Air Aviation 101

8/3/2019 Air Aviation 101

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PRIVATE AVIATION 101

Questions and answers about

the world of private aviation


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FOREWORD

As the worlds most experienced private aviation company, there is no one who knows more

about private aviation than NetJets. We are often asked to explain the basics of flying privately,including operating principles, the mechanics of flight, and aviation terminology.

We invite you to explore the basics and learn about the advantages offered by NetJets, the global

leader in private aviation. Private Aviation 101 explores subjects ranging from the entire flight

experience to preflight, landing, and everything in between. No matter what your level of interest

is, we hope you enjoy the journey courtesy of NetJets.

FOREWARD 1


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFLIGHT 3

INSIDE THE FLIGHT DECK 7

INSIDE THE CABIN 9

BEFORE DEPARTURE 12

FLIGHT BASICS 16

AVIATION WEATHER 21

TAKEOFF AND CLIMB 24

CRUISE 28

DESCENT 32

LANDING 34

CONCLUSION 36

2 TABLE OF CONTENTS


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PREFLIGHT

If you have flown commercially or have chartered a private aircraft on occasion, fractional jet

ownership and the private aviation industry as a whole may seem foreign to you. When flyingprivately, you have many more options as compared to when flying commercially. Private aviation

gives you the flexibility to choose airports closer to your final destinations, set your departure

time based on your schedule, and choose your meals based on your preferences.

What happens behind the scenes before my flight?

To complete a flight safely, many aviation professionals and specialists must be involved. Once a

flight is booked and all details are confirmed with your private aviation provider, your request istypically reviewed by an aircraft dispatcher and a flight plan is then developed. Flight plans for each

individual flight are filed with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) so the flight will be under

the supervision of the Air Traffic Control (ATC) system. Flight plans generally include information

such as departure and arrival locations, estimated flight time, alternate airports in case of bad

weather, route to be followed, rule under which the flight will be flown (instrument or visual), pilots

name, and number of passengers. The aircraft dispatcher is responsible for considering and

analyzing each of these items when creating the flight plan to ensure a safe and comfortable

flight. These topics will be discussed in greater detail throughout this book.

NetJets support infrastructure To support every flight, NetJets utilizes state-of-the-art operations

centers in both the United States and Europe. Every flight goes through a rigorous series of safety

checks. Chief Pilots assigned to a specific aircraft type oversee every aspect of flight within that

aircraft type to ensure that our strict operating standards are met. NetJets also employs full-time

FAA-approved meteorologists, FAA-licensed aircraft dispatchers, and many other aviation specialists

to ensure the safety and comfort of every flight. Finally, our dual-release system means thatNetJets aircraft are not approved for flight until both the Pilot-in-Command and FAA-licensed flight

dispatcher double-check all aspects of the flight and agree that the flight can be completed safely.

PREFLIGHT 3


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What does it take to become a private jet pilot?

Pilots must complete hundreds, if not thousands,

of hours of schooling and flight training before they

can fly complex aircraft such as modern private jets.

Many private jet pilots obtain their initial training

through aviation schools, universities, or the

military. After the initial training, pilots usually gain

additional flight experience by working as flight

instructors, flying cargo planes, or serving as

co-pilots. After gaining 1,500 hours of flight

experience, most pilots begin the process of obtainingthe highest level of pilot certificate available the

Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) certificate.

NetJets pilot requirements NetJets stringent requirements dictate that each of our pilots must

have a minimum of 2,500 hours of flight experience, including 500 hours at the controls of multi-

engine aircraft and 250 hours flying on instruments. In addition, NetJets requires an ATP certificate

and first-class medical certificate. NetJets also requires each pilot to have an FAA-issued typerating for the jet type they fly. A type rating is an FAA-issued endorsement in addition to the

pilots license which allows a pilot to be the pilot-in-command of a specific type of aircraft.

Can pilots fly more than one type of aircraft?

Some aircraft providers allow their pilots to fly several different aircraft types. This means that each

time they operate a different aircraft type, they must readjust and adapt to the different equipment

and safety features from aircraft to aircraft.

NetJets pilots fly only one aircraft type All NetJets pilots are required to fly only one aircraft

type. We have determined that the safest practice is for each pilot to fly only one aircraft type

because of the differences in equipment and procedures from aircraft to aircraft.

4 PREFLIGHT


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What is a flight simulator and how does it

help with pilot training?

A flight simulator is a highly advanced training

device used by pilots to practice flying in

conditions that would be too dangerous or

impractical to duplicate in real life. Experiences

in the most advanced type of simulator (full-

motion flight simulators) are extremely realistic

and can be designed to duplicate almost

any possible real life situation. Training in a

full-motion flight simulator ensures that thepilots are prepared to handle any situation

that may occur during a real flight.

NetJets training The training never stops for a NetJets pilot. In addition to classroom training and

in-flight training, NetJets pilots attend simulator training twice per year using only the highest

level of full-motion flight simulators available.

Are all private jets basically the same?

Private jets are designed and built for a wide variety of missions. They range from light cabin jets

which usually seat a maximum of seven passengers to large cabin jets seating up to 14 passengers.

Some aircraft types are perfectly suited for shorter flights such as New York to South Florida or

Los Angeles to Seattle, while others are designed to connect the continents with non-stop capability

on flights such as San Francisco to Tokyo or New York to Moscow. In addition, some private jets

are designed for high speed flight while others are designed to operate at small airports with

short runways. There are nearly 50 different types of private jets in production today, and eachhas its own unique set of characteristics and capabilities.

