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Philosophical Papers and Reviews Vol. 3(1), pp. 11-, June 2012Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/PPRDOI: 10.5897/PPR12.009 2012 Academic Journals

Full Length Research Paper

The reflections of the concept of beauty in the religiousarchitecture: The example of the Ottoman period

between the 13th

and 17th

centuries

Reyhan AKAT1*, Birgl AKIROLU2 and I. Raci BAYER3

1Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Forestry, Karadeniz Technical University, 61080, Trabzon, Turkey.2Department of Construction and Technical Works, Karadeniz Technical University, 61080, Trabzon, Turkey.

3Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Middle East Technical University, 06531, Ankara, Turkey.

Accepted 16 September, 2011

Based on the assumption that religious concepts affect the architecture and therefore, that theconcepts have their own inherent languages, this study seeks to find the reflections of the concept ofbeauty in the religious architecture. In other words, the study attempts to answer the extent of the effectof the concept of beauty on the architectural formation of religious buildings. The concept of beautyand its sub-concepts in the religion have a different language for every designer. This language ispresented by the architect semantically and syntactically and the user interprets this construct rather inits semantic aspect. The aim here is to reach from the abstract values to some concrete forms andresults. Through semantic and syntactic aspect analyses, this study revealed the effects of the conceptof beauty on the formation of religious architecture. The area of research was limited to the concept ofbeauty in religion and the Ottoman civilization. Examples of religious architecture such as mosques,madrasahs and tombs of a certain Ottoman period were investigated. With this limitation in the building

types, 40 buildings about which we have the most data (in terms of plan, vertical plan, appearance,photographs) among the samples of religious architecture were chosen as the sample. In order tofigure out the effects of the concept of beauty on the architectural formation, the study employed thebasic design principles for their syntactic aspect, and the concept of beauty and its sub-concepts fortheir semantic aspect. With the analyses of the samples, the indicators of beauty in the building typeswere presented. Eventually, the contributions of the concept of beauty to the architecture and its effectson the user were interpreted and recommendations regarding the issue under scrutiny were made.

Key words: The concept of beauty, space, construction, decoration, structure, syntactic aspect, basic designprinciples, semantic aspect, emotional reaction aspect, religion.

INTRODUCTION

It is a well known fact that the factors that affect thearchitecture are the physical factors (settlement, climate,material, etc.) and cultural factors (the characteristics ofpeople, economy, traditions, religious beliefs, family andsociety, basic needs, building construction techniques,etc.). It is fairly difficult to distinguish these factors from

*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: +90462 3772848.

each other in the formation and foundation oarchitecture.It would be a conclusive assumption to saythat only one of them is the ultimate determinant in theformation and that each of them affects the architectureon its own. Under the same conditions, sometimes physical conditions and sometimes culture can be effective.

Culture is that complex whole which includesknowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any othercapabilities and habits acquired by man as a member ofsociety (zer, 1993). The interactions between man andculture take place in the environment in which they exist.


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12 Philos. Papers Rev.

Man realizes this interaction with the environment inwhich he is through the process of perception-interpretation-definition and in this way he takes the firststep that will create his formation activity (Aksoy, 1977).The history of man is divided into three important culturalperiods. These are the plundering culture, agrarian

culture and scientific technology culture. When humanbeings evolved from one culture to another, theyexperienced great wars and changes of belief (Turani,1992; Ata, 1981; Anonim, 1994, 1970).

Religious culture is kneaded with the symbolicelements that are the common characteristics of cultures.In this respect, such expressions as Egyptianarchitecture, Hindu architecture, Buddhist architecture,Christian architecture, Islamic architecture, etc. meansthat the buildings in those cultures were built under theinfluence of the symbols that are peculiar to the religionsin those cultures (Figure 1), (Tmer, 1977; Challaye,1998; rnek, 2000; Anonim, 1983, 1972). Architecturalforms are of symbolic origin and they are commonlyfound in cultures that are described as religious. Thearchitects use of spatial units where such constructionalelements as domes, vaults, arches and columns are builtis not because they are the architectural solutions interms of function and aesthetics. The function andtechnique have an effect on the formation of theseelements in a building, but the structural elements andthe main forms and spaces are basically symbolic interms of both design and use.

Religions have had the function to give individualspsychological peace on the one hand and probably morepredominantly, to shape the society on the other.Therefore, despite the different local conditions, it is

possible to see a common cultural reflection in thearchitecture of different societies that believe in the samereligion (Table 1), (Akarca, 1972; Roth, 2000; Anonim,1983; Trkolu, 2003; Ceram, 1994; Lloyd, 2003; Sevin,1982; Schulz, 1983).

When looked from this perspective, the effect ofreligions on the creation and formation of the architecturalenvironment-environmental elements become inevitable.Religious beliefs are among the cultural factors thatshape the architecture and the main purpose of this studyis to investigate the effects of these beliefs onarchitecture. Change and development are unavoidablefor a society. Focusing on the values of the past,

examining into the components in their formation andrevealing the contexts in which they were created willfacilitate finding effective solutions for the future. Withinthis framework, this study aims to investigate the conceptof beauty in the religions and its effects on the religiousbuildings and to put forth the architectural structuresbased on the concept of beauty (Table 2).

Beauty is one of the fundamental concepts of a religionand is the root cause of the creation of the universe. Thedivine beauty created the universe when he wished to beknown and reflected his endless beauty in all creatures,living and non-living. If someone does a kindness, if

someone thinks and behaves well, this means that hehas an image and sign of the Divine Power. Religion is acenter of beauties which was created by man and it ispresented as a reference to God who is the only and wholoves everything which is good. Beauty is the perfectionof design. And for this reason, it has a molding effect on

the attempts of man (Dickie, 1996; Haydar, 1991).The ornaments in the works of art are based on theisymmetries, eye-catching colours and elegant andvarying forms, as such, they present the spectator anadditional dimension of beauty. For, a figure or a storythat expresses tawhid (unification) is an expression of thetruth and beauty for the members of that religion. Thenthis is also an expression of beauty with a strongerjustification (Raci El-Faruki and Lamia El-Faruki, 1999)The colourful and bright world of such attitudes andfeelings as happiness and being hopeful and joyful arethe common characteristics of religious architectural arts(Cansever, 1997).

The aim of the religion of Islam is to make the worldand the environments in which human beings live morebeautiful. Since the aim is to create a more beautifuworld, those who created these cities in the past tried tocreate them like parts of the paradise. While architectureaddresses all human beings with all its beauties, it shouldtake into consideration both the needs of man and theregional characteristics. The decorations, in a rich varietyof colour, are the products of the will of art that aim tobeautify the world (Cansever, 1994; 1997). The formarichness here is the result of an attitude which introducesbeauty to man and which aims to make man experiencea beautiful world.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Field of study

This study covers the Ottoman period in Anatolia between the 13t

and 17th centuries, and the concept of beauty in Islam. In generalthe Ottoman architecture is studied in four different main periodsas: the Early Period / the Period Before Sinan, the Architecture / thePeriod of Sinan, the Architecture / the Westernization period. TheEarly Period lasted from 1501 to the beginning of the classicaperiod. The 16th century was the classical period and was markedby Sinan, the Architecture and at the end of the 16th century, theneo-classical period started with the Sultan Ahmet Mosque (1609 to1616). This period was affected by the then-current movements in

Europe, has the characteristic of a transitional period and wasfollowed by the last period which was affected by such artisticmovements in Europe as baroque, rococo, empiricism, eclecticismand neo-classicism. This period lasted until slightly after thefoundation of the Republic of Turkey. In later periods, modernarchitectural movements became influential (oruhlu, 1993, 2000).nsal (1996) has identified the Ottoman architectural styles as:

1. 1299 to 1501 The Bursa (Early) period,2. 1501 to 1703 The Classical period,3. 1703 to 1730 The Tulip period,4. 1730 to 1808 The Turkish Baroque,5. 1808 to 1908 The Cosmopolitan period,6. 1908 to 1923 The Neo-Ottoman period.


