against the seeker, or may influence the seeker to

adopt those deviant ways. Protection is also sought from the student, meaning the

person who seeks knowledge but adopts inappropriate and argumentative behaviour

as a result (see verses 159-169 of Musülik al-Jinün quoted above), and from the dull

person who is a liability to those seeking to adopt the spiritual path.

In verse 4 the seeker is seeking refuge through supplication which wards off

tests. The Qur'än states that a response to supplication is guaranteed by (iod:

When my slave asks of Me I am near I answer the supplication of the petitioner when he calls on me So they should ask of Me and believe in Me So that they may become of the righteous (2: 186)

Help is also sought through hopes that bring spiritual gifts. The seeker is

expected to have hope in God, and never to despair of I lis mercy (Qur'an 39: 53). The

prophet said:

I am as my slave expects Me to be (muttufuq 'uluyhi)

Therefore if the slave harbours hope in His lord, this hope will be rewarded

with concomitant generosity from the Divine Essence.

Verses 682-683 state that the seeker should never feel safe from the plot of the

devil, for even at the time of death the devil is trying to prevent him from obeying his

Lord, by preventing him from dying in a state of true belief. Due to this struggle

between man and the devil at the time of death, the prophet used to seek refuge in

God through the following supplication:

0 God I seek refuge in You from ruin, destruction, drowning and burning, I seek refuge in You from being overcome (by Satan) at the time of death I seek refuge in You that I die in Your way I seek refuge in You from a death by poisoning 401

"Tafsir aI-Qurtubi vol20, p 177. 4"' Cited in 'Umar Sulayman Lashqar, 'Alam al-Jinn wa al-Shayätin, (Kuwait, Maktabah al-Faläh, 1979), p60. Narrated by al-Nisä'i, at-Häkim. A suhih hadith.

191

CONCLUSION

Ahmadou 13amba lived at a time when the French colonialists were in

complete political control of Senegal, and any attempt to engage in armed resistance

against the forces of French imperialism would have proved futile. It may be worthy

of mention that in this era of the `clash of civilisations' the Muslims may be regarded

as similarly being unable to offer any military challenge to the west or to defend

themselves against military attack. This being the case it may be pertinent to review

Ahmadou Bamba's solution to this problem of trying to revive the flagging fortunes

of the Muslim umma whilst living in a time of total western hegemony, particularly as

he himself faced the external enemies of colonialism, capitalism, freemasonry.

missionary Christianity, etc., as well as internal problems such as poverty, illiteracy

and underdevelopment. 'l'herelbre the contemporary nature of the challenges faced by

Ahmadou ßamba and the modern solutions that he advocated highlight the relevance

of his work to the current crisis afflicting Muslims worldwide.

In this situation Ahmadou Bamba advocated adopting the ideology of non-

violence. It seems that his statement 'I advocate struggle through knowledge and

piety' may be regarded as the slogan which summarises his overall position regarding

this matter. Thus what is being implied here is that instead of wasting time and human

and material resources on futile challenges to a colonial order which is obviously too

strong to be defeated militarily, the energies of the Muslim people should be

channelled to seeking knowledge and cultivating individual and collective piety, thus

providing a firm foundation for a program of socio-economic activism.

Thus what Ahmadou Bamba advocated as a panacea för the current ills

atilicting the Muslim world was the undertaking of educational planning with a view

to implementing a program of mass education which would in the first instance lead

to a reform of Muslim thought and a revitalisation of the intellectual well-being of the

umma. This would enable delving into the psychological and spiritual resources of'the

global Muslim community, and would revive the religious vigour necessary to enable

the implementation of socio-economic policies which would begin to arrest the

decline afflicting the Muslim world, and would eventually lead to the implementation

of much-needed political, economic and social reforms. Thus reform of' the Muslim

intellect through education is seen as a necessary prerequisite to undertaking socio-

economic and political reforms. In other words reform must come from within on the

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basis of Islamic beliefs and values, and only a system of mass education which

inculcates these will lead to a generation arising which will lead to the implementation

of the political, economic and social reforms outlined in this work.

The knowledge-seeking component of this program of mass education which

seeks to achieve Islamic revival has a specific syllabus according to which it should

be undertaken. The first subject to be studied is theology (`ilm al-tawhiti), whereby

intellectual proofs are given for the various beliefs that a Muslim is committed to

holding. Ahmadou Hamba's works are written within the paradigm of the Asharite

school of theology, and his writings illustrate that he is concerned with giving the

believers a simple and clear intellectual understanding of belief without involving

them in the debates which caused division and controversy among Muslims,

historically speaking. Thus the first step of the epistemological program of Ahmadou

Bamba is to undertake the study of theology in order to give the seeker the correct

intellectual understanding of Islamic belief.