The NetJets fleet The NetJets global fleet currently includes 13 types of private jets ranging

from light cabin jets to large cabin jets. The diversity of the NetJets fleet gives our Owners the

flexibility to purchase an interest or card in the aircraft type that best suits their typical travel profile.

All NetJets Owners are able to request an aircraft type for a particular mission that is different

from the type they own. Downgrades are guaranteed. Upgrades are subject to availability.

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What is a Fixed Base Operator (FBO)?

Most private aircraft depart from and arrive at Fixed Base Operators (FBOs). An FBO is a service

center at an airport that offers services including aircraft fueling, cabin supplies, and aircraft

maintenance. FBOs are generally located away from the main commercial airline terminals and

offer a much less congested and hassle-free way to begin and end your flights. FBOs typically

include a passenger lounge, crew lounge, and sometimes even restaurants and catering suppliers.

NetJets onsite representatives NetJets staffs our most popular destination FBOs with onsite

Guest Services Representatives to ensure our Owners travel as smoothly as possible. In addition,

at some of our most popular airports, NetJets has invested in facilities reserved exclusively for

NetJets Owners.

How can aircraft maintenance affect my flight?

All aircraft have a schedule for required maintenance, and operators work to complete this

scheduled maintenance during times that will least affect their customers. However, as with all

complex machinery, there are instances when unscheduled maintenance events occur on aircraft.

These unscheduled maintenance events may lead to flight delays as the operator works to fix the

problem or bring in a replacement aircraft to complete the flight. Depending on the size of anoperators fleet, their maintenance departments ability to respond to occurrences in real time,

and the severity of the maintenance issue, delays could be anywhere from a few minutes to

several hours.

NetJets maintenance With access to over 800 jets worldwide combined with our maintenance

expertise, NetJets is well-equipped to respond quickly to any maintenance event that may occur.

Our fleet size allows us to keep our jets positioned throughout the United States and the world,

ensuring that, if an unscheduled maintenance event should occur, we are able to respond quicklyand provide another nearby jet to complete the flight. The NetJets maintenance team includes

more than 400 federally-licensed maintenance technicians who assist in maintaining our aircraft

to the highest level possible. In addition, the aircraft manufacturers have created specialized

response teams dedicated to supporting NetJets aircraft. These teams are on call 24 hours a day,

365 days a year and are prepared to respond to any type of maintenance issue.

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INSIDE THE FLIGHT DECK

Modern business jets have flight decks (cockpits) outfitted with the most advanced equipment

available. To a casual traveler who may be expecting a cockpit full of dials, switches, and knobs,the modern private jet flight deck may appear to be a scene out of a futuristic movie. The next

time you fly, be sure to take a look up front and see what type of avionics are on the aircraft.

What types of instruments are found in

the flight deck?

The flight deck is the area of the aircraft

where the pilots manage the flight. Theflight deck includes all of the instruments

the pilots need to navigate the aircraft,

communicate with Air Traffic Control

(ATC), and monitor the aircrafts systems.

Most modern private jets use advanced

and state-of-the-art technology known as

a glass cockpit. Glass flight decks are

a series of screens that display multiple

sets of information and are much easier

to read and use than the former round

dial instruments. Glass cockpits consist

of Primary Flight Displays (PFDs) and

Multi-Function Displays (MFDs).

PFDs provide flight instrumentation and navigation information such as airspeed, altitude,and heading.

MFDs provide other information including engine instrumentation, weather radar, and safety

instruments such as Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) and Enhanced

Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS).

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NetJets safety At NetJets, safety starts before a new jet rolls into our hangar. Each new jet

comes equipped with a state-of-the-art cockpit. Some of the advanced safety features found on

NetJets aircraft include:

Traffic Alert & Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS II) is designed to help prevent mid-air

collisions and near-collisions. TCAS II is an advanced program that supplies the pilots with

audible instructions on how to avoid traffic.

Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS) is a system that helps the pilots avoid

flying into rising terrain. The system monitors trends in the aircrafts movement and alerts

the flight crew if the aircrafts current flight trend may bring it in close proximity to mountainsor other rising terrain.

What type of flight instruments are on an aircraft?

Since an aircraft operates in a three dimensional atmosphere, the pilot needs special instruments

to obtain the necessary flight information in order to conduct a safe flight.

The pitot-static instruments operate on the principle of pressure differential to providespeed, rate of climb or descent, and altitude. These instruments include airspeed indicator,

altimeter, and vertical speed indicator.

The gyroscopic instruments use gyroscopic principles to provide the aircrafts rate of turn,

attitude (which displays the position of the aircraft in space), and heading (which displays

the direction in which the aircraft is flying). These instruments include turn coordinator,

attitude indicator, and heading indicator.

8 INSIDE THE FLIGHT DECK


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INSIDE THE CABIN

Modern private jets combine unmatched comfort with many of the latest communication and

entertainment offerings. Private jets are typically configured to seat between 6 and 14 passengers,and many aircraft include leather seats (many of which recline to a fully flat position for sleeping),

fully enclosed lavatories, individual video monitors with DVD, satellite radio, in-flight telephones,

email and internet access, full galleys, and much more. The private jet can truly be thought of as

an office in the sky.

Mayo Clinic Executive Travel Response Inside the cabin and on the ground, NetJets Owners

have access to world-class medical assistance from Mayo Clinic. All NetJets pilots have the abilityto connect directly with Mayo Clinic via a dedicated telephone line in the event of an in-flight medical

emergency. In addition, all NetJets aircraft carry Mayo Clinic-designed emergency medical kits with

supplies that include an automatic external defibrillator (AED). All NetJets pilots and flight attendants

are trained to use these kits, as well as to recognize and respond to common aviation medical

emergencies. On the ground, Ask Mayo Clinic provides Owners with 24-hour access to Mayo Clinic

medical professionals for expert medical information and assistance from anywhere in the world.

