Al Dar Research Journal for Sustainabilityadrjs.aduc.ac.ae/Papers/Vol2no1/ADRJS Vol. 2, No.1 Nov 17 Issue.pdf · Vol.2, No.1; Nov 2017 Al Dar Research Journal for Sustainability ISSN:

Vol.2, No.1; Nov 2017 Al Dar Research Journal for Sustainability http://adrjs.aduc.ac.ae

ISSN: 2415-4377, 2016, ADRJS

PAGE 0 OF 78

Vol.2, Issue1; Nov 2017. ISSN: 2415-4377, 2016, ADRJS

A Scholarly, Blind Peer Reviewed, Bi-Annual, Open Access, Online Research Journal

S.No Paper ID Title and Name of Author Page No

1 ADRJS 2017-2-1-101 New Three-Step Hybrid Block Methods for Solving Second Order Ordinary Differential Equations Directly.

. O. Kuboye1, Z. Omar2, O. E. Abolarin3 and R. Abdelrahim4

1-9

2 ADRJS 2017-2-1-102 How to Sustain Private Business Schools In UAE.

Belal Berham

10-20

3 ADRJS 2017-2-1-104 Islamic Banking: from ethical premises to secular achievements!

Mehboob ul Hassan

21-27

4 ADRJS 2017-2-1-105 Sustainable Tourism:

Mirror, Mirror Everywhere But Not An Image To Believe

Syed Ahmad Rizwan1 Dennis Powers2 Atul Tripathi3 Meraj Naeem4

28-33

5 ADRJS 2017-2-1-106 Enhancing programming logic and algorithmic understandability for students visually using Raptor

Dr.Sujni Paul

34-43

6 ADRJS 2017-2-1-107 Student empowerment as a sustainable academic approach to knowledge evaluation

Oxana Svergun,

44-58

7 ADRJS 2017-2-1-108 Green Supply Chain Management & Green IT: A Necessary Convergence for Sustainable Development

Prashant Kumar1, Sajal Kabiraj2*

59-70

8 ADRJS 2017-2-1-109 Analysis of MANET Security Issues: Vulnerabilities, Attacks, and Measures

Dr. Mohammed A. Afifi

71-78

Published by: Al Dar University College, Dubai, UAE www.aldar.ac.ae

Al Dar Research Journal for Sustainability

http://www.aldar.ac.ae/


ISSN: 2415-4377, 2016, ADRJS

PAGE 1 OF 78

New Three-Step Hybrid Block Methods for Solving Second Order Ordinary

Differential Equations Directly

. O. Kuboye1, Z. Omar2, O. E. Abolarin3 and R. Abdelrahim4

1,3Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Sciences, Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Ekiti-State, Nigeria.

2Department of Mathematics, School of Quantitative Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM), Malaysia.

4Al Jouf University, Saudi Arabia

Abstract In developing the new methods, interpolation and collocation approach is employed where by power series

approximate solution is used as a basis function while the second derivative of the approximated power series is

considered as collocation polynomial. The developed methods are then applied to solving some second order initial

value problems of ordinary differential equations in order to examine the efficiency of the methods. The generated

numerical results reveal that the new methods performed better when comparison is made with existing methods.

Keywords: Power series, Interpolation, Collocation, Block method, Second order initial value problems.

1. Introduction

The reduction of second order initial value problems of ordinary differential equations (ODEs) of the form

1000)(,)()),(),(,()( yxyyxyxyxyxfxy

(1)

to a system of first order ODEs has been found having some setbacks which include; a lot of human effort and

burden of computing to mention a few as discussed by Goult et al. (1973), Brugnano and Trigiante (1988) and

Fatunla (1991). In literature, the development of direct methods in overcoming the challenges in reduction method

has been considered by many researchers and one of these methods is the predictor-corrector approach. This method

involves too many functions to be evaluated per step due to the involvement of predictors which always result to

computational burden that affects the accuracy of the method (Adesanya et al., 2012).

In proffering solution to the setbacks in predictor-corrector technique, block methods that do not require developing

separate predictors for solving higher order ODEs were examined by scholars. Among these authors are Jator and

Li (2009), Omar and Suleiman (2009), Kuboye and Omar (2015), Kuboye (2015) as well as Omar and Kuboye

(2016). However, all these aforementioned authors did not consider approximation at the off grid points within the

interval of integration.

Therefore in this paper, three step block methods with three off grid points are proposed for the solution of second

order initial value problems of ODEs. The write up of the article is divided into five segments. The first part provides

the brief introduction of the work while the second section deals with the derivation of the first block method (FBM).

Furthermore, the development of the second block method (SBM) was examined in the third fragment, the fourth

part centers on finding the order of the methods and finally the fifth section presents the numerical results derived

when the methods were applied to some second order initial value problems of ODEs.