The next subject on the syllabus is jurisprudence (figh) which involves

learning the rules of worship. This comprises the rules of prayer, fasting, almsgiving

and pilgrimage. Whereas Ahmadou Bamba is specific with regard to what he feels the

seeker needs to know in the field of theology, in the field of jurisprudence the able

student is given greater scope for study whereby he can transcend the limitations of

his own school and learn the propositions of the other three schools as well, both in

terms of jurisprudence and in terms of the methods adopted by each of the schools in

reaching their conclusions. This comprehension of the various verdicts and methods

of the four schools will give the seeker the breadth of knowledge and understanding

required to be a true imitator of the prophet (salajsülih). Thereibre whereas theology

regulates belief in the mind, jurisprudence regulates the acts of worship performed by

the body.

Beyond these two religious sciences advanced seekers of knowledge should learn Arabic in order to enable a deeper study of the Qur'än and Hadith. This, then,

forms the basic syllabus in terms of exoteric knowledge according to which a student

of knowledge should be educated. When this course of study is completed the seeker

should also be educated in esoteric knowledge which will enable him to evolve

beyond the domain of intellectual knowledge into the domain of trans-rational

knowledge. Thus what is fundamental to the epistemology of Ahmadou Bamba is

transcending the rational sphere and entering the domain of trans-rational, esoteric

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knowledge, or gnosis (ma'rifuh). In order to do this the seeker will have to go beyond

mere bookish knowledge and seek out an enlightened teacher who will guide him

along the path of spiritual struggle against various obstacles to spiritual growth,

namely the ego, the desires, Satan and the world. Thus another fundamental pillar of

Ahmadou Bamba's epistemology is the wisdom-transaction that takes place between

teacher and pupil, and he does not consider it possible to overcome forces inimical to

spiritual advancement without the aid of a teacher.

In addition to the aforementioned individual didactic program (be it injected

with a transcendental dimension). his writings also incorporate a socio-

epistemological dimension. In general terms this involves a spiritually educated group

of individuals striving to serve the Muslim masses in seeking to help them meet their

spiritual and material needs. This may culminate in meeting their health, education

and various other social needs institutionally. Furthermore, particular to the

Muridiyya is the socio-epistemological significance of Touba, which is Ahmadou

Bamba's city of God. This is a city wherein Ahmadou Bamba wished fier people to

live in communal harmony with their basic material needs taken care ot, thus applying

themselves to spiritual matters. The global Muridiyya community gravitates around

this city, which is both the territorial base of the movement as well as a place of

pilgrimage. Therefore the idea of communities of believers led by spiritually

enlightened men striving for moral and material excellence with their headquarters in

"I'ouba seems to be, in summary terms, what Ahmadou Bamba had in mind.

This study, then, represents the first attempt in the English language to provide

a detailed analysis of some of the writings of Ahmadou Bamba. It is hoped that this

represents the first of several studies of the outpourings of his prolific pen. This is

particularly the case as he was a scholar who sought to address the decline of the

global Muslim community and to advocate a solution to this decline. The solution was

based on the idea of spiritually driven social regeneration. which placed Ahmadou

Bamba's philosophy within the paradigm of neo-Sufism, whereby spiritual concerns

went beyond the individual, being directed at the collective social level as well.

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APPENDIX I

The way to success in the two worlds

In the name of'God the Beneficent, the Merciful. Prayers and peace be on our master Muhammad. The purpose of' this qasidah is supplication and thankfulness which will lead to increase and victory, God willing. And it is

about the abode called Touba, may God protect it from all disliked things and from fear, by the dignity of he who migrated to it and called people to it, in

order to revive his (the prophet's) sunnu, may the prayers and blessings of God be on him.

2. I seek refuge in God from the accursed devil. In the name of God the Beneficent, the Merciful. I seek refuge in all of the words of God from the evil of what He has created (3 times). There is no might and power except God, the Exalted, the Great (3 times) In the name of God with which nothing in the heavens and the earth can cause harm, and Ile is the Hearing, the Knowing (3 times). Lord, let me descend in a blessed manner, and You are the best of those who cause to descend (3 times).