INSIDE THE CABIN 9


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How is food prepared on a private jet?

Large private jets are equipped with full galleys that allow a flight attendant to prepare basically

any type of meal, including hot meals, as long as it is requested in advance. For smaller jets,

passengers may choose from a variety of cold food options from local caterers. Generally, the

aircraft is permanently stocked with snacks, water, coffee, tea, soda, and alcoholic beverages.

NetJets catering We work with premier aviation caterers around the world to provide our

Owners with top quality meals during their flight. NetJets Owners complete an Owner Profile

which details their preferences regarding food, beverages, music, and movies so the aircraft is

stocked with the amenities of their choice for each flight. With NetJets, your catering needs can

be customized for each flight.

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Why do my ears pop when Im flying?

Modern private jets have pressurized cabins to allow their passengers to breathe normally at high

altitudes. Jets are designed to fly at these altitudes to maximize their speed, range, and fuel

efficiency and also to fly above weather and turbulence. One side effect of pressurization is that

there may be a temporary pressure differential between the air in your ears and the air in the

aircrafts cabin. Your ears pop when the pressure is equalized.

Can my pet travel with me?

Yes. Many people choose to fly privately because it affords them the opportunity to bring their

pets in the cabin. Some private jet operators allow pets in the cabin as long as they are restrained

in accordance with FAA regulations for takeoff and landing. If your pet is small or an anxious flier,it is advisable to keep the pet in a pet carrier for the duration of the flight. Dogs not in a carrier

must occupy their own seat and be secured with a seat belt or special dog harness during taxi,

takeoff, and landing.

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BEFORE DEPARTURE

Boarding a private jet is a very different experience from boarding a commercial aircraft. Rather

than waiting in line for your seat row to be called and then walking down a jet bridge and waitingfor other passengers to be seated before you can get to your seat, boarding a private jet is a

comfortable and pleasurable experience. Generally, one of the pilots greets the passenger(s) in

the passenger lounge of the Fixed Base Operator, verifies their identification, and informs them

that the aircraft is ready for boarding. Then, the pilot takes the luggage and loads it into the

baggage compartment of the aircraft while the passengers walk up the stairs and into the aircraft.

Some private jets have baggage compartments which are accessible in flight should the need

arise. Once the passengers are onboard, the flight crew gives a safety overview and then theaircraft begins to taxi to the runway. For many people, this sequence of events is commonplace,

but there are many extremely intricate details that must be completed for an aircraft to depart.

What do the pilots do

immediately before a flight?

Before the aircraft departs, the pilots

are required to do a preflight check

to make sure the aircraft is in sound

working condition. The pilots follow

a checklist that includes close

inspection of the aircraft systems

and the main components of the

aircraft. Only after the checklist is

completed and the flight crew is

satisfied that all systems are inproper working condition is the

flight cleared to depart.

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Do all airports have control towers?

You may be surprised to learn that the large majority of airports in the United States do not have

control towers. Generally, only large airports frequented by heavy commercial airline traffic and

the busier general aviation airports have control towers, and in many cases these operate foronly a portion of the day. Many of the airports that are frequented by private jets are much less

busy than the airports commercial airlines use and, therefore, do not require a control tower.

Controlled airports have an operating control tower. All aircraft in the vicinity and on the

ground at controlled airports must follow instructions provided by the Air Traffic Controller.

Uncontrolled airports require the pilots to self-announce their intentions to other pilots inthe airport vicinity using a radio. The pilots are also responsible for determining the active

runway and how to enter and exit the traffic pattern by obeying established FAA regulations.

How many runways do airports have?

Generally, the busier the airport, the more runways it will have. Since aircraft are affected by winds

during takeoff and landing, runways are usually built in the direction of the prevailing winds. Some

airports have multiple runways aligned in different directions to best adapt to shifts in wind.

What are airport identifiers?

Most airports have both a three and four letter identifier which is a unique code used to identify

each airport. Airlines typically use the three letter codes while most general aviation operators

use the four letter codes. For airports in the United States, the four letter code generally consists

of a K before the three letter code. For example, the three-letter identifier for Teterboro Airport

is TEB and its four-letter identifier is KTEB.

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How are runways named?

Runways have a two number identifier on each end. These numbers are derived from the runways

direction in degrees relative to magnetic north. For example, if the runway identifier is 09, it means

that the aircraft will take off or land at a heading of 90 degrees or due east. If the runway identifieris 27, it means the aircraft will take off or land at a heading of 270 degrees or due west. The

runway identifiers represent the direction in which the aircraft will be heading while taking off on

that runway. For this reason, each strip of pavement is actually two runways because each end of

the runway has a different name.

Why do we sometimes taxi onto the runway and not move for a while?

Sometimes an aircraft is instructed by an Air Traffic Controller to taxi into position and hold. This

usually happens when the airport is experiencing a high level of traffic. For example, an aircraftmay have just landed and may still be on the runway from which your aircraft will depart, or

another aircraft may have just departed ahead of yours. Air Traffic Controllers need to keep a safe

distance between all aircraft to minimize the effect of wake turbulence generated by other aircraft.

Wake turbulence (also called wingtip vortices) is created when an aircraft is generating lift, and

can be hazardous to other aircraft flying on the same path and in close proximity.

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Can Air Traffic Control delay my flight?