2. Derivation of the first Block Method (FBM)

We consider power series of the form

5

0

)(k

j

j

jxaxy

(2)

as an approximate solution to Eq. (1), where k = 3. Differentiating Eq. (2) twice to give

http://adrjs.aduc.ac.ae/


ISSN: 2415-4377, 2016, ADRJS

PAGE 2 OF 78

5

1

1)('k

j

j

jxjaxy

(3)

5

2

2 )',,()1()("k

j

j

jyyxfxajjxy

(4)

The resulted equations obtained by interpolating (2) at1,0

,

ixx

in and collocating (4) at 0,1,2,3,

mxx

mn

2

5,

2

3,

2

1 , and

vxx

vn

which are then combined to produce a nonlinear system of equations of the form

HGX (5)

where

6

3

6

2

5

6

2

6

2

3

6

1

6

2

1

6

8

1

8

5

3

5

2

5

5

2

5

2

3

5

1

5

2

1

5

7

1

7

4

3

4

2

5

4

2

4

2

3

4

1

4

2

1

4

6

1

6

3

3

3

2

5

3

2

3

2

3

2

3

2

2

5

2

2

2

2

3

3

2

5

2

2

3

3

1

2

11

3

2

1

2

2

1

2

1

32

5

1

4

1

3

1

2

11

5432

56

56

56

56

56

56

56

42

42

42

42

42

42

42

30

30

30

30

30

30

30

20

20

20

20

12

12

12

12

6

6

6

6

2

2

2

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

20126200

20126200

20126200

1

1

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

nnn

nnn

nnn

nnnnn

nnnnn

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

xxx

xxx

xxx

xxxxx

xxxxx

G

,

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

X

and H=

3

2

5

2

2

3

1

2

1

1

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

f

f

f

f

f

f

f

y

y

In finding the values of sa

j'

in (5), Gaussian elimination approach is applied and these are substituted into (2) to

give a continuous implicit scheme of the form

vnv

k

i

k

m

mnminifthfthytty

)()()()( 2

2

0 0

2 (6)

where

h

xxt kn 1

t

t

t

t 0

1

0

12

11

)(

)(



ISSN: 2415-4377, 2016, ADRJS

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8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

3

2

5

2

2

3

1

2

1

0

630

1

105

1

54

1

120

1

1080

13

90

10

1260

1

1890

1105

1

315

16

15

1

15

1

90

19

15

20

90

1

315

142

1

9

1

90

7

24

7

18

7

36

7

2

1

2520

523

1260

1163

2

63

8

135

2

5

2

27

5

9

40

63

37

945

26242

1

63

5

30

1

120

29

72

1

6

10

315

134

315

134108

1

315

8

45

1

15

1

90

1

45

20

630

173

63

17630

1

315

1

270

1

120

1

540

1

180

10

840

13

3780

61

)(

)(

)(

)(

)(

)(

)(

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

(7)

The derivative of (7) yields

ht

t 1

1

1

)(

)(

1

0

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

3

2

5

2

2

3

1

2

1

0

7560

96

7560

504

7560

840

7560

315

7560

364

7560

2520

7560

67560

576

7560

2688

7560

3024

7560

2520

7560

6384

7560

30240

7560

847560

1440

7560

5880

7560

3528

7560

11025

7560

11760

7560

4410

7560

7560

7560

15697560

1920

7560

6720

7560

672

7560

15120

7560

5600

7560

100800

7560

44407560

1440

7560

4200

7560

1512

7560

9135

7560

420

7560

37800

7560

32167560

576

7560

1344

7560

1008

7560

2520

7560

33

7560

10080

7560

20767560

196

7560

168

7560

168

7560

315

7560

56

7560

1260

7560

117

)(

)(

)(

)(

)(

)(

)(

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

t

(8)

The discrete schemes are derived as a result of evaluating (7) at the non-interpolating points while the derivative of

the discrete schemes are achieved when (8) is evaluated at all the grid and non-grid points, that is, at at

,32

5,2,

2

3,1,

2

10,,

dxx

dn

. Combining the discrete schemes and its derivative at nx

in a matrix form produces

][1

2

1

NNNNNEFDFhYCBYAY

(9)

where

],,...,[],,...,[],,...,[2

2

52

2

531

2

11 nnn

Nnnn

Nnnn

NyyyYyyyYyyyY

],,...,[2

2

5 nnn

NFFFF

],...,[31

2

11

nnn

NFFFF

and A, B, C, D and E are squared matrices.

Multiplying (9) by1A gives a block method and its derivative respectively



ISSN: 2415-4377, 2016, ADRJS

PAGE 4 OF 78

3

2

5

2

2

3

1

2

1

2

3

2

5

2

2

3

1

2

1

070

27

280

27

35

51

140

27

14

27

280

12310275

146

2304

275

3217

187

287

304

1507

146

242

377

2401

874189

2

105

8

9

2

945

656

105

2

315

376

945

2729659

76

8960

513

9237

1684

128

45

3147

422

1792

1485

3584

7593780

19

630

23

840

97

945

197

9

2

210

97

3077

41834039

70

26880

403

6344

303

4863

427

6921

736

2304

275

2593

153

32

522

312

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

nn

n

n

n

n

n

n

f

f

f

f

f

f

f

hyhy

y

y

y

y

y

y

(10)