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Akat et al. 13

OSMANLI(M.S.1

29

9-1923)

SELUKLU(M.S.1071-1300)

BZANS(M.S.395-1453)

ROMA(M..30-M.S.395)

HELLENSTK(M..330-30)

PERS(M..546-333)

LYKA(M..600-300)

LYDA(M..680-546)

PHRYG(

M..750-680)

URARTU

(M..900-600)

GEH

TT(M..1200-700)

HTT(M..1800-1200)

ASUR

KOLONLER(M..2000-1800)

HA

TT(M..2500-2000)

PR

OTOHSTORK(M..2500-1750)

PALEOLTK(M..600.000-10.000)

MEZOLTK(M..10.000-8000)NEOLTK(M..8.000-5.500)

KALKOLTK(M..5.500-3000)

TUNAI(M..3.000-1.200)

Figure 1. Fields and periods of work.Note: M.. refers to B.C.; M.S. refers to A.D.


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Table 1. Architecture in monotheist and polytheist ages.

Architecture

inpolytheistages

Paleolitic

Age

(B.C.600.000

-10.000)

Features Examples

Concrete, anological,associate, magical, symbolicthinking and the classifier(Tanilli, 1994, enel, 1996,Mutlu, 2001).

Deer heads, Lascaux Cave,France (Anonim, 1983)

Bulls and deers, Le PortelCave,France (Anonim, 1983)

(Neolitic)

(B.C.8.000

B.C.5.500)

Transition to religious thinkingand civilization,from magicalthinking and primitive society(enel, 1996, Mutlu, 2001).(www.savestonehenge.org.uk

/actnow.html 19.03.2003.)

Stonehenge (Stierlin, 1997). Megaliths(Stonehenge)

Mezopotamia

Religious opinion,impersonation of naturalpowers, concern ofimmortality is not seen.Showiness and splendidness,is all for our world (Turani,

1992).

Mezopotamia, zigurat, Ur(Stierlin, 1997).

Marduk Temple (nsal,1996).

Egypt

Egyptian architecture; Amathematical attention,enormousness of the sizesand obliqueness of the forms.With these convincing thehuman being that he isimmortal (Turani 1992,

Schulz 1983).(www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihi18.03.2003.)

Gizza, pyramite Keops (Roth,2000).

Gizza,pyramite
http://www.savestonehenge.org.uk/actnow.htmlhttp://www.savestonehenge.org.uk/actnow.htmlhttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.savestonehenge.org.uk/actnow.htmlhttp://www.savestonehenge.org.uk/actnow.htmlhttp://www.savestonehenge.org.uk/actnow.html


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Akat et al. 15

Table 1. Contd.

Arch

itecture

inpolytheistages

AncientAmerica

Aztecs, Incas and Mayas areestablishers of big states.Aztec archtectural structureshas pyramidal shape, steepstairs. Mayas has graded

pyramites (Turani, 1992).

Maya Civilization, Teotihuacan(www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihi18.03.2003.)

Maya Civilization,Teotihuacan(www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihi18.03.2003.)

Inca cities were melancholic.Residences and temples justnear-by the palace (Turani,1992).

Maya civilization, Tikal(www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihi18.03.2003.)

Maya civilization, Tikal(www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihi18.03.2003).

Crete

Civillian architecturedeveloped, temples did not(Mutlu, 2001).

Crete, Konosos Palace plan(Anonim, 1983)

Crete, KonososPalace(Anonim, 1983)

Mycenean

Mathematical abtsraction inmycenean art as formalstrength, appears up like theart of a warrior nation (Turani,1992, Mutlu, 2001).

Mycenean, Atreus Tomb(Stierlin, 1997).

Mycenean, Atreus Tomb(Stierlin, 1997).
http://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihi


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Table 1. Contd.

Architecture

inpolytheistages

Persian

Fire, soil and water deemd asholy. So in order not tocontaminate them, they givethe dead bodies to animals(Mutlu, 2001).

Kirus Tomb (Pazargad)(nsal,1996).

Neisar fire atlar (nsal,1996).

Gre

ek

Transition from mythology tophylosophy (enel, 1996).

Parthenon plan (Roth, 2000). Parthenon Temple

Everywhere they searched forideal symetri (Roth, 2000).

Erechtheion plan, akropolice(Roth, 2000).

Erechtheion

Religious architecture;temple, altar, tomb. Civillianaerchitecture; Agora andPortico, closed meeting halls,teathers, odeon, stadium,fountains, cesidences, castles(Mutlu,2001).(http://johnpaulheil.com/turke

y.htm 20.03.2003).

Zeus Temple, Olympia, Greece(Roth, 2000).
http://johnpaulheil.com/turkey.htmhttp://johnpaulheil.com/turkey.htmhttp://johnpaulheil.com/turkey.htmhttp://johnpaulheil.com/turkey.htmhttp://johnpaulheil.com/turkey.htm


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Akat et al. 17

Table 1. Contd.

Architecture

inpolytheistages

Rome

They have a unique place inhistory as planners andorganizers (Turani, 1992).(www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihi

18.03.2003).

Pantheon (Stierlin, 1997). Pantheon

Religious Architecture; temple,tombs, Civillian Architecture;Basilica, triumphal arch andcolumns, bath, palace andresidences, social building,Teathers, amphiteatre circus,Public servises; roads, bridges,water arches,sanitary sewage,Millitary; castles,city walss(Mutlu, 2001).

Rome, Fortuna Virile Temple (Anonim,1983)

Rome, Vesta Temple (Anonim,1983)

After christianity churhesinherited their form from Romanbasilica (Turani, 1992).

Maison Carree (Anonim, 1983) Maison Carree (Anonim, 1983)

India

Architecture, sculpture andthen drawing arts developed incaverns. Can be said thatIndian architecture is astructural art that takes the formof sculptures (Turani, 1992).

HoysalaTemple(www.kamat.com/kalranga/architectureIndianArchitecture.

17.03.2003).

Sringeri Vindyaranya Temple,India(www.kamat.com/kalranga/archi

tecture Indian Architecture.17.03.2003).

Indian architecture is notconcerned with space. Can beseen that inside and outside ofthe structure is unrelated(Turani 1992).

Buddhist Chaitya, Karli, ndia (Seckel,1964).

Buddhist Chaitya, Karli, ndia(Seckel, 1964).
http://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.kamat.com/kalranga/architectureIndianhttp://www.kamat.com/kalranga/architectureIndianhttp://www.kamat.com/kalranga/architecturehttp://www.kamat.com/kalranga/architecturehttp://www.kamat.com/kalranga/architecturehttp://www.kamat.com/kalranga/architecturehttp://www.kamat.com/kalranga/architecturehttp://www.kamat.com/kalranga/architectureIndianhttp://www.kamat.com/kalranga/architectureIndianhttp://www.kamat.com/kalranga/architectureIndianhttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihi


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Table 1. Contd.

Architecture

inpolytheistages

Japan

Sintoism, Budism,Confucianism were amongthe common beliefs.Temples are squareshaped. Pagodas are multi

floored and protruded out(Anonim 1983).

Pagoda, 7. Cent (Seckel 1964).