Due to flight demand, the National Airspace System (NAS) frequently runs near the limit of its capacity.

When adverse weather occurs, not as many flights can take off and land, further limiting capacity and

leading to delays. Since the NAS is a national system, adverse weather or other adverse conditions inone large metropolitan area may lead to delays at other airports hundreds of miles away because

planes cannot stay on schedule. Business aviation users may also experience delays during NAS

peak times such as the morning and evening rush hour out of large cities, holidays, special events

(e.g., Super Bowl), and weekend traffic along the East Coast and at Colorados ski airports when

demand is greater than the capacity to support the number of flights. Flying on private jets allows the

use of less congested airports which may reduce potential delays.

NetJets works to minimize Air Traffic Control delays Private aircraft do not operate on a fixed

schedule like the airlines do. Therefore, the demand on the system created by these aircraft is not as

predictable. To minimize delays caused by uncertainties, NetJets Owners are encouraged to notify

their Owner Services Team as soon as they decide to use an aircraft so that the flight plan may be

entered into the system as early as possible. Arriving at the aircraft 15 minutes before the arranged

departure time is also important, so that ATC has the highest predictability of where and when the

aircraft will be operating in the system and can account for the demand appropriately.

How much luggage can I bring on my flight?

Baggage capacity varies greatly from one type of private jet to another, so it is best to ask your

Owner Services Team this question well in advance of your flight. Most private jets have adequate

baggage space to accommodate at least one or two suitcases per passenger, but baggage volume is

not the only factor to consider. All aircraft have certain limits to the weight of baggage that can be

safely carried onboard. Additional items such as skis, golf clubs, and/or hunting and fishing gear may

limit the amount of other luggage that can be stored on the aircraft. Again, it is always best to provideyour operator with a detailed list of the luggage and other items you plan to bring on a particular

flight as far in advance of the flight as possible. This will give them adequate time to determine if all

items can be carried on the aircraft or if other arrangements will be needed. Please note that the FAA

does not permit hazardous materials onboard.

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FLIGHT BASICS

Flying is so commonplace these days that it is amazing to think that just over 100 years ago,

flight in an airplane was simply a dream. Today, for many, flying is a necessity. A series of eventsmust occur for an aircraft to fly safely. This section discusses the basic components of an aircraft

and the nuances of flight.

What are the main components of an aircraft?

There are five main components that make up an aircraft: fuselage, empennage, wings, powerplant,

and landing gear.

The fuselage is the main body of the aircraft.

The empennage is the tail of the aircraft. It consists of two flight control surfaces: the

elevator and the rudder. The elevator pitches or steers up and down and the rudder yaws

or steers from right to left.

The wings are the primary lifting surfaces for the aircraft. The airflow over the wing surface

generates the vast majority of lifting force necessary for flight.

The powerplant or engine generates the power or thrust for the aircraft. Private jets

generally have two engines.

The landing gear allows the aircraft to take off, land, and taxi and also provides shock

absorbers to enable smooth landing and takeoff. The newest business jets usually have

a type of landing gear known as trailing link which allows for smooth landing and taxiing.

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How does an aircraft fly?Flight is made possible by a concept known as pressure differential. Aircraft wings are designed

to create a pressure differential between air above and air below the wing. Due to the shape of

the wing (known as an airfoil), air flows faster above the wing and slower below the wing, creating

a difference in pressure known as Bernoullis Principle. Bernoullis Principle states that, as a fluid

travels faster (air is technically a fluid), its pressure drops. The lower pressure above the wing

and consequent higher pressure below the wing allow an aircraft weighing thousands of pounds

to rise like a graceful bird.

Fuselage

Landing gear

Empennage

Powerplant(Engine)

Wing

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What do aviation terms such as lift and drag really mean?

For an aircraft to fly straight and level, four basic aerodynamic forces must be in equilibrium: lift,

gravity, thrust, and drag. Lift is simply the force generated by airflow over the wings that acts

opposite of gravity which is the force constantly pulling all objects toward the center of the earth.

Drag is a negative force which acts against the thrust generated by the aircrafts engines. Dragcan be thought of as the resistance of the air against the forward motion of the aircraft. All

portions of the aircraft create drag; it is an unavoidable trait of any object moving through air.

When an aircraft is flying straight and level, the opposing forces balance each other; lift equals

gravity and thrust equals drag. However, the aircraft uses imbalances between these forces to

accelerate, climb, and descend.

Lift

Gravity(Weight)

Thrust Drag

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How does a jet engine work?

There are four basic steps that explain how a jet engine works:

Step 1 Air is drawn into the engine through a large fan at the front of the engine.

Step 2 Behind the initial fan is a series of smaller rotating blades. These rotating blades

compress the air and force it into the combustion chamber.

Step 3 Once the air is compressed and enters the chamber, the air and jet fuel mix together

and are ignited. The burning gases rapidly expand and are forced out the rear of the

engine, producing thrust. The thrust pushes the aircraft forward.

Step 4 As the exhaust gas exits, it passes through the turbine which spins a drive shaft to

provide the rotational motion to the compressor, which in turn draws in more air and

the entire sequence is repeated. In addition to feeding air to the compressor, the large

fan at the front of the engine feeds air through bypass ducts around the compressor

to join the exhaust jetstream in the tailcone. This bypass feature is what distinguishes

a turbofan from a turbojet and it allows the turbofan to be much more fuel efficient

and quiet.

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What are all those moving parts on the wing?

The next time you are on an airplane, if you are seated over or slightly behind the wings, you will

be able to watch the different parts of the wings work especially during takeoff and landing. The

main parts of the wings include flaps, slats, spoilers, and ailerons.