3.0 God, 0 One, 0 First, I seek refuge in You from the evil places in the land,

and from the parent and child, especially from the lion, black man, snake, scorpion, thief, usurer, contractor, blower on knots, superstitious predictor of omens, magician, the men and the. jinn from us and from all of the Muslims

with thousands of 'There is no might and power except God, the Exalted the Great. ' God will be sufficient for you against them and He is the I learing, the Knowing.

4. God encompasses them from behind. Nay, but it is a glorious Qur'än, on a preserved tablet. Every soul has a protector. Sürah al-Qadr 3 times with salämun hiya haha matla'il. jujr repeated 7 times. Sarah al-Quraish 3 times

with wu ämanuhum min khawf'repeated 7 times. 402

He who migrates in the path of God will find in the earth many places of refuge and abounding resources. Those who believe and do good works shall have bliss (touha) and a good final resting place.

5.0 my slaves who truly believe, My earth is spacious so worship Me. Lord let me enter in truth and let me exit in truth. and grant me victorious power from Yourself Lord make this a secure land, and keep my sons and I away from

worshipping idols. Lord they have misguided many people, therefore he who follows me, he is

of me, and he who disobeys me, truly You are Forgiving, Merciful.

6. Our Lord, I have caused my offspring to reside in a harren valley by Your

sanctified house, 0 my Lord, in order to establish prayer.

The recitation of these portions of the Qur'än are an integral part of the qusiduh as there is some spiritual benefit accrued to the reciter, notwithstanding the obvious ideological content involved.

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Therefore make the hearts of people incline to them and sustain them with fruits, so that they may offer thanks to You. Our Lord. You know what we conceal and what we reveal. Nothing is hidden from God in the earth and in the heavens. Praise be to God who gave me lsmä'il and lshäy in old age. truly God is the hearer of supplications.

7. God, make me and my offspring establish prayers. O Lord, accept our supplications. Our God, forgive me and my parents and all believers on the day of Reckoning. O God, 0 Lord, You have spoken and Your word is true, and Your promise is true: 'Call on Me and I will answer you. ' And You also said '"['hank Me and do not be ungrateful' Therefore I call on You and thank you with this poem, And I hope for Your contentment and acceptance.

8. Praise be to God The Generous, The One who bestows gifts kor my preoccupation with compulsory and supererogatory religious practices. I thank slim because He led me to a land and He removed obstacles from my way and led me to it with Divine adornments (tahallr) after he educated me through self effacement (takhallfl and led me through this to knowledge and success and action based on knowledge. Prayers and peace on the one I am aspiring to follow

9. And on the one whose wishes I am trying to fulfil and to imitate secretly and openly. Fie is the one who migrated to Medina by the order ofl-lis Lord and protected I its religion. My means of access to the Exalted God is Muhammad. the best of creation. the intercessor and his family and companions who are like stars. tic is the crusher of the ego and the devil. This is my turn today (to undertake the same as him). 0 Giver, there is no one other than You who gives in the two worlds.

10.0 doer of good, 0 Generous One, truly I am supplicating to You and I continue to thank You ever since You captivated me. 0 Giver of help, your care for me helps me So I stand captivated by You, from You, with You and in You. And I am content with You, entrusting and submitting my affair to You, migrating to You and what is with You

. There is no God except You. I hid from myself when I did not find Your equal.

11. Truly You gave me the best gifts and You led me to follow the sunny after the praise of people almost led me to partnership with the devil, and for the sake of praise and commendation, I almost turned away from writing and reading and learning and teaching and preoccupation with informed guidance

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So I sa' kith gratitude and seeking a means to You through Mustapha the intercessor, the best of the prophets and through all his sons and daughters

1 ý. That the may all grant me mediation O Doer ut'cuod. 0 FForgiver. O Forbearing One. truly I am gullible. repenting. blameworthy Doer of wood. O '. ýlcreiful One. O The One in authority I am lair. asleep. gluttonous O m-, King. 0 Creator ot'creation Cause m% desires to die. lessen my sleep M% Creator. I he One of perfect attributes I complain to you otmý numerous faults

l ý. I hou art the One of ilorý and generosity Su save me and grant me nlý, wishes (; rant me nn hope to hei of those who reject bowing to others And that I may obc)- You according to the clear sunna ot'Mustala. O "Thou "ho chooses

() Forgiver ot'sins. O Near One. Truly I am a slave and a stranger here, 13ý Your calling grant me and my brothers contentment in the two abodes.