China

God-king cult of the Shangdynasty,Teory of son of theskies and sky-earth relationof Chu dynasty, Corrosionof beliefs during time ofcombating states and therise of news phylosophies,Confusianism, phylosophyof Lao-Che is seen (enel

1996).

Chinese Temple (Stierlin 1997). Chinese Temple (Stierlin 1997).

Most prominent feature ofthe Chinesee architectureis construction principlesremain unchanged duringcenturies. In China thereare pagodas related withBudha. They are in shapeof square, hexagon,octagon. Circular planpagoda is not seen (Turani

1992).

China, Shi Chia Pagoda, Fo

Kung Temple (Stierlin 1997).Pagoda, 8.cent (Seckel 1964).


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Akat et al. 19

Table 1. Contd.

Arch

itecture

inpolytheistages

Judaism

The place where the Jewishpray is called Synagogue.They are places for praying,socialization and education(Trkolu, 2003).

Nizhniy Synagouge(http://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagoga-Nijniy Nijniy. 11

Kasm 2005).

(http://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sin

agog-Moskva2 Moskva. 11 Kasm2005).

Synagouge; Besides mainpraying hall also contains asmall one and Torah,a rabbiroom, a water resourse likefountain or cistern,

toilet...etc (Turani ,1992).

(http://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php

3?id=Kharkov_Sinagoga9Kharkov. 11.11.2005).

Penza Sinagog

(http://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sin

agoga-Penza Penza. 11.11.2005).

Christianity

Churches are built in form ofthree nave because oftrinitarianism (Combrich,

1992).

San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy (Roth,2000).

Byzantine Church, San Vitale(www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarli

kvesanattarihi 18.03.2003).

Plan resmbles the crucifiedJesus. Decoration is rich insymbolism. Churc is theresidence of God (Bammat1987).

Byzantium monastery, Delphoi,near by Athens

Laon(www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarli

kvesanattarihi 18.03.2003).
http://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagoga-Nijniyhttp://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagoga-Nijniyhttp://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagoga-Nijniyhttp://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagog-Moskva2http://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagog-Moskva2http://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagog-Moskva2http://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Kharkov_Sinagoga9http://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Kharkov_Sinagoga9http://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Kharkov_Sinagoga9http://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagoga-Penzahttp://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagoga-Penzahttp://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagoga-Penzahttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagoga-Penzahttp://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagoga-Penzahttp://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagoga-Penzahttp://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagoga-Penzahttp://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Kharkov_Sinagoga9http://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Kharkov_Sinagoga9http://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Kharkov_Sinagoga9http://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagog-Moskva2http://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagog-Moskva2http://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagog-Moskva2http://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagog-Moskva2http://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagoga-Nijniyhttp://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagoga-Nijniyhttp://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagoga-Nijniyhttp://www.zionet.co.il/hp/asya_entova/photo/sinagog/sinagog.php3?id=Sinagoga-Nijniy


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Table 1. Contd.

Architecture

inpolytheistages

Christianity

In the half circular spacecalled Abscissa, altar waslocated where all the faithfulturn their looks (Combrich1992).

Saint Peter Basilica plan (Roth2000).

Saint Peter Basilica perspective (Roth2000).

The place that allocated forthe altar is called choro,where the communitygathers is called nave(Combrich 1992).

Bizantium churc, Sant Apollinale,Classe

(www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihi 18.03.2003).

Bizantium church, Sant Apollinale,Classe


In the churh, behind the highaltar where the priestconducting the divine servicestands, around him there

should be a community tocarry out their holy duty(Combrich 1992).

Notre-Dame de Amiens plan (Roth2000).

Notre-Dame de Amiens,GothicCathedral(Amiens)


Stem stands like a heavysculpture.In this heavy

structure there weresymbolism of spreading ofreligion among the earth andregarding the earth (Turani1992).

Notre-Dame front facade and plan(Anonim 1983).

Romanesk architecture, Duoma, Pisa(www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlik

vesanattarihi 18.03.2003).
http://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihi


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Akat et al. 21

Table 1. Contd.

Architecture

inpolytheistage

s

Christianity

In Catholicism for everypriest it was necessary tomake one divine service. Soaltars should increase innumber (Turani, 1992).

Chartles Cathedral general view(Anonim 1983).

Chartles Cathedral plan (Anonim1983).

One point which approvesthat, cathedrals are under amiracle influence. Stoneslook like has no structuralfunction and rise in the air(Turan, 1992).

S.Pietro plan (Roth 2000). Renaissance era, S. Pietro,(www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihi 18.03.2003).

Architecture

inmonotheistages

slam

In Islamic culture there is nocontrast between religousand civil art (Anonim, 1983).Because of hor climatesmain aim was creating wellair conditioned places (Enn,1987).

Lahore,Pakistan(http://www.searchindia.com/search/S

ociety/Religion/Islam/index.shtmlIslam. 18.03.2003).

slamabad, Pakistan

(http://www.searchindia.com/search/Society/Religion/Islam/index.sht

ml Islam. 18.03.2003).

Main theme of Islamicarchitecture is mosque(Turani ,1992).

Jerusalem

(http://www.searchindia.com/search/Society/Religion/Islam/index.shtml

Islam. 18.03.2003).

Tacmahal, Hindistan(http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Culture/Archit/TajM.htmlTaj

Mahal. 23.03.2003).

Mosque usually constitutesof a square court,surrounded by columnporches and in the middlethere is a fountain system.

And at least one minaret(Anonim, 1983)(http://pc12.soc.metu.edu.tr/bolum/bolum015.htmBuhara. 25.03. 2003).

Buhara Nuruosmaniye Mosque, stanbul(Aslanapa 1993, Kuban 1988).
http://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.searchindia.com/search/Society/Religion/Islam/index.shtmlhttp://www.searchindia.com/search/Society/Religion/Islam/index.shtmlhttp://www.searchindia.com/search/Society/Religion/Islam/index.shtmlhttp://www.searchindia.com/search/Society/Religion/Islam/index.shtmlhttp://www.searchindia.com/search/Society/Religion/Islam/index.shtmlhttp://www.searchindia.com/search/Society/Religion/Islam/index.shtmlhttp://www.searchindia.com/search/Society/Religion/Islam/index.shtmlhttp://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Culture/Archit/TajM.htmlhttp://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Culture/Archit/TajM.htmlhttp://pc12.soc.metu.edu.tr/bolum/bolum015.htmhttp://pc12.soc.metu.edu.tr/bolum/bolum015.htmhttp://pc12.soc.metu.edu.tr/bolum/bolum015.htmhttp://pc12.soc.metu.edu.tr/bolum/bolum015.htmhttp://pc12.soc.metu.edu.tr/bolum/bolum015.htmhttp://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Culture/Archit/TajM.htmlhttp://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Culture/Archit/TajM.htmlhttp://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Culture/Archit/TajM.htmlhttp://www.searchindia.com/search/Society/Religion/Islam/index.shtmlhttp://www.searchindia.com/search/Society/Religion/Islam/index.shtmlhttp://www.searchindia.com/search/Society/Religion/Islam/index.shtmlhttp://www.searchindia.com/search/Society/Religion/Islam/index.shtmlhttp://www.searchindia.com/search/Society/Religion/Islam/index.shtmlhttp://www.searchindia.com/search/Society/Religion/Islam/index.shtmlhttp://www.searchindia.com/search/Society/Religion/Islam/index.shtmlhttp://www.searchindia.com/search/Society/Religion/Islam/index.shtmlhttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihihttp://www.arkitera.com/webrehberi/mimarlikvesanattarihi


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Table 2. The Civilizations and Architecture in Anatolia

Ages and the Civilizatons Features and examples

Paleolithic Age

(B.C. 600.000-10.000)

There is nomadic life (Akyldz, 1997). They utilized natural caves, shelters under therock and the very primitive shelters made of bough, brushwood and animal pelt outdoorsas residence (Sevin, 1999).

