AIR LECTURES HANDOUT 3 P Rhines 21 Feb 03 AIR: THE SMALL (AIR POLLUTION) SMOG – cold London fog – coal smoke in winter (home heating) with clear air, radiational cooling stratifies air

SMOG- warm :Formed as a result of the action of sunlight on the hydrocarbon emissions from motor cars and other sources in areas of low dispersion. The production of smog ceases at night…often on windless hot sunny days.

October 26, 1948, a thermal inversion occurred at Donora, 30 miles south of Pittsburgh, in Pennsylvania. In a town of 12,000 people, 43% became ill -5910 people, and 20 people died within only 5 days.

Mega cities Roughly 50% of world population lives in cities, 25% along coasts Asia: 2000 population:

Tokyo 28 Million Shanghai 17 Bombay 18 Seoul 13 Beijing 14 Calcutta 13 Jakarta 13 Bankok 10 Bankok: motor vehicles 600,000 in 1980 increased to 4M in 1997 90% are 2 stroke engines…high pollution

Table 18: Bangkok air quality information on 08-Dec-1999. Source: Pollution Control Department, Ministry of Science Technology and Environment ( www.pcd.go.th ).

Site Location SO2 SO2 * NO2

NO2 *

CO (1hr)

CO (1hr)

* CO

(8hr)

CO (8hr)

* Ozone Ozone

* PM-10

Bang Khunthien General 28.5 42.33 34.1 58.62 22.4 58.64 52.1 Din Daeng Roadside 2.8 5.06 3.0 3.56 6.0 12.09 77.0 Huai Khwang General 3.0 5.28 21.0 32.59 1.4 2.51 1.4 1.96 18.5 53.39 79.6 Lad Phrao Roadside 0.8 3.28 37.8 56.12 0.5 1.16 0.5 0.86 10.7 30.86 77.2 National Housing Authority

General 2.9 4.03 0.7 1.06 0.7 0.81 24.4 56.39 42.2

Ramkhamhaeng General 4.8 8.78 26.3 38.6 1.2 2.12 1.3 1.46 1.2 2.11 60.0 Yannawa General 2.0 4.03 33.6 56.62 0.6 1.11 0.6 0.81 20.7 61.65 45.8

Standard 300 170 30 9 100 120

General sites are those within 50-100 meters from the main road, Roadside are those within 2-5 meters from the main road. Pollutants are 1 hour averages except noted, and PM-10 is 24 hour average. *Quantity of pollutant at 95th percentile not more than this value. SO2 units ppb (1/1,000,000,000) NO2 units ppb (1/1,000,000,000) CO units ppm (1/1,000,000) Ozone units ppb (1/1,000,000,000) Particulate Matter <10 microns, units ug/m3 (PM-10 = dust)

Note here the ‘pulmonary region’ refers to the deeper lung passages. The clearing of soot from the lung is carried out by viscous fluid which slowly flows; yet the narrow passages where much of the oxygen transfer occurs are too small for this fluid cleaning mechanism to work. It is the smallest particles that can reach these regions, where they can remain and destroy lung function. From Chemistry of the Upper and Lower Atmosphere, Finlayson-Pitts and Pitts, Academic Press, 2000

Seattle air quality monitoring stations….www.ecy.wa.gov Washington Dept. of Ecology

PM2.5 air particle pollution: Puyallup, Beacon Hill, Seattle, Port Townsend, 20 Feb 03

Development of urban air pollutants during two days…oxides of nitrogen from vehicle exhaust are followed by ozone (O3 not O2); note timing with respect to rush-hour.

Vertical profile of an atmospheric inversion layer (big density difference) with ozone collecting at that level.

Above is a profile of the ‘good’ ozone which sits in the stratosphere (here about 15 to 20 km above ground) and shields the Earth from destructive ultraviolet (UV) solar radiation. Here, over Antarctica, in winter the sun is away in the north and ozone decays with time (ozone is generated by the sunshine). Note October is springtime in the Southern Hemisphere. This late winter/early spring low ozone ‘hole’ has become much deeper (lower ozone) over recent decades (see figure below, from , owing to CFC pollution from our refrigerants and spray cans…especially the chlorine atoms that are part of CFC-11 and CFC-12 . Figures above from Atmospheric Chemistry and Global Change, Brasseur, Orlando and Tyndall Eds., Oxford Univ. Press 1999.

From Finlayson-Pitts and Pitts et al., 2000, (op.cit.)

From RCA radiation handbook.

