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I Science and astronomy in the Classical World A) Aristotle’s View of the Universe (4th century BCE): 55 crystalline spheres, celestial objects attached to spheres, spheres rotated at different velocities, the Earth was at the center.
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Aim: Was the Scientific Revolution truly revolutionary?
Period 4: Did You Know? The word science comes from the latin root
scientia, meaning knowledge. I Science and astronomy in the
Classical World
A) Aristotles View of the Universe (4th century BCE): 55
crystalline spheres, celestial objects attached to spheres, spheres
rotated at different velocities, the Earth was at the center.
Aristotles Prime Mover
Astronomy in the Classical World Continued Earth is at the center
of the Universe Celestial objects are made from perfect material
and cannot change their properties (e.g., their brightness). All
motion in the heavens is uniform circular motion Aristotles Prime
Mover Astronomy in the Classical World Continued
B) The Ptolemaic Universe : Ideas about uniform circular motion and
epicycles were catalogued by Ptolemy in 150 CE in his book the
Almagest. This view was officially endorsed by the medieval Church.
II Science in the Middle Ages
A) During the Muslim Golden Age, scientific experimentation was
encouraged. They had universities, trained doctors, invented
vaccines for smallpox, algebra, etc B) In Medieval Western Europe,
true science was rare. The exception were alchemists (they tried to
change ordinary metals into gold), but they had to often hide their
experiments from the Church, who discouraged scientific inquiry.
Science in the Middle Ages Continued
B) In the Middle Ages, the Church officially endorsed Ptolemys
Geocentric Model of the universe. Philosopher-theologian Thomas
Aquinas ( ) rediscovered Aristotle and blended his ideas with
medieval theology. Medieval Representation of Ptolemaic
Universe
REASSURANCE Divine power would triumph over corruption and decay of
earthly things and lift the soul to an afterlife in heaven COMFORT
Individual could locate God. Souls destination would be above or
below. STABILITY Earth wasat center. Mankind important in Gods plan
Medieval Representation of Ptolemaic Universe The outermost sphere
became the Christian heaven.
Aristotles Prime Mover became the God of Christian theology. Earth
at center represented the Christian Gods concern for mankind. III
Influence of the Renaissance
A) The Renaissance (15th 16th centuries) led to the Scientific
Revolution. 1. Humanism encouraged individual achievement, and
knowledge of Classical civilizations (Greek and Roman). 2. The
printing press spread new knowledge 3. People began to question the
Catholic Church 4. The Medici family built an astronomical
observatory and financially sponsored Renaissance scientists
including Galileo! IV Copernicus vs. Ptolemy
A) 1453 Nicolaus Copernicus , an astronomer and mathematician,
published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. In it, he
proposed the Heliocentric Model of the universe; that the sun is
the center of the universe. The Heliocentric System offers a simple
explanation for varying brightness and retrograde motion. However,
like Ptolemy, he mistakenly believed that planetary orbits were
perfect circles. Copernicus vs. Ptolemy Continued
B) Tycho Brahe (1546 1601) observed the movements of stars and
planets every night for years, and recorded the data. His
assistant, Johannes Kepler (1571 1630), used Brahes data to prove
that Copernicuss Heliocentric model was correct. Kepler was also
the first to correctly explain planetary motion. Johannes Kepler
Why do you think that Brahe and Kepler wanted to gather more
evidence? Wasnt Copernicuss findings enough? Tycho Brahe VGalileo
(1564 1642) A) Galileo Galilei from Pisa was an astronomer,
philosopher, and mathematician. He was appointed Royal Professor of
Mathematics and Philosophy under Medici Ferdinand I. B) With the
support of the Medicis, Galileo began to experiment more freely. C)
In 1609 he invented a refracting telescope, which allowed him to
magnify celestial objects up to 30x their size. D) He was the first
to observe 4 moons of Jupiter, and mountains on our moon. This
evidence without a doubt proved Copernicus was right. E) 1633 he
was tried before the Inquisition for heresy. He was forced to
recant and to live under house arrest. However, he allegedly