Mesolithic

(B.C. 10.000-8.000)

There is not any considerable change compared to Chipped Stone Age from lifestylepoint of view. The original finds are geometric-shaped small tools made of flint stone,called Microlith (Akyldz, 1997).

Neolithic

(B.C. 8000-5500)

Mural (Sevin,1999).Chatalhoyuk(www.geocities.com/izkir/arkeol

oji.htmArkeoloji.18.03.2003)

Chatalhoyuk (B.C. 6000)(Lloyd, 2000).

Chalcolithic Age Copper AgeMining Age

(B.C. 5.500-3.000)

Stone and earth is replaced by copper instruments. Kitchenwares are adorned with paint(Sevin, 1999). The houses have a rectangular plan and usually a single room (Akyldz,1997).

Bronze Age

(B.C. 3000-1200)

Development of mining resulted in city life depending on labour division (Akyldz, 1997).

Hattian Civilization

(B.C. 2500-2000/1700)

Goddes, at Hattians known as Vureshuma (Sevin, 1999). They are the local people ofAnatolia. Unique styles of rich adornments in handworks are seen in animal figures andsun disk (Lloyd, 2000).

Assyrian Colonies

(B.C. 2000-1800)

Cylinder and stamp seals, animal and human figures, animal shape drinking potsrepresents the art of the age (Lloyd, 2000).

Hitit Civilization

(B.C. 1800-1200)

Well progressed in sculpture, reliefs and architecture. Their mainstay is agriculture andlivestocks (Http://Serhatyeniceri.Sitemynet.Com/Ilkcag/Anadolu.Htm Anadolu Tarihi.23.03.2003). Temple plans are not same. But entrance and cult room doesnt change(Lloyd, 2000).

Millitary Religous Civil

Lion Gate, Bogazkoy(www.geocities.com/izkir/arkeoloji.htmArkeoloji.18.03.2003).

Eflatunpnar rockmonument (Dincol, 1982).

Bogazkoy, residence(Dincol, 1982).

Late Hittite

(B.C. 1200-700)

City gates, palaces, some of the govermental buildings are adorned with orthostaticreliefs and hieroglyphs (Lloyd, 2000).

Urartian

(B.C. 900-600)

For setltling chooed places like high mountains and steep cliffs for ease of defence. Inarchitecture they did palaces, castles, irrigation channels (Akyldz, 1997).
http://www.geocities.com/izkir/arkeoloji.htmhttp://www.geocities.com/izkir/arkeoloji.htmhttp://serhatyeniceri.sitemynet.com/ILKCAG/ANADOLU.HTMhttp://www.geocities.com/izkir/arkeoloji.htmhttp://www.geocities.com/izkir/arkeoloji.htmhttp://www.geocities.com/izkir/arkeoloji.htmhttp://www.geocities.com/izkir/arkeoloji.htmhttp://www.geocities.com/izkir/arkeoloji.htmhttp://serhatyeniceri.sitemynet.com/ILKCAG/ANADOLU.HTMhttp://www.geocities.com/izkir/arkeoloji.htmhttp://www.geocities.com/izkir/arkeoloji.htmhttp://www.geocities.com/izkir/arkeoloji.htm


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Akat et al. 23

Table 2. Contd.

Phryg

(B.C. 750-680)

They kept the Hittite traditions living and adopted themselves to the unique cultureof Anatolia. Bodies were burried in caved in graves in rock. They were polytheists(http://Serhatyeniceri.Sitemynet.Com/Ilkcag/Anadolu.Htm Anadolu Tarihi.23.03.2003)

Millitary Religous CivilMidas Tomb: Holy placenearby Yortan. In Chorum,rock tomb in Kumbet Village(Umar, 1995).

Midas holy rock monument (Umar, 1995).

Lydia

(B.C. 680-546)

A civilization at the peak of culture, wealth and splendidness (Akyldz, 1997).Kybele, Artemisia and Dionysos were prominent Gods (Sevin, 1999).


Tantalos Tumulus(Sevin 1999).

Goldsmith workshops(Sevin 1999).

Lykia

(B.C. 600-300)

They have a polytheist belief. Uniqie feature is caved in tombs in rocks. Although

they are made of sotne they carry the features of timber architecture (Lloyd 2000).

Greek They served as a bridge between east and west. They are polytheists(Http://Serhatyeniceri.Sitemynet.Com/Ilkcag/Anadolu.Htm Anadolu Tarihi.23.03.2003). Artemisia temple in Ephesos is one of the seven wonders of the earth(Onurkan 1982).

Military Religious Civil

Artemisia, Assos Athena Temple

(Onurkan, 1982).

Persians

(B.C. 546-333)

Zoroastrianists. Only few of the monuments show the features of Persian culture.Satrap tomb, made by caving in the rocks (Umar, 1995).
http://serhatyeniceri.sitemynet.com/ILKCAG/ANADOLU.HTMhttp://serhatyeniceri.sitemynet.com/ILKCAG/ANADOLU.HTM


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Table 2. Contd.

Hellenistic

(B.C. 330-30)

Hellenistic term includes the time between Alexander the Great and Roman conquests (Umar, 1995). It isan age of planned cities, libraries, museums, sculpture of big dimensions and splendid monumentalarchitecture (Akyldz, 1997).


Nimrod

Sardes Artemisia Temple(Onurkan, 1982).

Ephes teathre (Onurkan, 1982).

Roma

(B.C. 30- A.D. 395)

Roman Gods stayed same in names but as function became Greek (Umar, 1995).

Most splendid works of Roman art is in sculpture and architecture (Akyldz, 1997).

Ephes Hadrian Temple(Onurkan, 1982).

Gmkesen monumental tomb(Onurkan, 1982).

Cendere Bridge, Adyaman

Byzantium

(A.D. 395- 1453)

Roman polytheism left its place to Christianity in Byzantium age. Despite it is a Christian art ofmiddle age it contains the synthesis of past (Lloyd, 2000).

Byzantine

(A.D. 395- 1453)


Trebizon Castle Hagia Sofia, Trebizon

(Anonim, 1984).

Virgin Mary monastry

(Anonim, 1984).


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Akat et al. 25

Table 2. Contd.

Seljukian

(A.D. 1071- 1300)

Anatolian Seljukian architecture is generally religous. Mosque, madrasah, shrine, cupola areprominent structures (Akyldz 1997).

Caravanserais show the might and organization capacity of the Seljuks. Palace and mansions aremodest structures besides sultan houses (Lloyd 2000).


Kars Castle Seljukian, Ahlat tombs Hasankeyf, bridge

Amasya Castle Ani remnants, mosque, Kars Sivas, hospital

(Hallaolu, 1982).

Ottoman

(A.D.1299- 1923)

Most splendid works are in the area of monumental architecture. Among most of the achitectural

samples, might and wealth of the empire is represented (Lloyd, 2000).Ottoman both in architectural and engineering point of view built unique structures like shrine,madrasah, mansion, palace mosque, baths, water arches, bridges (Akurgal, 2000).


Safranbolu houses Bursa, shirines(Hallaolu, 1982).

Doubeyazt, shak Paa Palace(Hallaolu, 1982).

