Environ Monit AssessDOI 10.1007/s10661-008-0475-3

Air quality assessment at Al-Taneem areain the Holy Makkah City, Saudi Arabia

Hesham A. Al-Jeelani

Received: 30 January 2008 / Accepted: 27 June 2008© Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008

Abstract Air quality assessment of the emissionfrom power plant and traffic at Al-Taneem arealocated at the northern part of the Holy Cityof Makkah, Saudi Arabia, is investigated. Con-centration levels of different pollutants includ-ing nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2),carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), methane(CH4) and total hydrocarbons (THC) as wellas some meteorological parameters (temperature,wind speed and wind direction) during the pe-riod from November 2002 to October 2003 weremeasured and analyzed. The results indicated thatnitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide concentra-tions increase at the starting hours of the day. Sul-phur dioxide concentrations were relatively lowand constant. Ozone concentration trend showedthe changes of the rate of the photochemical re-actions. The distribution of the measured con-centrations may be used for the development ofnumerical models and the estimation of air qualityparameters in urban environment.

Keywords Air quality · Concentrationpollutants · Field experiment · Power plant ·Vehicle traffic

H. A. Al-Jeelani (B)King Abdulaziz University,P.O. Box 80191, Jeddah 21589,Jeddah, Saudi Arabiae-mail: hjeelani@gmail.com

Introduction

The air quality in urban area becomes worse yearby year due to the release of pollutants fromindustrial plants and heavy vehicle traffic andconstitutes a serious hazard to human health andenvironment. Therefore, it is of great importanceto monitor and control such dangerous emissions.

Saudi Arabia’s energy consumption hasclimbed dramatically over the past two decades.The energy consumption was 1.7 quadrillion Btu(quads) in 1980, and it was 4.6 quads in 2000.Overall, Saudi Arabia consumes about 1.1% ofthe world energy consumption. Therefore, SaudiArabia’s carbon emissions have jumped in thepast 20 years from 48.8 million metric tons in 1980to 74.8 million metric tons in 2000. In terms of percapita carbon emissions, Saudi Arabia is still aregional leader. In 2000, the country’s per capitacarbon emissions were 3.7 metric tons. (www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/saudenv.html)

In recent years, many researchers have inves-tigated the emission of pollutants from powerplants in several countries in the world. Pratiland Patil (1990) have estimated the quantitativeair quality impact assessment score for a ther-mal power plant. Nitrous oxide emissions frompower plants in England and USA have beenmeasured and discussed by Laird and Slon (1993)and Duncan et al. (1995). Emission factors andannual emissions of bulk and trace elements from

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oil-shale-fueled power plants have been investi-gated by Hasanen et al. (1997). Lopez et al. (2005)have studied the health impact of power plantemissions in Mexico. Rodriguez et al. (2006) havestudied the air quality impact of distributed powergenerated in south coast air basin of California,USA. Their study focused on two main objectives:(1) the systematic characterization of distributedpower generated installation in urban air basins,and (2) the simulation of potation air qualityimpact using a state-of-the art three-dimensionalcomputational model.

Although several studies of the emission pol-lutants from power plant generators have beencarried out by many researchers in many coun-tries, there is a lack of air quality assessment datafrom power plant generation in Saudi Arabia. Asknown, traffic is a significant source of air pollu-tion in cities. Moreover, the number of the auto-mobile is increasing rapidly in the whole world.Jeelani (1996) mentioned that in Jeddah (the sec-ond largest city in Saudi Arabia), the most signif-icant source of air pollution is automobiles. Thenumber of automobiles in Jeddah City jumpedfrom less than 30,000 in 1973 to approximately

1,075,000 in 1992. This rate of increase appliesmore or less to most Saudi cities. Some studiesabout air pollution that have been carried out inthe Holy City of Makkah, Saudi Arabia, focusedon the central area near the Holy Mosque andon the Holy places (Mina and Arafat). Thesestudies showed that there are high concentra-tions of air pollutants in the atmosphere, exceed-ing the standards that are attributed to trafficemission during Hajj season, where about threemillions people gathered in these limited areas(Al-Jeelani and Ramadhan 2004, 2005; Yacob2000; Al-Thumali 1998; Badwi and Al-Hosary1993; Al-Amri and Abu-Alghat 1992). Also thereare many studies assessing the air quality insidethe tunnels near the Holy Mosque which showedthat there are very high concentrations that vio-lated the standards (Al-Jeelani 1998; Al-Raddadi1996; Al-Sawas 1995).