mumbled it does move after his recantation. Jupiter and its 4
Largest Moons
Today scientists estimate that Jupiter has 60+ moons! Io (far left)
is the most volcanic place in our galaxy. Europa (center left) has
a surface made of water ice. It is possible that a liquid ocean of
water is under the ice is there life there? Primary Sources:
Galileo
I do not feel obliged to believe that the same god who has endowed
us with sense, reason and intellect has intended us to forgo their
use. Galileo Galilei 2. The proposition that the Sun is the center
of the world and does not move from its place is absurd and false
philosophically and formally heretical, because it is expressly
contrary to Holy Scripture. Trial of Galileo,June 1633 More than
350 years after the Roman Catholic Church condemned Galileo, Pope
John Paul II is poised to rectify one of the Church's most infamous
wrongs -- the persecution of the Italian astronomer and physicist
for proving the Earth moves around the SunNY Times Oct 31, 1992
What is the mission statement for the Vatican Observatory? From Leo
XIIIs letter establishing the Vatican Observatory in 1891, his
intent was to show that the Church and her Pastors are not opposed
to true and solid science, whether human or divine, but that they
embrace it, encourage it, and promote it with the fullest possible
dedication. VIsaac Newton ( ) Newton discovered the force of
gravity is what keeps the planets in orbit around the sun. Newton
is also credited with inventing calculus. If I have seen further
than others, it is by standing upon the shoulders of giants. -
Newton Some historians believe that Gottfried Leibnitz actually
invented calculus before Newton, and that Newton stole the credit!
Newton Liebnitz Newtons Laws for Dummies!
Law of Universal Gravitation: Prior to Newton and Galileo, most
people thought that the forces causing motions on Earth and the
forces causing the stars and planets to move were different forces.
Newton realized that the same forces and the same laws of physics
apply everywhere in the universe. Force of Gravity: There is a
gravitational force acting between any two objects in the universe.
There is a gravitational force between you and Earth. There is also
a gravitational force between you and the Sun, between you and all
the other planets, and between you and the people sitting next to
you. Why do we fall down towards Earth rather than towards the Sun,
another planet, or the people next to us? The force of gravity
between us and Earth is larger than the force from any of these
other objects. The force of gravity between two objects depends on
the masses of the two objects and the distance between the centers
of the two objects. Newtons Laws for Dummies!
Gravitational Force and Mass: The more the masses of the objects,
the larger the gravitational force between them. We don't fall
towards the people next to us because they are much less massive
than Earth. But the Sun is more massive than Earth. Why don't we
fall to the Sun? It is much farther away. As the distance between
two objects gets larger, the gravitational force between them gets
smaller. Gravitational Force and Distance: When you are standing on
Earth with your toes buried in the dirt, it may seem like the
distance between you and Earth is zero. But, the distance is
measured between the centers of the two objects not the edges. So
the distance between you and Earth is the distance from the center
of the Earth to your belly button. As the distance between two
objects gets larger, the gravitational force between them gets
smaller. It never gets to zero; it just gets too small to matter.
If you were suddenly suspended in space twice as far from the
center of the Earth as you are now. the gravitational force would
be one fourth as much as it is on Earth's surface. If you weigh 100
pounds, you would suddenly weigh 25 pounds. No matter how far you
got from Earth, there would still be some, very small,
gravitational force between you and Earth. Astronauts in space are
weightless because they are falling around the Earth, not because
there is no gravity in space. There is gravity everywhere.. -Paul
A. Heckert, 2008 Newton's ideas about the universe held sway until
Einstein introduced the general theory of relativity. But for most
of what we observe in our daily experience, Newton's laws remain
perfectly valid today. Nova.com Dont Jump into the Black
Hole!!