14. O hearer. grant me an answer to this prayer hý the blessing of Mustapha and his family and companions Grant me a goodlti portion ot'religion by the honour ol'Qäsim And unveil the night of animal desires by the sanctity of' the beloved Abraham And sustain me with good and permitted things and with good neighbours hý the right of' I aN ý ih Purit), me in ardlk and outwardly and cause the creation to he merciful to me by the right cif l'ähir

1 5. And grant me hidden elevation by his daughter Ruqayyah, the pure one I. ei me cause no harm to those near to me and to strangers and Muslims and dishcliewrs hý %av-nah (irant me securit. and peace h\ t; mmi Kulthüm until the Day of'. ludgement Grant nie a good end here and in the future by the honour ol'l ätimah Prayers be on their türctathers and family and companions and ans er mm requests tior me.

16. And be my intimate companion and protect me from harm

and sa,, c me from beine deluded and b guiled lord. sae nie and m% tämil} from grief no' and in the future Save me and the Muslims from trials, and protect my body from putrefaction in the rave O Lord. O Lorca. () Lorca, U Lorca, O Lord, O our beloved Grant men. h' the honour of the chosen one, the good of this world and the hercattcr

17. Placc a barrier b twcen us and all harm

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and keep all destruction away from us () Allah. OI lelper. O Glorious One I am bile. deprived. humiliated do enrich me v ith \ ourself and grant me the goal. hý the honour of he who raised all Arabs and non-Arabs. our master Muhammad. the door of success. m, %%a-, to You in achieving goodness Peace and praýurs on him and on all who belong to hing.

18. And torgnr mý sins and accept my works and grant me good gifts and hope. hou who art above location and attribution

I am resident here and I am ill. fie my confidant and cure me from illness

until I gain the best spiritual nourishment () Just One. O Abaser. O You who grants security You are mý protector here. 0 Granter of Security So grant me securit\ tiorever. 0 Glorious One From all evil. punishment and misguidance.

19. You who are ahr), vve having a wife and child protect me and all people ot'the lands And make mN abode Fouba always like its name, by the honour ot'the best of worshippers. I he best of prayers on him and his family and companions who have connection to the Prophet And all ý, ho ser%cd nie or visited me, save them and tbrgive their sins All who lo ed me or inclined to me, grant them guidance or wealth.

20. All who abuse me and blame nie. grant him repentance and submission. All who have an evil opinion of me. turn his heart to me my Lord. Re sutlicient tier nie against the harm of creation, and be sufficient for them against m,, harm. Amen Make nmý abode an abode of good health

w hick will lead nie to goodness and purity Make my abode an abode of knowledge. action and tbrbearance according to the. sunnu.

21- Make mN alx'de a building of guidance and he sufficient for me against the plots of my enemies Be sufficient fier me against the dcvil and his rebellious forces in the land. And h sufficient for me against all those who do not seek Your Fare and turn him awa` quickly to what he wants And turn away from me and my abode all who sow corruption. wherever they

be And enter unto me and my abode all who would do good and establish them

ith mý sufficient guidance.

22. Raise me and raise those who help mc. and be sufficient for me against all who would humiliate me

Grant my abode peace against scoundrels

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and grant security to nn tämily with running water. Grant its to ours sooner and may it bring favours later. O Living One. O Fternal One, be a Responder unto me. You are the Responder. The Generous. The Near One I flee to You alone from other than You. l hereü re lead me to Your guidance.

2 3. Be my lord. my Protector, my I Ielper, and for all the Muslims 0 Seeing One. Increase the good of this land and sustain it and be sufficient for it against hardship. And establish in it a group which will continually establish the five prayers. O Wise One. Save us from the evil of this age and other ages and trenn all calamities Protect us from the evil of the Christians and Jews and from the evil cif Ihlis

and the rejecters.

24. And the Jinn and the l)ajjäl

and the Blacks in the east and the NNest and the whites And the evil in the whole earth and in the sky, whether manifest or hidden. 0 (ientle One. 0 Generous One, 0 Glorious One Deal w ith all of us v. 1(h Your beautiful gentleness. Lead us all to salvation and success and rant us goodness and righteousness. I 'mice us to perti)rm actions that You love

and keep us away from actions that You hate.

2. U One. do not ever test us with what we do not have strength for O Fternal One And grant us ease and success in both abodes as well as victory. I-3v the honour of this day and he who is born in it. We aspired to find his equivalent but did not find it. Muhammad. the best of'creation with no hesitation and no doubt. IFhe test prayers be on him forever, with which we keep company with the best and the trustworthN ones.