Flaps allow the pilot to change the shape of the wing. Flaps can be extended to increase

the wing surface area, creating additional lift. The more curved the wing is and the more

surface area it has, the more lift it will create. Flaps are most often used during landing

and takeoff so the aircraft can fly at a slower speed during an approach or help generate

lift during a departure.

Slats are located on the front of the wing and are designed to optimize airflow over the

upper surfaces of the wings. They help aircraft fly more slowly during critical phases of

flight, allowing the aircraft to takeoff from and land on shorter runways. Some aircraft do

not have this component.

Spoilers, as the name implies, spoil lift. These devices are attached to the top of the wing

and block the airflow on the upper surface of the wing, thus destroying the lifting tendency.

Spoilers are used to control sink rate during descent and are also sometimes used for

roll control.

Ailerons are movable portions of the wing used for banking and turning. The ailerons are

located on the outer section of the wings, and ailerons on both wings work together to turn

or roll the aircraft. When an aileron on one side of the aircraft moves down, the aileron on

the opposite side of the aircraft moves up. The wing that has the aileron down will experience

more lift than the other wing and will rise. This motion rolls the aircraft into a turn.

Why does an aircraft need so many different parts?

Since aircraft operate in three dimensional space while in the air, they need several specialized

systems to maneuver. The ailerons, rudder, and elevator allow aircraft to move and turn through

the air. Ailerons allow the aircraft to roll from side to side. The rudder allows the aircraft to yaw,

or turn from left to right. Finally, the elevator allows the aircraft to pitch the nose up or down.

These three systems work together to allow the aircraft to ascend, descend, and turn in order toreach its destination.

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AVIATION WEATHER

There are many types of weather that may impact your flight. A general understanding of these

phenomena and how they affect aircraft operations may help your travel plans run smoothly andincrease your comfort in flight.

Thunderstorms

Storms can be hazardous to aircraft due to high winds, hail, and their generally unpredictable

nature. Pilots, Flight Dispatchers, and Air Traffic Controllers put a lot of time and effort into trying

to avoid storms, which can lead to air traffic delays. When multiple storms develop in a region,

the storms block local air routes. Air Traffic Control centers must then begin to delay aircraft tryingto fly through the affected areas. These delays have the greatest affect on high traffic areas such

as New York and Chicago. Additionally, windshear, a sudden and unpredictable change in wind

direction and/or velocity, may be caused by thunderstorms. Since it can cause a sudden loss of

altitude, windshear is most dangerous to aircraft during the critical phases of flight (including

takeoff and landing) and when the aircraft is flying slowly and low to the ground.

Tropical weather

The Atlantic Ocean tropical weather season begins in early June and peaks in the fall. Such

weather has the potential to greatly impact the accessibility of affected areas. To ensure the safety

of passengers, operators may temporarily suspend operations in areas where tropical storms and

hurricanes are forecast to make landfall.

Fog

Low cloud base and reduced visibility caused by fog can limit flight operations due to the more

stringent operational requirements (instrument flight rules) for operating in these conditions. Themorning hours are affected most often, but fog often lasts well into the afternoon. Some of the

popular airports most affected by fog include those located in Nantucket, Marthas Vineyard, and

San Francisco.

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Snow and ice

Snow and ice can be a major challenge for aviation. Snow and ice on the aircraft require de-icing

so they do not adversely impact the ability of the plane to fly, and they may cause departure

delays. De-icing is required because ice on the wing or other surfaces of an aircraft can lead toincreased weight and reduced lift capability. Ice on the wing actually changes the shape of the

wing and changes the way the air flows over the wing, which can lead to a dramatic loss of lifting

capability. Reduced visibility and cloud bases during snowfall limit the use of some airports,

especially those in mountainous areas.

Runway plowing

Private jets frequently fly in and out of small airports that have limited facilities and/or equipment.When there is snow on the ground, some of these airports may not have the ability to plow regularly.

Snow or slush on the runway may cause dramatic increases in the length of runway required for

landing and takeoff. The adverse weather may lead to runway condition restrictions that result in

an unusable runway or airport closures that last for days at a time.

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Mountain weather

Whether its a major Rocky Mountain snow storm or localized snow shower activity in Jackson Hole,

rapidly changing winter weather conditions can cause last minute changes, delays, or diversions

due to the low visibility and/or poor runway conditions they may cause.

Jet stream

Jet streams are high-speed, narrow air currents found at altitudes above 35,000 feet. The jet

stream flows from west to east across North America at speeds typically in excess of 130 mph

during winter months. When flying from east to west, these strong headwinds caused by the jet

stream may result in turbulence and/or extended flight times that may lead to additional fuel

stops. Conversely, flying west to east along the jet stream will reduce the overall flight time.

NetJets meteorology department NetJets maintains a staff of full-time meteorologists. Using

state-of-the-art equipment to obtain and interpret data directly from the National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administrations satellites, NetJets meteorologists give our pilots and aircraft

dispatchers up-to-the-minute weather forecasts. Our pilots and aircraft dispatchers use this

information to plan the safest and most comfortable routes and to make mid-course corrections

when advisable. NetJets meteorologists are constantly monitoring the paths of snow storms,

tropical storms, and other weather patterns work with our flight operations group to protect the

assets of our Owners and to ensure that all aircraft in the NetJets fleet are moved away from

danger. Whats more, the NetJets Meteorology department has received approval from the FAA to

be an FAA source of weather information for our pilots, just like an FAA Flight Service Station.

There are only a handful of flight departments in the world that have this FAA approval.