State Dept of Ecology: www.ecy.wa.gov

Air quality measuring station (Blue Heron Middle School, Port Townsend) Health Effects from Automobile Emissions The emissions from millions of vehicles add up. These emissions are byproducts from the engine combustion process and from the evaporation of fuel. Despite the ever-growing number of vehicles on the road, studies show that ten to thirty percent of vehicles cause the majority of vehicle-related air pollution. This fact sheet lists some of the air pollutants associated with vehicle emissions. Because exposure to these pollutants can cause serious health problems, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has established air quality standards to protect our health. Carbon Monoxide Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas emitted from the vehicle's exhaust as a result of incomplete combustion. It interferes with the blood's ability to carry oxygen to the brain, heart, and other tissues. Unborn or newborn children and people with heart disease are in greatest danger from this pollutant, but even healthy people can experience headaches, fatigue and reduced reflexes due to CO exposure.Exposure to CO near the levels of the ambient air quality standards can lead to fatigue, headaches, confusion, and dizziness. CO interferes with the blood's ability to carry oxygen. Exposure to CO is especially harmful to those with heart disease, because the heart has to pump harder to get enough oxygen to the body. CO exposure has been associated with aggravation of angina pectoris and other aspects of coronary heart disease, decreased exercise tolerance in people with peripheral vascular disease and lung disease, impairment of central nervous system functions, and possible increased risk to fetuses. At high altitudes (such as in the Lake Tahoe Air Basin), these effects are worsened.

• In 1955, the Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District established an air pollution alert system to prevent disasters. The first alert level for CO was 100 ppm.

• In 1959, the California Department of Public Health adopted air quality standards for CO at the "serious" level. These were 30 ppm for an 8-hour exposure and 120 ppm for a 1-hour exposure.

• In 1969, the ARB adopted a standard for CO at 20 ppm for an 8-hour averaging period. • In 1970, the ARB revised the CO standards to 10 ppm for 12 hours, and 40 ppm for 1

hour. • In 1976, the ARB adopted a CO standard of 6 ppm for 8 hours, for the Lake Tahoe Air

Basin only. • In 1982, the ARB revised the CO standards to 9 ppm for 8 hours and 20 ppm for 1 hour.

In 1989, the ARB retained these standards.

Ozone Ground-level ozone is the major component in what we know as smog.* It is not emitted directly into the air but is produced in the atmosphere when gases called hydrocarbons combine with nitrogen oxide compounds in the presence of sunlight. *Ozone smog at ground level is different from the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere, which filters out harmful solar radiation. Ozone is a powerful oxidant that can kill living cells on contact. Ozone can damage the respiratory tract, causing inflammation and irritation, and result in symptoms such as coughing, chest tightness, shortness of breath, and worsening of asthma symptoms. Ozone in sufficient doses increases the permeability of lung cells, rendering them more susceptible to toxins and microorganisms. The greatest risk is to those who breathe a lot outdoors during smoggy periods, such as children, athletes, and outdoor workers. Exposure to levels of ozone above the current ambient air quality standard leads to lung inflammation and lung tissue damage, and a reduction in the amount of air that lungs breathe in. These levels of ozone also reduce crop and timber yields, damage native plants, and also damage materials such as rubber, paints, fabric, and plastics.

• In 1955, the Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District established an air pollution 'first alert' level for ozone at 0.5 ppm.

• In 1959, the California Board of Public Health adopted an air quality standard for ozone at the "adverse" level of 0.15 ppm for 1 hour.

• In 1969, the ARB adopted a standard for "oxidant, including ozone" at 0.1 ppm for a one-hour averaging period.

• In 1974, the "oxidant" standard was redefined as an "ozone" standard. • In 1988, the ARB revised the ozone standard to 0.09 ppm for a one-hour averaging

period.

Sulfur Dioxide

• Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a gaseous compound of sulfur and oxygen. SO2 is formed when sulfur-containing fuel is burned by mobile sources, such as locomotives, ships, and off-road diesel equipment. SO2 is also emitted from several industrial processes, such as petroleum refining and metal processing. Effects from SO2 exposures at levels near the 1-hour standard include bronchoconstriction accompanied by symptoms, which may include wheezing, shortness of breath and chest tightness, especially during exercise or physical activity. Children, the elderly, and people with asthma, cardiovascular disease or chronic lung disease (such as

bronchitis or emphysema) are most susceptible to these symptoms. Continued exposure at elevated levels of SO2 results in increased incidence of pulmonary symptoms and disease, decreased pulmonary function, and increased risk of mortality. In 1955, the Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District established an air pollution 'first alert' level for sulfur oxides (includes SO2, sulfur trioxide, and sulfates) at 3 ppm.

• In 1959, the California Board of Public Health adopted air quality standards for SO2 at the 'adverse' level. These were 0.3 ppm for 8 hours, and 1 ppm for 1 hour.