Anatolia is a rare geography which has had many cultural riches,which has hosted many civilizations that can be traced back tothousands of years and which has been the world of diversesystems of belief, which makes up the richest mosaic in the world.For this reason, it would be easier to explore the mystery of spacein Anatolia where creation of space has been considered veryimportant. Taking Anatolia as the field of study is extremelyimportant due to the fact that we are living in Anatolia and that it

has an extremely diverse textural richness (Figure 1).Two cultures are frequently referred to in Anatolia: the culture

before Turks came to Anatolia and the culture that Turks brought toAnatolia. The Anatolian culture is the product of a mixture ocultures of different civilizations before and after Turks came: beforethe Turks, the cultures in Anatolia were the pre-Hittite civilizationsHittite civilization, Urartian civilization, Phrygian civilization, Lydiancivilization, Lycian civilization, Persian sovereignty in Anatolia


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Hellenistic period, Roman period and Byzantine period; and withthe arrival of Turks, the Seljuk civilization and Ottoman civilization,(Sinemolu, 1984; enel, 1996; Bademir, 1999;Takiran, 1997).Before the Turks, there were countless beliefs in Anatolia. With thearrival of Turks, Anatolia became acquainted with the nomadicculture, their Shamanic beliefs and other great religions of Asia:Buddhism, Manichaeism, Christianity, Judaism and finally Islam,(Childe, 1995; Mc Neill, 1994; Mutlu, 2001).

Methods

The method that this study employed is based on the investigationand analysis of the effects of the concept of beauty on architecturein a certain group of buildings. It has been argued that the conceptof beauty affect the formation of buildings, which is the mainpremise of the present study. Based on this premise, the presentstudy claims that the Islamic concept of beauty and its sub-concepts (which were obtained from a literature review) affect thearchitectural buildings or are reflected in the architectural buildingsand that this can easily be noticed by the users. For example, it is awell-known fact that the different architectural examples of theOttoman period were affected by the religion of Islam. However, the

question of which types of building were affected by whichconcepts of the religion and how has been unanswered. With thisquestion in mind, the study aimed to identify and sample differenttypes of building in the stated Ottoman period and to question theeffects of the Islamic concept of beauty and its sub-concepts onthese examples (Table 3).

With the support of the principles of semiotics, the samplebuildings were examined both semantically and syntactically, weredescribed by using different concepts and necessary definitions andclassifications were made. For this, the study employed differentconcepts for their semantic aspects and the basic design principlesfor their syntactic aspects (Table 4). These concepts were createdby using the information, plans-vertical plans-faades andphotographs of the buildings given in the section which explainedthe buildings under investigation. The concept of beauty in thestudy is based on the verses in Quran, on the explanations in the

related literature and on the section of Evaluation of the EmotionalReactions in Michelsons book (Michelson, 1975), BehaviouralResearch Methods in Environmental Design.

The building types that were chosen from the Ottoman periodafter a literature review were analyzed and classified by using thesemiotic principles (semantic aspect, syntactic aspect), and in thisway, the place of the concept of beauty in the buildings, themeanings that it takes in the buildings and the meanings that itgives to the buildings were explored and compared in terms of thesemantic aspect to syntactic aspect relationship. At the sequentialstages of the study, explanations and analysis tables regarding thefollowing were created:

a. Identifying the field of work: In terms of chronology, civilizations,types of building,

b. Sample selection: Identification work based on publishedmaterial, observation, interview,c. Identification work regarding the samples: Fieldwork, literaturereview,d. Analysis of the samples: Visual data about the buildings,information about the buildings, the concept of beauty in religion,identification of the sub-concepts.

In order to interpret architecture in terms of semiotics, it isnecessary that the reflecting and reflected concepts must beapplicable to the architecture. In terms of visual communication inarchitecture, the reflecting are such characteristics as meaningfulsystems, spaces, areas, masses, rhythms, colours, textures; andthe reflected are such elements as iconographic meanings,

aesthetic meanings, architectural thoughts, space understandingssocial beliefs and ways of living, functions, activities, commerciapurposes, technical compliance, etc. In terms of semiotics, if thereis no purpose of communication, architectural structures do nocommunicate anything in appearance. The architectural objects thado not communicate anything in appearance are functional. Thearchitectural code that this functionality creates produces a visuacode and the architectural image communicates the function of thearchitecture even when this function need not be realized. CharlesMorris (Guirand, 1994; Erkmen, 1987; Ching, 2002; Ycel, 2001

Aksoy, 1975; Ertrk, 1993; Aydinli, 1993; zek, 1983; olak, 1991Venturi, 1991), divides semiotics into three as semantic, syntacticand pragmatic; The syntactic aspect (the syntactic relationship othe sign), the semantic aspect (the semantic function of the sign)and the pragmatic aspect (the pragmatic function of the sign)When the environment is seen as a source of information, thebuildings or the whole of buildings can be interpreted as signs thatcommunicate information. In terms of the theory of signs, a sign isdivided into three: syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. Syntax is thestructural/logical foundation of the sign; it is the core elementSemantics involves syntax and investigates the relationshipsbetween the sign and reality. Pragmatics involves semantics andsyntax and investigates the effects of the symbol systems that the

sign communicates on the users of those symbol systems (Uraz1993; Divanliolu, 1997). Within this framework:

1. In the semantic aspect, the concept of beauty was created fromthe;

i. Sub-concepts of the concept of beauty in the religion derivedmainly from the related literature and from the verses in the Quran,iii. Sub-concepts that were derived from the literature about theconcepts in the buildings under investigation,iii. Emotional reaction concepts in the literature.

2. In the syntactic aspect, the concept of beauty was investigatedunder the basic design principles (akirolu, 2006; Grer, 2004Vitruvius, 1993, Kuban, 1989; Gngr, 1983; Tavan, 2000

Rasmussen, 1994; Graves, 1951). The analyses that were basedon the principles were made in the plans, vertical plans, faadesinner spaces and physical environments of the buildings. Theformal principles that were studied are as follows:

i. Symmetryii. Dominanceiii. Rhythm (repetition)iv. Balancev. Contrastvi. Hierarchyvii. Harmonyviii. Unity

3. The selection of the samples under investigation: Based on an

exhaustive literature review, 40 sample buildings of religiousarchitecture which remained intact up to the present day, whichhave not lost their characteristics, and about which we have enoughinformation were chosen to be analysed. These buildings consistedof 22 mosques, 10 madrasahs, and 8 tombs (Table 3). Of theexamples of both civil and religious architecture, the samples werechosen only from the religious architecture due to the fact that thetopic was very broad in scope. The following methods were used inthe selection of the samples:

i. Identification work based on publications,ii. Observation,iii. Interview.


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Akat et al. 27

Table 3. The samples that were studied (mosque, madrasah, tomb).

Sample mosques

Hac zbek Mosque, znik(http://www.iznik.gen.tr/t.eserler/haciozbe

k.htm). Single-domed (Single unit)

Alauddin Mosque, Bursa (Aslanapa,1977). Single-domed (single unit)

Orhan Bey Mosque, Bursa (Kuran, 1964).Reverse T Plan (With a transverse axis)

Eski Cami, Edirne (Aslanapa, 1993).Multi-domed (Multi-unit) (Same size)

Yeil Cami, znik (Aslanapa, 1996). Singledomed (Single unit)

(Different inner space formation)

Ulu Cami, Bursa (Aslanapa, 1977). Multi-domed (Multi unit) (same size)

Yldrm Cami, Bursa (nsal, 1959).Reverse T Plan (With a transverse axis)

Yeil Cami, Bursa(http://images.google.com.tr/kVmkoGUJ:&tbnh=129&tbnw=84&hl=tr&start=1&prev

=/images%3Fq%3Dbursa%2Bcami).