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TAKEOFF AND CLIMB

For many passengers, takeoff and climb are the most exciting and interesting portions of any

flight. There are many situations during takeoff and climb that may inspire questions.

Do high altitude/mountain airports

cause performance problems for

aircraft?

There are several factors that affect

the runway performance of an aircraft.

Among these factors are airportelevation, temperature, weight of the

aircraft, winds, and runway condition

(dry, wet, icy, etc.). As air increases in

temperature, its density decreases.

This is particularly problematic for

aircraft departing from high elevation

airports because the air is already

less dense at higher elevations. Theless dense the air is, the more runway

length aircraft require to take off. This

is because the aircrafts engines are

less efficient and the wings generate less lift when the aircraft is operating in less dense air.

Often, this hot and high scenario may lead to an aircraft requiring more runway length to take

off than is available at a particular airport. If this is the case, weight must be removed from the

aircraft to safely take off on the available runway length. Reducing weight can be accomplishedthree ways: removing passengers, removing luggage, and/or removing fuel. If fuel is removed,

there may not be enough fuel remaining onboard in order to reach your final destination nonstop,

making a fuel stop necessary.

24 TAKEOFF AND CLIMB


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What does climb gradient mean?

A climb gradient is simply a distance covered vertically during climb divided by the distance

covered horizontally over the ground during the same time. This climb gradient is usually

presented as a percentage. Climb gradients are used to ensure an aircraft climbs fast enough toavoid any obstacles that may be in the vicinity of the airport, even if weather conditions are such

that the obstacles cannot be physically seen by the pilots. Climb gradient requirements assume

the worst-case scenario of an aircraft having only one engine available for climb. If the weather

is such that a more restrictive climb gradient must be met for a given departure, it may lead to

the aircraft requiring an additional fuel stop due to weight requirements to meet the gradient.

Can the weight of my luggage impact the flight?Weight can have a dramatic affect on aircraft performance. Each aircraft has a specific weight

limit (maximum takeoff weight) which cannot be exceeded. If the combined weight of passengers

and luggage is particularly heavy for a certain flight, the pilots and dispatcher may determine that

off-loading fuel is required to keep the aircraft under the maximum takeoff weight. This could

lead to additional refueling stops. Alternatively, some baggage may be removed and shipped

separately to reduce weight. In addition, weight has a direct impact on the aircrafts takeoff and

landing distance. In general, the heavier the aircraft is, the more runway length it requires for

takeoff and landing. Depending on other environmental factors such as temperature, winds, andrunway condition, additional weight could lead to an aircraft not being able to use a particular

airport.

NetJets weight requirements At NetJets, our FAA-licensed aircraft dispatchers calculate the

weight for each flight using the short form which assumes an average combined weight for each

passenger and their luggage. If the calculations on the short form show that the weight may be

close to the acceptable limits, the dispatcher then uses the long form. The long form uses theactual weights of the passengers and luggage for a more precise calculation to ensure that the

flight can be completed safely.



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Why do some aircraft need more runway length to take off than others?

There are several factors that determine the runway length needed for an aircraft to take off, but

the most important are weight, wing design, and engine thrust. Generally speaking, the heavier

an aircraft is, the more runway length it requires to take off. The effect of weight can be offsetsomewhat by wing design and engine thrust. If the wing of an aircraft is relatively straight rather

than swept-back, this allows the aircraft to take off at lower speeds and therefore requires less

runway distance. In addition, more engine thrust allows the aircraft to accelerate faster and take

off in less distance. The straight wing design and higher-thrust engines are helpful for takeoff

performance, but they can have different effects in other phases of flight. For this reason,

aeronautical engineers try to find the best possible balance of all components when designing a

new aircraft.

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Right after the aircraft takes off, why do I hear a knocking noise and feel a sinking sensation?

The knocking noise you hear is actually the landing gear retracting up into the aircraft. Later, you

may also hear the flaps retracting back into the wing. The sinking sensation is caused when the

pilot reduces the thrust on the engines. The engine power must be reduced during the initialclimb because the engines cannot run at takeoff power for more than a few minutes. When the

power is reduced, the aircraft feels as if it is sinking or slowing down dramatically.

Should I be concerned about turbulence?

Simply put, turbulence is air in motion that interacts with the aircraft. All aircraft are built with

turbulence in mind, and the wings of the aircraft are made to be flexible to handle these forces.

Due to the high altitudes at which they fly, private jets are usually able to avoid turbulence andprovide a smoother ride. However, turbulence is often unavoidable during climb and descent.

While it may be a nuisance at times, turbulence is an expected part of most flights. Aircraft are

designed to withstand it, and pilots are trained to handle it. In case of unexpected turbulence,

passengers should wear their seatbelts when not moving around the cabin.



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CRUISE

Cruise is the portion of the flight spent flying level and not climbing or descending. Cruise is

usually the longest portion of the flight when most passengers settle in to enjoy the entertainmentamenities and catering, conduct business, or simply get some much needed rest.

How high do private jets fly?

Private jets typically cruise between the altitudes of 37,000 feet and 45,000 feet, which is above

most airline traffic and adverse weather. Cruising at these high altitudes is advantageous because

the skies are less crowded, and there is generally less turbulence.

How fast do private jets fly?

Most private jets cruise somewhere between 480 miles per hour and 560 miles per hour. The speed

is dependent on several factors such as cruising altitude, traffic, and air traffic control restrictions.

One of the fastest private jets, the Citation X, cruises at a maximum speed of 590 miles per hour.

Most commercial airliners cruise around 500 miles per hour.

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What does Mach mean?