• In 1969, the ARB adopted SO2 standards of 0.04 ppm for 24 hours, and 0.5 ppm for 1 hour.

• In 1974, the ARB adopted a 24-hour SO2 standard of 0.1 ppm. This standard was adjusted to 0.04 ppm in 1975, and then readjusted to 0.05 ppm in 1977.

• In 1991, the ARB adopted the current 24-hour SO2 standard of 0.04 ppm. • In 1984, the ARB adopted a 1-hour SO2 standard of 0.25 ppm, which was reviewed and

retained in 1995.

Nitrogen Dioxide Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a pungent gas that is responsible for the reddish-brown tinge of smoggy air in California. Sunlight causes NO2 to react with organic gases to form ozone. NO2 is one of the nitrogen oxides (NOx) that are emitted from high-temperature combustion processes, such as those occurring in automobiles and power plants. Home heaters and gas stoves also produce substantial amounts of NO2 in indoor settings.NO2 exposure has been associated with respiratory symptoms, episodes of respiratory illness, and reduced lung function. NO2 probably reacts with the cells of the lung linings or their membranes, damaging them in the process. Animal lungs have been found to suffer biochemical, structural, and cellular changes when exposed to NO2 at the level of the standard. Recent research suggests that NO2 exposure might worsen the effect of allergens in asthmatics. As a result, in 2000, the ARB staff recommended that the NO2 ambient air quality standard should be a high priority for review.

• (California standards) In 1969, the ARB adopted a standard for NO2 at 0.25 ppm for a one-hour averaging period.

• In 1985 and 1992, the ARB reviewed and retained this NO2 standard.

Lead

Lead content has been reduced in gasoline. As a result, there is a significant drop in public exposure to outdoor lead pollution. Lead poisoning can reduce mental ability, damage blood, nerves, and organs, and raise blood pressure. Even small ingestions or inhalations of lead can be harmful because lead accumulates in the body.

• In 1970, the ARB set a standard for lead at 1.5 µg/m3 for a 30-day average. • In 1976, the ARB reviewed and retained this standard.

• In 1993, the ARB identified lead compounds (including inorganic lead) as toxic air contaminants, due to cancer effects.

• In 1996, the ARB established a cancer potency value of 1.2 x 10-5 per µg/m3 for inorganic lead exposure This value also applies to lead acetate, lead phosphate, and lead subacetate.

Particulate Matter Particulate matter includes microscopic particles and tiny droplets of liquid. Because of their small size, these particles are not stopped in the nose and upper lungs by the body's natural defenses but go deep into the lungs, where they may become trapped and cause irritation. Exposure to particulate matter can cause wheezing and similar symptoms in people with asthma or sensitive airways. Particulate matter can serve as a vector for toxic air pollutants (see below). Suspended particulate matter (PM) is a complex mixture of tiny particles that consists of dry solid fragments, solid cores with liquid coatings, and small droplets of liquid. These particles vary greatly in shape, size and chemical composition, and can be made up of many different materials such as metals, soot, soil, and dust. "Inhalable" PM consists of particles less than 10 microns in diameter, and is defined as "suspended particulate matter" or "PM10". Fine particles are less than 2.5 microns in diameter (PM2.5). The State of California has established ambient air quality standards for PM. These standards define the maximum amount of particles that can be present in outdoor air without threatening the public's health. In June of 2002, the California ARB adopted new, revised PM standards for outdoor air, lowering the annual PM10 standard from 30 µg/m3 to 20 µg/m3 and establishing a new annual standard for PM2.5 of 12 µg/m3 (Calif. air qual. website http://www.arb.ca.gov/research/aaqs/pm/pm.htm) Toxic Air Pollutants Toxic air pollutants such as benzene and formaldehyde are substances from automobile emissions that are known to cause or are suspected of causing cancer, genetic mutation, birth defects, or other serious illnesses in people even at relatively low levels. The chemicals can be inhaled directly or carried by small particles (dust or lint) into the lungs. Reducing Risk How can we reduce the risk of health problems caused by exposure to vehicle emissions? Not driving is the obvious suggestion, but that isn't always practical. Instead, carpool, use mass transit, bicycle or walk whenever possible. The fewer vehicles on the highway, the fewer pollutants emitted to the air. Another way to reduce vehicle pollution is by practicing good vehicle maintenance. Your vehicle owner's manual has a suggested maintenance schedule. Vehicles pollute the least amount when they are brand new. Over time, the emission control systems degrade and pollution increases. Keeping your vehicle well-maintained with regular tune-ups will prolong the efficiency of your engine and its emission control systems. Automobile emissions testing programs are designed to ensure that vehicles are polluting as little as possible.