26. And grant us that we may take what you have given us And to refrain from doing what you have 16rhidden us t; niil Nke imitate the. sunnu in our movements and our stillness. 13' his honour, sa%e us ti-urn pretension and be sufficient tor us against lies and distraction. Be sufficient tier us against desires and meaningless things and continually enrich us with Yourself, 0 Enricher () Allah, the hope of Your tbrgivveness is greater than the tear cif our sins and disobedience.

27.0 Doer of food, we place our hope in Your Mercy rather than in the good v orkti , Ne do 1 orgi\c us and all of the Muslims fier all times Do not take us to task fier our had etiquette, insolence and excessive

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plavtiilness For even if \, \e are insolent at least we do not place our hope in other than You. thereti)re be gracious to us. Do not deprive us for our excessiveness in internal and external matters and for our türlettülness.

28. Protect us from diseases and all things which descend from the sky And all things which move on earth and what is between them both, 0 Lord of the sk, Captivate our hearts and our limbs with righteousness and piety by the honour of the sincere advisor

he purest prayers and peace, which repel diseases caused by locusts tirom us, on the Prophet, his family and companions And protect my abode 0 author ot'peace.

29. Purity my ego and increase me in knowledge and end my sorrow in the two worlds Purity my heart and increase me in modesty and renew me in obedience my Lord Make my right hand like a cloud in its generosity, generous in hardship and in case 0 Allah. O (; fiver, 0 highest friend, lead me today to the most beneficial path By the sanctity of' the intercessor, the one brought close, and his family and companions, and by the holy month of Rajab.

O. (irant me advancement and beliet'by the sanctity of the fbremost Siddiq Grant me truth and success by the sanctity cif the most successful Färüy Grant me contentment in the two abodes by the right of 'Uthmän. the brother ut two lights and by the sanctity ofour leader 'Ali, grant me a high reputation in the tHO ab)des. our Lord, our Lorca, our Lord. our Lord. our Lord, accept our poem.

3 1. By the sanctity of f. lasan and Husayn and the sanctity ofall the companions And by the sanctity of the sons and daughters and the sanctity of the family and wies And the sanctity of the prophets and messengers and the scholars and saints By the sanctity of the noble angels and the sanctity of your sanctified house f3\ the sanctity of the mighty F3ayt al-Muqaddas and the sanctity of the city of the noble Prophet

32. And Your occupied house. () Lord, and those angels above the sky who visit it.

And by the honour of all the guided ones among the righteous or the spiritual leaders or worshippers or sincere ones And by the honour of all those who belong to You, grant me all that I seek from You And be sufficient fier me in all that I seek refuge from in You. 0 Granter of refuge I. nite me "ith what will lead me to You wherever it may be.

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3". O Creator. quick- I-, separate me from all that will hinder me from You I am the one who has resolved to submit his thee to You now in order that I may receive good. I am the one who does not place his hope in any other than You Hint or in the future. And why would I when You are my Lord who is in charge and You are sufficient tier Me so I do not place nay hope in others () Doer cif snood. You are mý Lord. The Giver

and I do not doubt in Your spiritual openings.

34. O Doer ot'good. You are my Lord, The Reckoner. and You are sufficient fier

nie so I am not disappointed.

0 Just One. You are my Lord. The Defender, and You are sufficient for me, so I do not defend myself 0 Lining One. You are The One of great glory and You are suflicient for me so I do not dispute , kith others O Lord. You are the Intelligent One. The One, You are sufficient for me so I do not sufui r Solitary One. You are The Possessor of gitIs, The Glorious One. And You are sufficient tier me so I do not feel envy

3>. M, Master. You are The One of (juidance, the Beneficial One You are sufficient tier me so I do not cut mvselfoil' You are the One who turned me to Your love and guidance And You are sufficient for me so I do not seek ftom other than You Protect nie. and he a tcortitication tier me at all times against those who have teeth and claws And he sufficient ü)r me. () IternaI One. 0 Ancient One, against the evil of those , kho walk to me on loot, and the evil of those who are mounted carrying weapons. and the evil of those who fly with wings

36. And the evil ut I'hc One who sits down and uses words And the evil of'the one who reclines or stands And the evil of the one who blows on knots And the evil ot'the magician and the rejecter of truth l. speciall) through You I seek to prevent the harm of the lion and the snake and scorpion and black man and contractor and blower on knots and thief and e iI eye and magician and usurer and men and jinn from me and all who are Muslims