The term Mach is named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach. Generally, Mach is used to refer

to the ratio of actual speed to the speed of sound. For instance, if an aircraft is traveling at half of the

speed of sound, we would say it is traveling at Mach 0.5, and an aircraft traveling at twice the speedof sound would be traveling at Mach 2. An interesting fact relating to the Mach number is that the

speed of sound actually varies depending on the temperature of the air. As you probably know, air

temperature decreases as altitude increases, so an aircraft flying at Mach 0.7 at 25,000 feet would

actually be flying faster than an aircraft flying at Mach 0.7 at 41,000 feet.

Why does it take so much longer to get from New York to Los Angeles than from Los Angeles to

New York?Winds can have a dramatic effect on aircraft during all phases of flight. When flying from east to

west across the Unites States, aircraft are typically flying into the wind (called a headwind). When

flying from west to east, aircraft typically have wind behind them helping to push them along (called a

tailwind). A headwind has the effect of decreasing ground speed and the overall range capabilities of an

aircraft. Conversely, a tailwind leads to increased range and groundspeed. Considering an east-west

city pair, the total flight time is generally longer on the east to west leg than on the west to east leg.

An aircraft may be capable of flying west to east nonstop for a particular city pair due to the tailwind

but may require a fuel stop from east to west due to the corresponding headwind.

Are private jets able to fly across oceans?

Yes. In fact, there are many private jets capable of long range transoceanic flights. Not all aircraft,

however, are able to fly for long distances over water. Although an aircraft may have the capability to

fly from one point to another over a large body of water, safety regulations may prohibit such a flight

due to the aircrafts inability to return safely to land should an emergency occur.

NetJets transoceanic capability Several aircraft types in the NetJets fleet are capable of transoceanic

flights. NetJets has the most international operations experience in the fractional aircraft industry.

NetJets has flown to more than 170 different countries.

CR UISE 29


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What does cabotage mean?

Each aircraft is registered in a specific country. Cabotage refers to an aircraft transporting

passengers or goods between two points within a country other than its country of registry. Most

countries do not allow passengers flying privately to be carried by a foreign registered aircraftbetween two points within their boundaries. Cabotage rules vary from country to country. Please

check with your operator for cabotage rules specific to the country within which you are traveling.

How do pilots know where they are going when they are flying through clouds?

The answer to this question lies with the flight rules aircraft must follow. There are two types of

flight rules under which an aircraft may operate: Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and Instrument Flight

Rules (IFR).

Visual Flight Rules (VFR) require certain minimum weather conditions (visibility, which is

the distance that can be seen horizontally, and ceiling, which is the altitude of the lowest

cloud layer) be met in order to conduct flight operations. Depending on the airport

environment in which the aircraft is operating, the visibility and ceiling requirements

will vary.

Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) provide guidance for pilots to fly not only in visual conditionsbut also through clouds, rain, or other atmospheric conditions. These conditions are referred

to as Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC). IMC describes a condition where the pilots

the pilots do not have visual cues outside of the aircraft. The pilots use navigational aides

and instruments in the cockpit to execute the flight safely. These rules must be followed

when weather is below VFR minimums or anytime when flying above 18,000 feet.

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What types of flight instruments are used to navigate in IMC?

To navigate in instrument airspace and/or under Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC),

pilots use enroute charts which provide the locations of navigational aids and flight routes. There

are numerous types of navigational aids positioned throughout the world which help guide pilotsto their destinations, usually by using a radio frequency. The enroute charts are basically highway

maps of the sky that allow the pilots to fly from point A to point B using navigational instruments.

It is possible for pilots to navigate with precision to almost any point desired due to advances in

aircraft navigational radio receivers, the development of aeronautical charts which show the exact

location of ground transmitting stations and their frequencies, and refined cockpit instrumentation.

In addition, many modern aircraft use global positioning satellite systems to help them navigate

with precision.

NetJets flight planning For increased safety, all NetJets flights are dispatched with an IFR

flight plan. By doing so, all flights are under the supervision of the FAAs Air Traffic Control system.

CR UISE 31


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DESCENT

Descent refers to the portion of flight when the aircraft begins to reduce altitude and head back

toward the earth. Descent usually begins approximately one half hour before landing, dependingon the actual conditions of the flight. There are many important details relating to the descent

portion of a flight.

Why do aircraft sometimes fly in circles before landing?

When planes circle before landing, they are in a holding pattern. A holding pattern is a repeating

route that an aircraft flies until notified by Air Traffic Control to approach and proceed to landing.

Holding patterns are used when airport operations are unexpectedly delayed due to weather

conditions, traffic, or runway unavailability.

What are fuel reserves?

As an added safety measure, aircraft carry fuel in addition to the fuel required for each specific

flight. This fuel is known as the fuel reserve and is required by FAA regulations. Before a flight,

the pilot and dispatcher calculate the fuel required for the flight and then add the reserve fuel to

the flight fuel. The fuel reserve is always carried and is meant to be used only in an emergency.

NetJets fuel reserves The NetJets Director of Operations analyzes the performance of each

aircraft type in our fleet and derives a standard minimum fuel reserve to be used on all flights

for that specific type of aircraft in accordance with FAA regulations. At the discretion of the

Pilot-in-Command, contingency fuel may be added to the fuel reserves for known or anticipated

situations such as arrival at high density airports or when an alternate airport may be required.

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What is an alternate airport?

If the weather is forecasted to be Instrument Meteorological Condition (IMC) at a destination

airport, the pilot and aircraft dispatcher will be required to plan for an alternate airport which will

have better weather than the instrument approach minimums. This is one reason why aircraftcarry additional fuel onboard in case landing at the destination airport is not possible due to

weather conditions.