Reverse T Plan (With a transverse axis)

erefeli Cami, Edirne (nsal, 1959).Multi-domed (Multi-unit) (With a central

dome)

Murad Paa Mosque, st. (Szen, 1975).With large twin domes

Atik Ali Paa Mosque, st. (Aslanapa,1986). Multi-domed (Multi-Unit; with a

central dome)

ehzade Mosque, st.(www.oberlin.edu/art/mages/art109/art10

9.html).With four supports semidomed
http://www.iznik.gen.tr/t.eserler/haciozbek.htmhttp://www.iznik.gen.tr/t.eserler/haciozbek.htmhttp://images.google.com.tr/kVmkoGUJ:&tbnh=129&tbnw=84&hl=tr&start=1&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dbursa%2Bcamihttp://images.google.com.tr/kVmkoGUJ:&tbnh=129&tbnw=84&hl=tr&start=1&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dbursa%2Bcamihttp://images.google.com.tr/kVmkoGUJ:&tbnh=129&tbnw=84&hl=tr&start=1&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dbursa%2Bcamihttp://images.google.com.tr/kVmkoGUJ:&tbnh=129&tbnw=84&hl=tr&start=1&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dbursa%2Bcamihttp://www.oberlin.edu/art/mages/art109/art109.htmlhttp://www.oberlin.edu/art/mages/art109/art109.htmlhttp://www.oberlin.edu/art/mages/art109/art109.htmlhttp://www.oberlin.edu/art/mages/art109/art109.htmlhttp://www.oberlin.edu/art/mages/art109/art109.htmlhttp://images.google.com.tr/kVmkoGUJ:&tbnh=129&tbnw=84&hl=tr&start=1&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dbursa%2Bcamihttp://images.google.com.tr/kVmkoGUJ:&tbnh=129&tbnw=84&hl=tr&start=1&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dbursa%2Bcamihttp://images.google.com.tr/kVmkoGUJ:&tbnh=129&tbnw=84&hl=tr&start=1&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dbursa%2Bcamihttp://images.google.com.tr/kVmkoGUJ:&tbnh=129&tbnw=84&hl=tr&start=1&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dbursa%2Bcamihttp://www.iznik.gen.tr/t.eserler/haciozbek.htmhttp://www.iznik.gen.tr/t.eserler/haciozbek.htmhttp://www.iznik.gen.tr/t.eserler/haciozbek.htm


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Table 3. Contd.

Mihrimah Mosque, st. (Kuban, 1998).With four supports-semidomed

Sleymaniye Mosque, st. (Hattstein andDelius, 2000). With four supports-

semidomed

Zal Mahmud Paa Mosque .st.(Aslanapa, 1986). With four supports

single-domed

Sinan Paa Mosque, st. (Kuban, 1998).With six supports

Rstem Paa Mosque, st. (Gnay,2002). With eight supports

Mihrimah Sultan Mosque, st. (Gnay,2002). With four supportssingle-domed

Selimiye Mosque, Edirne (Gnay, 2002).With eight supports

Valide Sultan Mosque., st. (Gnay,2002). With six supports

Sokollu Mehmed P. Mosque st. (Gnay,2002).With six supports

Sultan Ahmed Mosque, st. (Gnay,2002). With four supportssemidomed

Zal Mahmud Paa Mosque, st. (Gnay,2002). A mosque with a courtyard jointly

used with a madrasah


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Akat et al. 29

Table 3. Contd.

Madrasah samples

Muradiye, Bursa (nsal, 1959). Porticos androoms on three sides of the courtyard and a

classroom on one side

Haseki Hrrem, st. (Gnay, 2002). Porticoson all four sides with rooms placed on three

sides

Mihrimah Sultan, st. (Kuban, 1998). Porticoson all four sides with rooms placed on three

sides

ehzade Medresesi, st. (Aslanapa, 1986).Porticos on all four sides with rooms placed on

three sides

Sleymaniye Med., st. (Aslanapa, 1986).Porticos on all four sides with rooms placed

on three sides

Rstem Paa Med., st. (Aslanapa, 1986). Amosque with an octagonal courtyard with

rooms on all sides

Selimiye Madrasah, Edirne (lgen, 1994).Porticos on all four sides with rooms placed on

three sides

Valide Sultan Madrasah., stanbul (Gnay,2002). Porticos on three sides with rooms

Sokollu Mehmet Pasha., stanbul (Gnay,2002). A madrasah with a courtyard jointly

used with a mosque

RESULTS

Architecture and the concept of beauty underinvestigation

A beautiful building means that it meets a certain need onthe one hand, and that it satisfies the human liking withits outer form, inner limits, empty spaces, colours, sizesand textures of its surfaces and its light and shadow onthe other (Tavan, 2000). Based on the accounts above,the study identified the sub-concepts of the concept ofbeauty and their opposites (Table 4).

Building types and the sub-concepts according to

building types

Different from the Turkish architectural schools in theprevious periods, the Ottoman architects preferredarchitectural simplicity and beauty that emerged from thearchitecture itself. In order to cover the top of the buildingthey used the dome and gave a secondary place to othertypes of cover systems. The buildings in Ottomanarchitecture show a great variety, and they improved theunderstanding of architectural form, plan and thereforesolved many problems in the traditional architecture. Thebuilding types that are commonly seen in Turkish


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Table 3. Contd.

Tomb samples

Yeil Trbe, Bursa(www.arches.uga.edu/~godlas/IslArt.html)

.An octagonal tomb

Murat II ,Bursa(www.arches.uga.edu/~godlas/IslArt.html.Kare planl trbe A tomb with a square

plan

Mustafa ve Cem, Bursa(www.arches.uga.edu/~godlas/IslArt.html

) A hexagonal tomb

Barbaros, stanbul (nsal, 1959). Anoctagonal tomb

eh. Mehmet Trbesi (nsal, 1959). Anoctagonal tomb

eh. Rstem Paa st. (nsal, 1959). Anoctagonal tomb

Kanuni Sleyman st., (nsal, 1959). An octagonal tomb Selim II Trbesi, st. (nsal, 1959). An octagonal tomb with

chamfered corners

religious architecture can be listed as follows:

1. Religious buildings: Mosques, madrasahs, dervishlodges, tombs, graves,2. Civil buildings: Hospitals, soup kitchens, inns,caravanserais, bazaars, Turkish baths, marketplaces,public fountains, drinking fountains, bridges, aqueducts,cisterns, palaces, houses,3. Military buildings: City walls, towers, castles (nsal,1959).

A review of literature showed that there was a widerange therefore, the study investigated only the mosques,

madrasahs and tombs and identified the sub-concepts inthe religious architecture (Table 5).

The concept of beauty-principles in the semantic andsyntactic aspects

The classification of semantic and syntactic aspects isgiven in Table 6. In this classification, one or more or alof these principles can be used together. The designerdecides which principles should be used togetherBuildings and designs are created with the help of theseprinciples (olak, 1991).
http://www.arches.uga.edu/~godlas/IslArt.htmlhttp://www.arches.uga.edu/~godlas/IslArt.htmlhttp://www.arches.uga.edu/~godlas/IslArt.htmlhttp://www.arches.uga.edu/~godlas/IslArt.htmlhttp://www.arches.uga.edu/~godlas/IslArt.htmlhttp://www.arches.uga.edu/~godlas/IslArt.htmlhttp://www.arches.uga.edu/~godlas/IslArt.htmlhttp://www.arches.uga.edu/~godlas/IslArt.htmlhttp://www.arches.uga.edu/~godlas/IslArt.htmlhttp://www.arches.uga.edu/~godlas/IslArt.html


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Akat et al. 31

Table 4. The sub-concepts of the concept of beauty in religion (Parlatir et al., 1994;Aykan, 2002; Yalin 2002; Marans et al., 1987; Divanliolu, 1997).