37. With thousands of' I'hc; rc is no might and power except God, the Exalted. ' Sa,, e me from the e il of' the harsh resident and the evil of every tither and child And he sufficient tier me against the evil of the mouth and the eye, and all %k ho seek my destruction. Sa%e me from the injustice of every tyrant, and the evil of the ignorant and the knowledgeable And the silent and those Chu speak and every renegade and usurer

S. And e'. erý base person and every refined person And every vanquisher and tyrant and everyone that tlies and that Uralks And eery hidden person and every proud person

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And cýcr\ emicr and dishonourable person And c\cr\ tyrant and <vcrý jinn And sae me. () I . xalted One. 0 Glorious One From the evil of the jinn and the rebellious devil

And the e, il of close relatives and the evil of those who are distant And the heat and cold and from the evil of water

39. Grant me so%creignty and help me always And purit} my heart and make my body healthy Grant me the ahilitN to pertiirm night prayers And fasts in the day pertiOrmed perfectly Rid me of baseness and enable me to be tilled with good qualities And puritN me inwardly and grant me an opening 0 lord A clear opening the like ut'«hich has not been seen. Grant me intelligence and light and ease my journey on the path.

40. Grant me Your remembrance with thankfulness always And count me amuni the ones close to You () m\ King, alwa\s he my guide and educate me and be my friend And teach me knowledge from Yourself until I become firmly grounded . \lvýays he my helper against Satan, the ego and creation fie my protector in the two worlds and remain my refuge therein

41. Purity me outwardly and inwardly and grant me elevation and love He my protector in lice and in death and in the grave and at resurrection O Protector, remain a defender and protector and guardian fier me and he pleased with me An inspirer, a spiritual guide. a teacher and a leader to noble guidance A guide. a helper and a preserver in all that will benefit me And be gentle with me

42. Lead me to the path of the sincere and he sufficient for nie against all my sins Lead nie on the path of the saints who are the pure, sincere, elect ones Grant nie contentment after which there is no sadness or harm In my heart strengthen love liar You, and everlasting love ti; or the best of' creation And love cat his tamily and all his companions and the love of every obedient Muslim.

43. () Lord. O Possessor o1 (iitls, O Replier My means is through Mustatä the chosen one Fhe best of pra\ers upon him, which lead nie to meeting people ofguidance Entice me with the love of every Muslim and save me from the evil of every rogue Fntice me to obedience and be sufficient tier me against sins and temptations Remo c jealous\ from my heart and cause light to enter therein. 0 my Guide

44. Be nip helper in that which brings goodness And be sufficient tior Aue against all that brings evil And show me subtle secrets of'Your beneficial knowledge and light

2 02

Grant me certaint\ and spiritual knowledge and spiritual experiences. lbrui\eness and contentment And steadtastness in Your worship and unveiling and witnessing and contentment Reform the community oUthe best prophet and relieve them. 0 Exalted One

4 5.1lave mercy on and bless and forgive all of'them And sage them and be gentle with them and förgive them Lord, make me one of the greatest worshippers Who enjoys good fortune and an ample portion from You in the long run Let all of my movements be for You, and let my stillness be a form of obedience due to Your bounty Make m\ lite and death pass according to supererogatory. compulsory and recommended practices done secretly and openly Make my death a rest from toil and from earthly love and debt and illness.

46. Make all of mý actions accepted to the point where I become imitated and accepted Make my abode a blessed place and make me a seeker and a worshipper I beseech You to make it an abode of piety and knowledge and religion and elevation and a paradise for the seeker and aspirant and a shield against dishonourable rebellious ones. And a benefit to every Muslim guide, and a defence against every evil enemy

47. A place of'pilgriniage to the one who is ruined by weakness And a proof against the opponent in the future And a means to obey the Merciful One and a refuge from obeying the cursed one

And a way to tbllowing the truth and rejecting innovation And an abode that brings all good and repels all harm And a way o1 opening the good of the unseen and repelling the harm of the deficiency.

48. And make its land a land of sustenance and security and mercy and eornfbrt at

all times () Repeller ofevil and unhappiness by Mustatä repel all evil from my abode Forgive the ones who made its high buildings and forgive the ones who ordered them (to make its building) And ti>r all of those who helped them to build it and which by Your bounty

to ers ahcwe And türgive all those who abide in it and those who rely on it tier goodness.