The aim of the present work is to analyze anddiscuss the effects of the emission from the powergeneration plant and traffic on the air quality ofAl-Taneem in the Holy City of Makkah. In thisstudy concentrations of NOx, SO2, CO, O3, CH4

and THC were measured around the power plant

Fig. 1 Power plantand sampling stationat Al-Taneem area

Power plant

Sampling

and

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Fig. 2 Wind Roseof different seasons(Oct. 2002–Sep. 2003)

Oct-Dec 2002 Jan-Mar 2003

Apr-Jun 2003 Jul-Sep 2003

All seasons (Oct. 2002 – Sep. 2003)

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Fig. 3 Air sampling station

all over the year. The observed values were com-pared with the national and international stan-dards. Such, results can also be used to developair quality models for Al-Taneem area.

Experimentations

Area of study

The sampling station is located at Al-Taneemarea about 300 m south of the power plant inthe northern part of the Holy City of Makkah.The power plant is surrounded by hills and manybuildings, which is shown in Fig. 1. In addition, theMadinah highway, the main traffic air pollutionsource, passes by the plant.

The wind rose diagrams (Fig. 2) show thatthe wind direction was alternating between northand south east. This means that the Holy City ofMakkah is downwind of power plant for about25% of the year. The temperature is rangingfrom 20◦C to 40◦C during the year. This area iscrowded most of the year since it has many visitorsfrom abroad in addition to its residents. In thisarea, the power plant uses diesel fuel. The stacksare 14 to 40.23 m high. The emissions generated

Table 1 Hourly mean values of the different pollutants concentrations and wind speed monitored at the electric generationpower plant at Al-Taneem area, 2002–2003

Hourly CH4 CO NO NO2 NOx O3 SO2 T THC WS

2 2.165 1.283 0.016 0.020 0.035 0.016 0.008 29.740 2.541 3.4313 2.204 1.274 0.015 0.019 0.034 0.017 0.009 29.480 2.567 3.4654 2.211 1.277 0.016 0.018 0.034 0.017 0.009 29.210 2.599 3.4015 2.243 1.368 0.017 0.018 0.036 0.016 0.009 28.930 2.627 3.3706 2.246 1.364 0.020 0.019 0.039 0.016 0.009 28.670 2.668 3.3987 2.251 1.578 0.030 0.020 0.051 0.014 0.010 28.450 2.733 3.3808 2.233 1.836 0.035 0.021 0.056 0.015 0.011 28.870 2.718 3.9029 2.213 1.628 0.020 0.020 0.040 0.019 0.012 30.020 2.615 4.61610 2.165 1.523 0.014 0.019 0.032 0.023 0.011 31.420 2.568 5.22611 2.104 1.468 0.011 0.018 0.029 0.026 0.012 32.810 2.511 5.66112 2.103 1.414 0.011 0.016 0.028 0.028 0.012 34.080 2.476 6.17913 2.075 1.352 0.009 0.014 0.024 0.029 0.010 35.220 2.442 6.61214 2.065 1.324 0.009 0.014 0.023 0.029 0.010 35.870 2.449 7.05315 2.091 1.307 0.010 0.014 0.023 0.029 0.010 36.240 2.414 7.30416 2.089 1.228 0.008 0.013 0.021 0.029 0.010 36.130 2.434 7.79717 2.091 1.291 0.008 0.014 0.021 0.028 0.010 35.470 2.448 7.96918 2.096 1.324 0.012 0.018 0.029 0.024 0.011 34.520 2.455 7.71719 2.088 1.352 0.015 0.020 0.034 0.021 0.011 33.300 2.436 7.04420 2.118 1.429 0.017 0.021 0.037 0.018 0.011 32.430 2.482 6.05521 2.120 1.390 0.015 0.019 0.033 0.019 0.009 31.640 2.492 5.23822 2.121 1.345 0.015 0.017 0.031 0.019 0.008 31.030 2.499 4.44523 2.137 1.276 0.013 0.017 0.030 0.018 0.008 30.620 2.515 3.92824 2.159 1.261 0.012 0.017 0.029 0.017 0.008 30.290 2.562 3.61924-h minimum average 2.065 1.228 0.008 0.013 0.021 0.014 0.008 28.450 2.414 3.37024-h maximum average 2.251 1.836 0.035 0.021 0.056 0.029 0.012 36.240 2.733 7.96924-h average 2.147 1.386 0.015 0.018 0.033 0.021 0.010 31.932 2.533 5.253