Black holes due to their massive densities may have the greatest
effects of gravity in the universe! For fun facts on black holes:
VI Other Discoveries from the Scientific Revolution
Scientist Discovery Leeuwenhoek Perfected the microscope. Was the
first to see microorganisms. Robert Boyle The first recognized
modern chemist. He argued for the scientific method, and that all
matter consists of tiny particles. Priestly and Lavoisier
Discovered the existence of oxygen. Medieval vs. Scientific
Revolution Understandings of Human Anatomy
The image above shows points for blood-letting (a common western
European medical practice in the middle ages). Andreas Vesalius
(1514 1564) is often called the father of modern anatomy. VII
Scientific Method Over time, a step-by-step process of discovery
developed that became known as the scientific method. VIII
Philosophy and the Scientific Revolution
A) Francis Bacon: In order to test potential truths, or hypotheses,
Bacon devised a method whereby scientists set up experiments, and
attempt to prove their hypotheses wrong Bacon insisted that
experiments must be consistently repeated before truth can be
known. Khan Academy Knowledge is power. Half of science is putting
forth the rightquestions. But by far the greatest obstacle to the
progressof science and to the undertaking of new tasksand provinces
therein is found in thisthatmen despair and think things
impossible. - Francis Bacon VIII Philosophy and the Scientific
Revolution
B) Rene Descartes:Descartes popularized deductive reasoning. You
begin with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examine the
possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion. The
scientific method uses deduction to test hypotheses and theories.
However, If the generalization is wrong, the conclusion may be
logical, but it may also be untrue. For example, the argument, "All
bald men are grandfathers. Harold is bald. Therefore, Harold is a
grandfather," is valid logically but it is untrue because the
original statement is false. - Alina Bradford LiveScience 2015 I
think, therefore I am. IX Women and the Scientific Revolution
Samuel Pepys (male), 1667 After dinner, I walked to a meeting of
the Royal Society of Scientists in expectation of the duchess of
Newcastle (author of A World Made by Atomes 1653), who had desired
to be invited to the Society. She was invited after much debate,
pro and con; it seems many being against it. The duchess had been a
good, [attractive] woman; but her dress so antique and her manner
so ordinary, that I do not like her at all, nor did I hear her say
anything that was worth hearing. Johann Theodor Jablonski,
secretary to the Berlin Academy of Sciences, letter to the Academy
president opposing Maria Winkelmann's application for membership in
the Academy, 1710 I do not believe that Maria Winkelmann should
continue to work on our official calendar of observations. It
simply will not do. Even before her husband's death, the Academy
was ridiculed because its calendar was prepared by a woman. If she
were to be kept on in such a capacity, mouths would gape even
wider. Gottfried Leibniz (male), German mathematician and
philosopher, 1697 I have often thought that women of elevated mind
advance knowledge more properly than do men. Women, whose position
puts them above troublesome and laborious cares, are more detached
and therefore more capable of contemplating the good and the
beautiful. HW Questions How do YOU define the term scientific
revolution? What are its origins? Explain the geocentric vs.
heliocentric debate, including its origins, the scientists who
challenged the Church, and its significance in history and our
understanding of the universe. Why was Galileo put on trial? (*Use
evidence from the primary sources) If you were Galileo, would you
have admitted guilt? Describe the origins of the scientific method.
Is the scientific method necessary? Explain. Using evidence from
the primary sources, how would you describe the role of women
during the scientific revolution? Did the scientific revolution
render religion unnecessary? Explain. Was the scientific revolution
truly revolutionary?Which is more enduring; a political revolution
or an intellectual one? Key Vocabulary Alchemy Francis Bacon Robert
Boyle Tycho Brahe
Copernicus Rene Descartes Galileo Galiei Geocentric Heliocentric
Johannes Kepler Lavoisier Leeuwenhoek Isaac Newton Priestly and
Ptolemy Refracting telescope Scientific Method Scientific
revolution Andreas Vesalius