49. And make it full cif limitless light and mercy And make its sustenance the best of'what is permitted in hardship and in ease lead me to beneficial knowledge therein and a lofty reputation and a humble heart (; rant me therein a prayer that is heard and contentment and a satisfied self. And a righteous mite who will help in the cause of piety and righteousness. 0

Granter of help

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U. : Und place me and mr tämily pcrpetualIN under Your protection. 0 Eternal One

And place mý ahx)dc and all that are in it within the pavilions of Your protection Place all in Your hidden unseen and protect us from trials and evil and the creation and calamities and the jinn and Satan and trials Grant me a Iite of piety and light and abstinence and tear

1. ). lake nn abode an abode of tbrgiveness, righteousness, mystical knowledge and contentment And an abode ot'sincerity, righteousness and piety An abode of prophetic practice and security from innovation And a place of learning. contemplation and mutual understanding And an abode ot*guidance and education, agreement and understanding Make it a place of leading from the darkness to the light And keep all unjust people away from it

5 2. Make it a place ot'persistent tibliowing ol'thc prophetic practice and not an abode ol'innovation () Lord, make it the most beloved place in our land which is devoted to You and the prophet And protect nn abode from immorality, sinfulness and lälsehood tör all times And protect it from illness and all kinds cif tests, and make its food and drink good And make our sanctuar\ secure and be a guarantor and securer of' its protection.

,. Eiring good to it from all sides and protect it from all evils 0 Glorious One. protect me:, my, abode and the ones I support from the devil. O (; od. O Protector. O Grantor ot'securit). O One above creation with overwhelming power M. \ soul, my religion. my family and child and my abode are entrusted to You forever. Turn away destruction from me in this world and the hereafter

, 54. And turn away the punishment of the fire from all who are related to me of the children of time And all of the brothers of those who are near in relation or religion and all strangers c) Absolute One. he a protector unto me and One who is eager ti)r my sake Befriend nor and do not entrust me to anyone else And hale mercy on all of the Muslims forever. Prayers and peace forever on Muhammad. my means of reaching You (rant me a good end with You.

55. And prayers on his companions and tämily and grant me an answer Lord. You spoke Your Word ol'truth and Your promise is true: -1 am near. I answer the prayer ol'the caller when he calls Me' I call on You. so answer my call as You promised because

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You do not break Your promise. Grant me all that I haw asked You for in this poem.

5b. ' Protect me from all that I have asked Your protection from in this poem l3ý the honour ofour Master Muhammad prayers and peace be on hing our Lord. giNe us the good in this world and the good in the hereafter and protect us from the tire. Our Lord. truly we have believed so forgive us our sins and protect us from the tire. Our Lord. forgive us and our brothers who have preceded us in faith. And do not put rancour in our hearts for those who believe.

ý7. Our Lord. You are The Compassionate, The Merciliul MN Lord grant me from Yourself pious offspring Truly N ou are The I fearer of prayers My Lord. do not leave me alone and You are the best of those who grant heirs \1ý Lord grant me a friend from Yourself who will inherit from me Our Lord grant us satisthction from our wives and children and make us leaders ti)r the righteous

() Lord. forgive me and my parents and the one who enters my house as a believer and all ofthe male and female believers

5 9.0 Lord grant me that I ma} thank You for Your favour to me and my parents And that I may do works that will please You and make my offspring righteous. I repent unto You and I am one of the Muslims. N, 1\ Lord. save me from an unjust people Our Lorca. we have -, ronged ourselves. And if You do not ti)rgive us and have mercy on us, we will be among the losers. Our Lord. You have not created this in falsehood (Tlor be unto You and save us from the tire of hell Our Lord, the one You cause to enter the tire has been disgraced by You. and there are no helpers für the unjust.

59. Our Lord. we have heard a caller calling to faith and that you should believe in your Lord. so we believed. Our Lord. forgive us our sins and cover our faults and cause us to die with the righteous. Our Lord. gi%e us what You promised to Your Prophet and do not humiliate us on the day of Judgement. You do not fail in Your

promise. Pra, ers on the Prophet Muhammad and his family and companions A prayer which will cause us to separate from the devil and his friends

60. And we commit ourselves (vtiith this prayer) to the Prophet of'God and his Friends and seek to gain with it a good end. Glorified he \our lord, the lord ofmight above what they describe Peace upon the messengers and praise u God, the Lord of the worlds

205

APPENDIX 2

List of Fechnical Terms

Ahl al-I ladith - lit. 'people of hadith, ' the Medinan school of jurisprudence.

Ahl al-Ra'y - lit. 'people of opinion. ' the Kufan school of jurisprudence.

'Ajüz - The second hemistich of a verse of a qasidah

Akhirah - Life after death

Akhläq - Ethics

`Amal - Action

'Agidah - Theology

A'räd - Accidents (of created entities).