Concept Sub-concepts Opposite concepts

Beauty

Appealing Unappealing

Pleasant, cheerful Gloomy

Love HatredLoyalty Disloyalty

Peace Hostility

Kindness Unkindness

Community, integrity, togetherness Isolation

Table 5. The sub-concepts that define the mosques, madrasahs and tombs.

Sub-concepts

Building types

Mosque Madrasah Tomb

Worship Knowledge Death

Community Education Temporariness

Gathering Research MortalityTogetherness Development History

Knowledge Cooperation Respect

Relief Togetherness Good feeling

Peace Wisdom (Kaln,1997) Power (Kaln,1997)

Confidence Endurance Grandeur (Kaln,1997)

Power (Kaln,1997) Endurance

Cleanliness (Fountain) Success (Kaln,1997)

Cooperation (Public fountain) (Kaln,1997)

Sharing

Friendship

Affection

Respect

ToleranceGuidance

Power (Kaln,1997)

Grandeur (Kaln,1997)

Endurance (Kaln,1997)

.The building types that the study investigated interms of semantic and syntactic aspects and theanalyses of the buildings

In this study, a total of 40 sample buildings includingmosques, madrasahs and tombs were classifiedchronologically according to building types. Additionally,the sample buildings were also classified according totheir general characteristics.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

In this section, the concept of beauty in the samplebuildings was analyzed in terms of semantic andsyntactic aspects. In terms of building types, the semanticand syntactic analyses of the sub-concepts of theconcept of beauty in the sample buildings are as follows:

a. The concepts and building types that the concept ofbeauty evokes in mind; appealing (mosque)community, integration, togetherness (mosquemadrasah), restful (mosque, madrasah, tomb), light(mosque, madrasah, tomb), beauty, kindness, affection

respect, happiness (mosque, madrasah, tomb)hospitable (mosque, madrasah), dynamic (mosque)refined (mosque, madrasah), simple (mosquemadrasah, tomb).b. The most common concepts: In mosques; appealingcommunity, integration, togetherness, restful, lightbeauty, kindness, affection, respect, happinesshospitable, dynamic, refined, simple; In madrasahscommunity, integration, togetherness, restful, lightbeauty, kindness, affection, respect, happinesshospitable, refined, simple; In tombs; restful, lightbeauty, kindness, affection, respect, happiness,


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Table 6. The concepts-principles at the semantic and syntactic aspects.

Formation piinciples

The semantic dimension

The sub-concepts that were investigated by being based on the basic concepts in the religionand emotional reactions

Community

Isolation

Efficient

Inefficient

Free space

Restricted space

Continuity

Discontinuity

Empty

Full

Dynamic

Flat

Knowledge

Ignorance

Appealing

Unappealing

Stable

Rickety

Power

Powerlessnes

Balance

Imbalance

Mystic

Non-mystic

Beautiful

Ugly

Honesty

Dishonesty

Rhythmic

Unrhythmic

RelaxingUpsetting

SecureInsecure

InvitingRepelling

Simple

Complex

Modesty

Arrogance

Heavy

Light

Light

Dark

Plain

Ornate

Consonant

Dissonant

Hospitable

Inhospitable

Reverent

Irreverent

High

Low

Convergence

Divergence

Partitioning

Openness

Inner directed

Outer directedCooperation

Unkindness

Confused

Clear

Success

Failure

The basic designprinciples

The syntactic dimension

Symmetry Sovereignty Rhythm (Repetition) Balance Contrast Hierarchy Harmony Unity

simple (Table 7).c.The basic design principles in the syntactic aspect ofthe concept of beauty in the samples: Symmetry(mosques, madrasahs, tombs), Dominance (mosques,

madrasahs, tombs), Rhythm (mosques, madrasahs,tombs), Balance (mosques, madrasahs, tombs),Contrast (mosques, madrasahs, tombs), Hierarchy(mosques), Harmony (mosques, madrasahs, tombs),Unity (mosques, madrasahs, tombs).d.The most common concepts: In mosques; Symmetry,Dominance, Rhythm, Balance, Contrast,Hierarchy, Harmony, Unity, In madrasahs;Symmetry, Dominance, Rhythm, Balance,Contrast, Harmony, Unity; In tombs; Symmetry,Dominance, Rhythm, Balance, Contrast,Harmony, Unity (Table 8).

The sub-concepts of the concept of beauty and theidentified characteristics can be listed as follows:

a. The concept of Appealing: This concept is found onlyin the mosques; they are seen as decorations thasymbolize the nature without the use of figures and as asearch for a stepped form in the mass. In the basicdesign principles, this concept is expressed with the con-cepts of symmetry, rhythm, hierarchy, harmony and unity.b. The concept of community/integration/togethernessWhile in mosques, this concept is seen as prayingcollectively, communicating with other people, gatheringtogether under the dome, and greeting people or sayinggoodbye to people in the portico or courtyard and inmadrasahs as making it possible to communicate with


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Akat et al. 33

Table 7. The semantic dimension table of the concept of beauty.

ConceptBuilding types

Mosque Madrasah Tomb

Appealing

Community, integrity, togetherness

Peace, restful, relaxingLight, open

Beauty, kindness, affection, respect, happiness

Hospitable

Dynamic

Elegant, refined

Simple

Table 8. The syntactic dimension table of the concept of beauty.

Basic design principlesBuilding types

Mosque Madrasah TombSymmetry

Dominance

Rhythm

Balance

Contrast

Hierarchy

Harmony

Unity

other people, it is not seen in tombs due to the fact thattombs are buildings which are essentially visiting places.In the basic design principles, this concept is expressedwith the concepts of symmetry, balance, hierarchy,harmony and unity in the mosques; and with the conceptsof symmetry, balance, harmony and unity in themadrasahs.c. The concept of Restful: In mosques, the concept ofrestful is felt with the perceptibility of the space; inmadrasahs, with the courtyard in the inner space thoughmadrasahs are closed to the outer world and have aserious appearance; and in tombs, with the clarity in theplan and mass. In the basic design principles, the

concept of restful is expressed with the concepts ofsymmetry, rhythm, balance, hierarchy, harmony, andunity in the mosques; and with the concepts of symmetry,rhythm, balance, harmony, and unity in the madrasahsand tombs.d. The concept of light: This concept was not present inthe early period mosques with single domes and adverseT plans because of their inherent introversion; however,with the increase in the heights of the buildings and withthe addition of abundant windows and the resultingextroversion towards the classical period, the concept oflight became part of the mosques. In the madrasahs,

although they were introverted, the concept of light wasprovided with the courtyard in the inner space. Like themosques, the madrasahs were also closed to the outeworld (introverted) in the early period; however, towardsthe classical period, they became extroverted and lightspaces with the addition of an abundant number ofwindows. In the basic design principles, the concept oflight is expressed with the concepts of harmony andunity.e. The concept of Beauty, kindness, affection, respecthappiness: This concept is present in all sample spacesand is present in spaces where there is cooperation, loveaffection, respect and tolerance. In the basic design

principles, this concept is expressed in the mosques withthe concepts of symmetry, dominance, rhythm, balancehierarchy, harmony and unity; and in the madrasahs andtombs with the concepts of symmetry, dominance,rhythm, balance, harmony and unity.f. The concept of Hospitable: A hospitable entrance wascreated in the mosques with the portico and movementsin the faades and with the courtyard and ablutionsfountain that were added to the mosques towards theclassical period. Although, the madrasahs were seriousand introverted, their entrances were given utmoscare/importance, and a warm and hospitable environment


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Table 9. The semantic and syntactic definitions of the sub-concepts of beauty.