What is a slot?

A slot is a reservation to arrive at or depart from a specific airport at a specific time. The FAA

administers slots for safety reasons. They are implemented to control the rate of arrivals and/or

departures when the airports demand exceeds its capacity.

Which airports require slots?

Some airports use slot reservations year-round while others use them during special events and

peak travel times based on anticipated traffic and/or weather. During high demand periods

including holidays and weekends around school vacations, obtaining slots can be challenging.

Most people want to land during the same narrow windows of time, whether flying privately or

commercially.

How do you obtain a slot?

Slots are assigned by the FAA through a random lottery process. Commercial airlines receive their

slots first, and then the remaining slots are put into a lottery for all of general aviation. Those

slots become available exactly 72 hours prior to the requested arrival time. Since all general

aviation companies and private parties are vying for the same slots at the same time, the slots

are usually taken within seconds of being released. Slots are not confirmed until 24 hours prior to

the day of travel.

DESCENT 33


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LANDING

Landing is one of the most exciting phases of flight. Many of the same events that take place

during takeoff also occur during landing but in the reverse order.

How do aircraft land in adverse weather conditions?

In adverse weather conditions, aircraft must fly under an instrument flight plan. There are several

different types of instrument approaches, and not all types are available at all airports. Some of

the approaches are more precise than others and, therefore, can be flown under lower weather

conditions (lower ceiling and visibility). By simply using the procedures written in the approach

charts and reading the flight instruments, the pilots are able to fly very close to the runway. If the

pilot is still not able to see the runway after flying the procedure, they follow a missed approach

procedure that allows the aircraft to climb safely out of the airport and avoid any potential obstacle

while exiting.

What does it mean when a runway has a displaced threshold?

A displaced threshold occurs when a portion of the runway is not suitable for landing but can be

used for taxi, takeoff, or landing rollout. This situation generally occurs when there is some sort

of obstruction (trees, buildings, etc.) near the end of the runway. This may affect the aircraftsability to operate at an airport since the entire runway length is not available for landing.

How does weather affect an aircrafts ability to land?

Weather can play a dramatic role in the operation of an aircraft. If fog, snow, or very heavy rains

are occurring at the time of arrival or departure, the aircraft may not be able to operate. Even if

the aircraft is able to operate, landing on or taking off from a runway covered with water, snow,

slush, or ice will cause the aircraft to use more runway length than would be needed on a dryrunway due to the reduced friction between the aircraft tires and runway.

34 LANDING


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What happens if a runway has a slope?

Many runways are not completely level, which can affect takeoff and landing performance. When

a runway has an up slope or down slope, it is said to have a runway gradient. Upslope runways

provide a retarding force which impedes acceleration and results in a longer takeoff distance.Landing uphill actually helps as it usually results in shorter landing distances. Downhill operations

have a reverse effect.

What is the Destination Airport Analysis Program (DAAP)?

FAA regulations state that all Part 91(k) and Part 135 (the regulations under which many private

aircraft operate) flights must be able to land within 60% of the available runway length on any

given runway. DAAP allows approved operators to increase the landing requirement to 80% of the

available runway, as long as all items on a 22-point day of flight safety checklist can be

accomplished for the particular flight. Using DAAP allows operators to access many of the smaller

airports frequented by private aircraft and ensures that they are safe in doing so. Each operator

must have its DAAP approved by the FAA prior to use.

What is that loud noise I hear just after the aircraft lands on the runway?

The noise you hear is created by a system called a thrust reverser. The thrust reverser aids in

stopping the aircraft by directing the exhaust flow of the engines in the forward direction. Theforward flow of air creates a loud sound which is audible just after landing.

LANDING 35


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CONCLUSION

We trust that this guide has given you the opportunity to learn more about the exciting world of

private aviation and insight into what goes on behind the scenes to make your NetJets flightcomfortable, stress-free, and safe. You may want to keep it handy in order to follow along on

future flights. As the worldwide leader in private aviation, NetJets takes pride in our knowledge

and experience, and we appreciate the opportunity to share that knowledge with you.

36 CONCLUSION

FOR MORE INFORMATION

CONTACT NETJETS AT

1-877-NETJETS (877-638-5387)

WWW.NETJETS.COM


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No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any informationstorage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

All fractional aircraft offered by NetJets in the United States are managed and operated by NetJets Aviation, Inc. Executive Jet Management, Inc. providesmanagement services for customers with aircraft that are not fractionally owned, and provides charter air transportation services using select aircraft from itsmanaged fleet. Both of these operating companies are wholly owned subsidiaries of NetJets Inc. All fractional aircraft offered by NetJets Europe are operated,maintained, and crewed by NetJets Transportes Areos, SA, a Portuguese/EU Air Carrier. NetJets has an affiliation with the provider of the NetJets Middle EastProgram. Marquis Jet Partners, Inc. is a whollyowned subsidiary of NetJets Inc. and sells the Marquis Jet Card. Marquis Jet Card flights areoperated by NetJets

Aviation under its 14 CFR Part 135 Air Carrier Certificate. All statistics are accurate as of December 2010

2010 NetJets Inc. All rights reserved. NetJets, Executive Jet, Marquis Jet, and Marquis Jet Card are registered service marks. BPA10110

NetJets Inc. is a Berkshire Hathaway company.

NetJets Inc.

4111 Bridgeway Avenue

Columbus, OH 43219

1-877-NETJETS (877-638-5387)

www.netjets.com

Documents

Air Aviation 101