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Fig. 4 Hourly meanconcentrations ofpollutants, wind speedand temperature(Oct.–Dec. 2002)

from the plant and are not only affecting thevisitors of the area but also might affect the peopleat AL-Masged AL-Haram (the Holy Mosque).Therefore, evaluation of the pollution problem inthis area is extremely important. In this study,air pollution levels around the power plant allover the year were measured. The observed val-ues were compared with the national and inter-national standards. Finally, control measures arerecommended based on the study findings.

Air sampling

Air quality monitoring mobile station is shownin Fig. 3, which was used to conduct the mea-surements of pollutants including: nitric Oxide(NO), nitrogen dioxides (NO2), nitrogen oxides(NOx), ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), sul-fur dioxide (SO2), total hydrocarbons (THC),methane (CH4). (Include type of equipments andmethods of measurements used by equipments)This station also recorded some meteorologi-

cal parameters namely temperature (T), windspeed (WS) and wind direction (WD). Aver-age hourly measurements were taken in the pe-riod from November 2002 to October 2003. Thedata have been classified into four periods,January–March, April–June, July–September, andOctober–December.

The sampling station is located about 300 msouth of the power plant. According to winddirections, the sampling station was downwindfrom power plant for about 25% of the year. Thedaily calibration period was between 0000 and0100 hours, and no data was recorded during thatperiod.

Results

The diurnal hourly mean concentrations of themeasured pollutants during the four periods ofstudy are presented in Table 1 and Figs. 4, 5,6 and 7. From these Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7 and

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Fig. 5 Hourly meanconcentrations ofpollutants, wind speedand temperature(Jan.–Mar. 2003)

Table 1, it is clear that each pollutant has the samedaily trend during the different periods. The meanconcentration during the whole year is presentedin Fig. 8. The results of the hourly mean values ofthe measured pollutants, and annual 24-h minima,maxima, and averages during the studied year arepresented in Table 1 and Fig. 9 and daily means inFig. 10.

CO concentrations

The hourly carbon monoxide concentrationsranged from 1.23 ppm at the 1600 hours to1.84 ppm at the 0800 hours. It is clear from theresults also that all the measurements were below2 ppm. The 24-h average was 1.39 ppm.

Comparing all the recorded 1-h measurementswith the available standards presented in Table 2,showed that almost the recorded results of the cur-rent study were below the 1-h average standards(ranged between 13 ppm of Alberta guidelines

and 35 ppm of both PME standard and NAAQSsrecommended by USA).

NOx concentrations

It is apparent from the tables and the figuresthat the hourly NO2 concentrations ranged from0.013 ppm at the 1600 hours to 0.021 ppm at the2000 hours. It has been noticed that the resultswere fluctuating. The 24-h average measurementsranged from 0.0167 to 0.0184 ppm with an averagevalue of 0.018 ppm.