Theconceptofbeauty:TheSub-concepts

BasicDesignPrinciples

Mosques Madrasahs Tombs

Appealing (Symmetry, Rhythm,Hierarchy, Harmony, Unity)

Community, integrity, togetherness(Symmetry, Balance, Hierarchy,Harmony, Unity

Community, integrity, togetherness(Symmetry, Rhythm, Harmony,Unity)

-

Relaxing (Symmetry, Rhythm,Balance, Hierarchy, Harmony, Unity)

Relaxing (Symmetry, Rhythm,Balance, Harmony, Unity)

Relaxing (Symmetry, Rhythm,Balance, Harmony, Unity)

Light, open (Harmony, Unity) Light, open (Harmony, Unity) Light, open (Harmony, Unity)

Beauty, kindness, affection, respect,happiness (Symmetry, Dominance,Rhythm, Balance, Hierarchy,Harmony, Unity)

Beauty, kindness, affection,respect, happiness (Symmetry,Dominance, Rhythm, Balance,Harmony, Unity)

Beauty, kindness, affection,respect, happiness (Symmetry,Dominance, Rhythm, Balance,Harmony, Unity)

Hospitable (Symmetry, Rhythm,Balance, Hierarchy, harmony, Unity)

Hospitable (Symmetry, Rhtyhm,Balance, Harmony, Unity)

-

Dynamic (Dominance, Contrast,Hierarchy) -

-

Elegant, refined (Balance, Harmony,Unity)

Elegant, refined (Balance,Harmony, Unity)

-

Simple (Symmetry, Dominance,Rhythm, Balance, Harmony, Unity)



was created with their inviting air and unexaggeratedsizes. Tombs are not hospitable due to the fact that theyare burial places. In the basic design principles, theconcept of hospitable is expressed with the concepts ofsymmetry, rhythm, balance, hierarchy, harmony, andunity in the mosques; and with the concepts of rhythm,balance, harmony, and unity in the madrasahs.g. The concept of Dynamic: The dynamic expression isseen extremely effectively especially in the examples ofmosques built in the classical period. The madrasahs andtombs have a serious and quiet formal understanding. In

the basic design principles, the concept of dynamic isexpressed with the concepts of dominance, contrast andhierarchy.h. The concept of Refined: In the mosques, this conceptis expressed with the columns in the portico, with thedomes of various sizes in the portico and in the mainprayer area, with the stepped expression of the height,and with the decorations on the building. In the basicdesign principles, the concept of refined is expressedwith the concepts of balance, harmony and unity.i. The concept of Simple: In mosques; this concept wasexpressed with the simplicity in the plans and masses in

the single-domed mosques of the early period; with thesimplicity in the space despite the movements andstepping in the mass which were used in the early periodin the mosques with adverse T plan and which reachedits peak with the classical period; in madrasahs, with theuse of spaces around the courtyard and with thesimplicity in the plans and masses; in tombs with theeasy perception as a result of the harmony between theplans and masses. In the basic design principles, thisconcept is expressed with the concepts of symmetrydominance, rhythm, balance, harmony and unity.

The semantic and syntactic definitions of the subconcepts of the concept of beauty in the mosquesmadrasahs and tombs and the number of samples aregiven in Table 9.

Conclusions

The properties identified in the sub-concepts of theconcept of beauty can be listed as follows:

a. The concept of Appealing: It is found in mosques. In


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Akat et al. 35

Table 10. The semantic and syntactic definitions of the concept of beauty in the sample mosques.

ConceptSemantic dimension Syntactic dimensionThe sub-conceptsbasic design principles with which it is related Basic design principles

Beauty

Appealing (Symmetry, Rhythm, Hierarchy, Harmony, Unity)

SymmetryDominanceRhythmBalanceContrastHierarchyHarmonyUnity

Community, integrity, togetherness (Symmetry, Balance, Hierarchy,

Harmony, Unity)

Relaxing (Symmetry, Rhythm, Balance, Hierarchy, Harmony, Unity)Light, open (Harmony, Unity)

Beauty, kindness, affection, respect, happiness (Symmetry,Dominance, Rhythm, Balance, Hierarchy, Harmony, Unity)

Hospitable (Symmetry, Rhythm, Balance, Hierarchy, Harmony, Unity)

Dynamic (Dominance, Contrast, Hierarchy)

Elegant, refined (Balance, Harmony, Unity)

Simple (Symmetry, Dominance, Rhythm, Balance, Harmony, Unity)

the basic design principles, it is expressed withsymmetry, rhythm, hierarchy, harmony and unity.b. The concept of Community/Integration/Togetherness:It is found in mosques and madrasahs. In the basicdesign principles, it is expressed with the concepts ofsymmetry, balance, hierarchy, harmony and unity inmosques; and with symmetry, balance, harmony andunity in madrasahs.c. The concept of restful: It is found in mosques,madrasahs and tombs. In the basic design principles, it is

expressed with the concepts of symmetry, rhythm,balance, hierarchy, harmony and unity in the mosquesand with symmetry, rhythm, balance, harmony and unityin the madrasahs and tombs.d. The concept of light: It is found in mosques,madrasahs and tombs. In the basic design principles, it isexpressed with the concepts of harmony and unity.e. The concept of Beauty/ Kindness/ Affection/ Respect/Happiness: It is found in mosques, madrasahs andtombs. In the basic design principles, it is expressed withthe concepts of symmetry, dominance, rhythm, balance,hierarchy, harmony and unity in the mosques; and withsymmetry, dominance, rhythm, balance, harmony and unity

in themadrasahs and tombs.f. The concept of Hospitable: It is found in mosques andmadrasahs. In the basic design principles, it is expressedwith the concepts of symmetry, rhythm, balance,hierarchy, harmony and unity in the mosques; and withsymmetry, rhythm, balance, harmony and unity in themadrasahs.g. The concept of Dynamic: It is found in mosques. Inthe basic design principles, it is expressed with theconcepts of dominance, contrast and hierarchy.h. The concept of Refined: It is found in mosques andmadrasahs. In the basic design principles, it is expressed

with the concepts of balance, harmony and unity.i. The concept of Simple: It is found in mosquesmadrasahs and tombs. In the basic design principles, it isexpressed with symmetry, dominance, rhythm, balanceharmony and unity.j. The concept of Beauty: In terms of the semanticaspect, the concept of beauty was summarized by usingthe sub-concepts that were obtained through theanalyses of the basic concepts in Islam and theemotional reactions; in terms of the syntactic aspect, its

meanings which were explained with the basic designprinciples with which the sub-concepts are related weregiven (Table 10, Table 11 and Table 12).

RECOMMENDATIONS

In conclusion, it can be said that religion is a veryimportant factor in architectural formation; that theanalyses of the meanings that are attributed to thearchitectural structures in terms of their functions, formsand proportions-scales will contribute to the definition ofthis factor; and that this will be very useful in exploring

the new parameters that will be a guideline for the newdesigns.Based on the fact that the aim of this study is to give

concrete explanations of some abstract concepts to thedesigners and researchers, it can be said that this studywill also contribute to the architectural education. Thisstudy, which has a large scope but which was limited tothe examples of religious architecture in the OttomanEmpire, can be extended by including the:

i. Building types in civil and military architecture,ii. Seljuk, Hittite, Lydian, Lycian, etc. civilizations,


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iii. Similarities and differences in terms of the concepts indifferent civilizations and similarities and differences interms of the concepts in different religions.

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