Awliya' - lit. 'friends, ' The friends of God (i. e. Saints)

Aial - Pre-eternity

Bagä' -A term denoting the täct that God has no end.

l-3arakah - Spiritual potency or power associated with holy individuals, places and/or

objects.

Basar - Sight (of God)

Ridän - lit. 'white, ' a term denoting people of light skin colour.

Cheddo (Sometimes appearing as tyeddo) - Crown slaves Daara -A work and education centre wherein Murids are trained

Dar al-harb - The region outside dür al-Islüm Dar al-Islam - The lands of Islam that are administered according to the . chari'ah.

Dhikr - (pl. adhkär) Remembrance of God

Diwan -A collection of poems written by one author.

Dunyä - The base world

Fanä' - Cessation of being.

Fatwd (pl. fatäwä) -A formal religious legal opinion.

Fawz - Success

Fiqh - Jurisprudence.

Fitrah - Natural disposition

Ghusl - Ritual bathing.

I lagiqah - Reality

Hawä - Desire

206

Havät - Life

lhsdn - Virtue or true goodness. ljmä' - Consensus.

Ijtihäd - Independent judgement that one brings to bear on an issue.

Ikhläs - Sincerity

Ilhäm - Inspiration

'llm - Knowledge

'tlm al-tawhid - "Theology.

Imän - Faith

Irddah - God's will.

Istihsän - Juristic preference.

Jihäd - Struggle.

Al-Jihäd al-akbar - The greater struggle (spiritual struggle against the ego, desire,

Satan, the base world)

Al-Jihäd al-asghar - The lesser struggle (physical struggle through war)

Kaläm - Speech (of God)

Kashf - Mystical unveiling Khalifah (pl. khulatä') - The one who succeeds the thunder (of a religion or religious

brotherhood. for example).

Al-Lawh al-mahfuz - The preserved tablet Mahall - lit. 'substrate, ' used in theology for an essence.

Ma'rifäh - Gnosis

Mukhassis - Causal agent. Mukhlafatuhu li kulli hädith - God's absolute difference to every created entity.

Nasib - The first part of a qasidah wherein the poet weeps over his estranged beloved

Qasidah (p1. yasä'id) -A genre of Arabic poetry. Qidam -A term expressing the fact that God has no beginning.

Qiyämuhu hi-nafsihi - The self-sufficiency of God.

Qiyäs - Analogy.

Qudrah - The power of'God.

Qutb al-zamän - lit. 'pole of the age. ' It is a term used für the saint who is considered

to be the greatest ofhis time. Rahil - The second part of a gasidah wherein a poet takes a journey (often to praise

the object of the yasidah).

207

Rubübiyyah - Lordship

Ruh - Spirit

Sadr - The first hemistich of a verse of a gasiduh Salaf sälih - The pious predecessors (the first three generations of Muslims)

Sam' - Hearing (of God).

Shan ah - The entire body of rules governing lice.

Sifäh (pt. Sität) - lit. 'attribute, ' used in theology to denote the attributes of God.

Sit-at al-ma'am - The real attributes which are terms denoting divine perfection. Sifät al-ma'nawiyyah - The conceptual attributes which are the characteristics of (iod

caused by qualities in his essence.

Sift salhiyyah - The negative attributes which clarify what is not appropriate for God.

Sidq - Righteousness

Südän - lit. 'black, ' a term denoting people of dark skin colour. Sunna - The sayings, actions and occasions of implicit approval of the prophet Tahärah - lit. 'purity, ' a term denoting ritual cleanliness.

Tahalli - God adorning the pious servant with praiseworthy characteristics Takhalli - Effacement of the base characteristics ofthe self. Tagwd - Fear of God

'l äbi'Tn - The second generation of Muslims who succeeded the prophet's companions

Tarigah -A hagiographically validated mystical tradition.

Tayammum - Dry ablution. 'I Jbüdiyyah - Servanthood (to God)

'Urf - Custom.

Usül al-Figh - Principles of jurisprudence.

Wahddniyvah - Oneness of (; od.

Wahy - Revelation

Wird (pl. awrdd) -A cycle of prayers undertaken by seekers. A lariqah often has its

own wird. Wudü' - Ablution.

Wujüd -A term denoting the existence (of God)

Zuhd - Abstinence

208

APPENDIX 3

List of Interviews

12/2/99 Sheikh Ali Ndaw in Paris

1/6/99-14/6/99 Sheikh All Ndaw in Reunion Island

19/4/99 Sheikh Abdoulaye I)ieye in London

209

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210

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