Comparing the results of 1-h averages with theavailable standards presented in Table 2 showedthat all the 1-h results of the current study werebelow the standards. Comparing the results of24-h minimum and maximum averages with theavailable standards showed also that the resultsof the current study were below the availablestandards. It is evident from the tables that thehourly NOx values fluctuated between 0.021 ppmat the 1600 hours and 0.056 ppm at the 0800 hours.

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Fig. 6 Hourly meanconcentrations ofpollutants, wind speedand temperature(Apr.–Jun. 2003)

The 24-h average results ranged from 0.031 to0.036 ppm with an average of 0.033 ppm. It is ap-parent from the tables and figures that the hourlyNO concentrations ranged from 0.0078ppm at the1700 hours to 0.0345 ppm at the 0800 hours. The24-h average results ranged between 0.014 and0.018 ppm with an average of 0.015 ppm. Froma health point view, the recorded NO concentra-tions were generally too small to be of significanthazard. The reason for these very low concentra-tions may be attributed to that NO is an interme-diate state for nitrogen dioxide and consequentlyit is easily oxidized to nitrogen dioxide. Also ni-trogen dioxide (NO2) is correlated negatively withozone, since nitrogen dioxide is a precursor ofozone formation.

SO2 concentrations

From Table 1 and Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7, it can befound that the hourly SO2 concentration rangedfrom 0.008 ppm at the 0200 hours to 0.0117 ppm at

both 0900 and 1100 hours. It has been noticed thatall the recorded results were fluctuating in a nar-row range. The 24-h average results ranged from0.0083 to 0.011 ppm with an average of 0.010 ppm.

Comparing the results with the available stan-dards presented in Table 2 showed that all theresults of the current study for 1- and 24-h are be-low the standards most of the time. NAAQs andWHO standards were violated only once through-out the year.

O3 concentrations

It is evident from Table 1 and Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7that the hourly ozone concentrations ranged from0.014 ppm at the 0700 hours to 0.029 ppm at the1600 hours. The 24-h average results ranged for0.0188 to 0.022 ppm with an average value of0.021 ppm.

Comparing the 1-h results with the availablestandards presented in Table 2 showed that theyare well below the standards. However, some

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Fig. 7 Hourly meanconcentrations ofpollutants, wind speedand temperature(Jul.–Sep. 2003)

of the individual recorded results were beyondthe desired value recommended by NAAQSs ofCanada (0.051 ppm) and they were within the lim-its of WHO (0.050–0.1 ppm). On the other hand,they were below the other recommended stan-dards. Comparing the average results of 24-h withthe available standards showed that they violatedthe desired value recommended by NAAQSs ofCanada (0.015 ppm). However, they were belowall the other available standards (0.025 ppm rec-ommended by Alberta guidelines and 0.060 ppmrecommended by NAAQSs of Korea). Therefore,control measures are necessary for both traffic andthe power plant to reduce the emissions causingozone formation.

THC and CH4 concentrations

Table 1 and Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7 show that thehourly total hydrocarbon concentrations rangedfrom 2 ppm at the 1500 hours to 3 ppm at the0700 hours. The 24-h average results ranged from

2.09 to 3 ppm with an average value of 3 ppm.Also, it is found that the hourly methane con-centrations ranged from 2 ppm at the 1400 hoursto 2 ppm at the 0700 hours. The 24-h averagemeasurements ranged from 1.70 to 2.80 ppm withan average value of 2 ppm. There are no standardsfor THC and CH4 to compare with.

Discussion and analysis

A wide clear peak between 0600–0900 hours is ob-served for nitrogen oxides, Nitric Oxide, NitrogenDioxide, and Carbon Monoxide (NOx, NO, NO2,and CO). The highest concentration was detectedat 0800 hours for all of them (0.056, 0.035, 0.021,and 2 ppm, respectively). Then, they decreasedup-till afternoon at 1600 hours (0.021, 0.001, 0.013,and 1 ppm, respectively). They started again toincrease up-till 2000 hours. After that, they de-creased again up-till 2400 hours (0.029, 0.012,0.017, and 1 ppm, respectively). The reduction

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Fig. 8 Hourly meanconcentrations ofpollutants, wind speedand temperature (allseasons)

Fig. 9 Hourly meanvalues of the differentpollutants monitoredaround power plant atAl-Taneem area,2002–2003

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Fig. 10 Daily meanvalues of the differentpollutants monitoredaround power plant atAl-Taneem area,2002–2003

of the concentrations during the time from 0800to 1600 hours can be attributed to the effectof meteorological conditions, especially the hightemperature (ranging from 28.9◦C at 0800 hours to36.1◦C at 1600 hours) which increases wind speed(ranged from 3.90 ms−1 at 0800 hours to 7.80 ms−1

at 1600 hours) and consequently disperses pollu-tants and decreases concentrations. The oppositeis expected if the temperature decreased wherethe pollutants will accumulate and their concen-

trations will increase. The increase of the pollu-tants concentrations, occurring during the time of1700 to 2000 hours is attributed to the temperaturedecrease (ranging from 35.5◦C at 1700 hours to32.4◦C at 2000 hours).

It is found from Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7, 8 thatas the wind speed increases (in the afternoon),the pollutants concentrations decreases for alltypes of the studied pollutants except for ozone,which increases. The high ozone concentration is

Table 2 Air qualitystandards in differentcountries (ppm)

Standards CO NO2 O3 SO2

NAAQSs (USA) 1-h average 35 0.12NAAQSs (USA) 24-h average 0.14NAAQSs (Canada) Desirable 1-h average 13.1 0.051 0.172NAAQSs (Canada) Desirable 24-h average 0.015 0.057NAAQSs (Canada) Acceptable 1-h average 30.6 0.213 0.082 0.334NAAQSs (Canada) Acceptable 24-h average 0.106 0.115WHO 1-h average 26 0.05–0.1 0.130WHO 24-h average 0.038–0.058Alberta Guidelines 1-h average 13 0.21 0.082 0.17Alberta Guidelines 24-h average 0.11 0.025 0.06NAAQSs (Korea) 1-h average 25 0.15 0.1 0.015NAAQSs (Korea) 24-h average 0.8 0.06 0.05PME (MEPA) 1-h average 35 0.35 0.15 0.28PME (MEPA) 24-h average 0.14

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because this period is characterized by a high rateof photochemical reaction which produce ozone.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) shows a relatively con-stant and low concentration (ranging from 0.0079to 0.0117 ppm. A little increase in concentrationwas observed between 0800 and 1200 hours. Thiscould be attributed to SO2 emission from thepower plant.

Note: MEPA (PME)Ozone (O3) concentration trend shows the

change of the rate of the photochemical reactions.Ozone (O3) concentration was low before sunrise(between 0.0164 ppm at 0200 and 0.0143 ppmat 0700 hours). It then started to increase aftersunrise because of the photochemical reactionreaching its maximum in the midday (between0.0289 ppm at 1400 hours and 0.0293 ppm at1600 hours). Then it decreased toward sunset(0.0183 ppm at 2000 hours). During the remaininghours of the day it fluctuated within a limitedrange (between 0.0187 and 0.0172 ppm).

Conclusions

The full-scale fields described in this paper haveprovided significant data on pollutant concen-trations in Al-Taneem area, the Holy City ofMakkah, Saudi Arabia. Based on the results ofthe field experiments obtained in this study, thefollowing conclusions can be made:

1. Nitrogen oxides and Carbon monoxide con-centrations increased at the starting hours ofthe day. Then, it decreased in the afternoon.After that, they fluctuated within a limitedrange of concentrations during the remaininghours of the day. The reason of reduction canbe attributed to the effect of the meteorologi-cal conditions.

2. It has been found that where wind speedis high, there are lower concentrations ofpollutants, except for ozone which is formedevery-where in the atmosphere due to thephotochemical reactions.

3. Sulfur dioxide showed a relatively constantand low concentration.

4. Ozone concentration trend showed thechange of the rate of the photochemicalreactions. The ozone started to increase aftersunrise, reached a maximum value in themidday, and then decreased towards sunset.

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