3

2

5

2

2

3

1

2

1

3

2

5

2

2

3

1

2

1

280

41

35

27

280

27

35

34

280

27

35

27

280

419061

103

1008

235

1130

543

189

125

2053

541

1008

725

2175

334945

4

315

8

315

29

945

752

315

64

315

232

945

1434480

29

560

27

2071

337

35

17

1721

446

112

81

896

1377560

37

315

11

2520

269

945

166

2520

11

63

47

1739

2625186

37

5040

263

7906

1321

945

293

1799

691

457

246

1597

252

1

1

1

1

1

1

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

f

f

f

f

f

f

f

hy

y

y

y

y

y

y

(11)

3. Derivation of the second Block Method (SBM)

In developing the second block method, (2) is interpolated at the same points 1,0

,

ixx

in while collocation is

done at points 0,1,2,3,

mxx

mn 3

8,

3

5,

3

2 , and

vxx

vn

. Employing the same procedure applied in deriving

the first block produces the second block method as follows

3

3

8

2

3

5

1

3

2

2

3

3

8

2

3

5

1

3

2

3136

291

654

337

647

581

448

1251

663

943

670

2113

1280

6812081

173

2835

928

135

128

1429

3355

373

494

176

487

1729

8112205

118

140

27

21

19

35

54

105

116

245

486

1260

4334295

182

1463

223

1185

847

1307

1447

7776

7625

2081

3300

1390

39110606

229

1280

99

1252

445

2240

1179

787

516

1393

1075

5131

8074938

59

2268

97

2835

556

945

274

1059

385

1354

495

14580

1393

33

823

513

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

nn

n

n

n

n

n

n

f

f

f

f

f

f

f

hyhy

y

y

y

y

y

y

(12)

which has a derivative



ISSN: 2415-4377, 2016, ADRJS

PAGE 5 OF 78

3

2

5

2

2

3

1

2

1

3

3

8

2

3

5

1

3

2

980

57

4480

2997

2109

161

70

81

94441

30356

1674

1963

2333

4399992

623

2835

1156

1618

347

2835

2944

2536

687

688

791

1873

355245

8

280

33

420

193

35

48

21

8

980

1173

840

1571231

42

193

24

1814

1131

1134

1345

3791

1379

1455

1732

2537

4752940

83

4480

453

2635

1223

35

24

420

311

876

1105

4480

8278048

239

4673

498

1981

976

567

416

945

904

427

478

4517

840

1

1

1

1

1

1

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

f

f

f

f

f

f

f

hy

y

y

y

y

y

y

(13)

4. Test Problems

In examining the accuracy of the new methods, some second order initial values problems that were solved by

existing methods are also considered for the purpose of comparison. These differential equations are given below

Problem 1: 1.0,1)0(,0)0(, hyyyy

Exact solution: xexy 1)(

Table 1: Exact and computed solutions derived when FBM and SMB are applied

to solve Problem 1

x Exact solution Computed solution using

FBM

Computed solution using

SBM

0.1 -0.105170918075647710 -0.105170918170344990 -0.105170927584122780

0.2 -0.221402758160169850 -0.221402757202991800 -0.221402759707645060

0.3 -0.349858807576003180 -0.349858805932851620 -0.349858809025716370

0.4 -0.491824697641270350 -0.491824691385262250 -0.491824716162851230

0.5 -0.648721270700128190 -0.648721257784970140 -0.648721283157835950

0.6 -0.822118800390509110 -0.822118780759098390 -0.822118817891052460

0.7 -1.013752707470476600 -1.013752675213106300 -1.013752753734670400

0.8 -1.225540928492467900 -1.225540880173914900 -1.225540972891804500

0.9 -1.459603111156949900 -1.459603045956336900 -1.459603169348653100

1.0 -1.718281828459046000 -1.718281737577079600 -1.718281933197512100



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Table 2 :Comparing the new methods with Omar and Kuboye (2015), Mohammed

and Adeniyi (2014) and U. Mohammed (2011) for solving Problem 1

x Error in FBM,

k=3

Error in SBM,

k=3

Error in Omar

and Kuboye

(2015), k=5

Error in

Mohammed and

Adeniyi (2014), k=5

Error in U

Mohammed (2011),

k=5

0.1 9.469728E-11 9.508475E-09 2.508826E-13 2.004000000E-07 2.198000000E-05

0.2 9.571781E-10 1.547475E-09 6.493175E-11 5.386000000E-07 6.070400000E-06

0.3 1.643152E-09 1.449713E-09 1.683146E-09 8.840000000E-07 1.005100000E-05

0.4 6.256008E-09 1.852158E-08 1.700635E-08 1.229700000E-06 1.402530000E-05

0.5 1.291516E-08 1.245771E-08 1.025454E-07 1.575200000E-06 1.799340000E-05

0.6 1.963141E-08 1.750054E-08 2.558711E-06 1.920400000E-06 2.161620000E-05

0.7 3.225737E-08 4.439934E-08 5.273300E-06 2.506000000E-06 2.799300000E-05

0.8 4.831855E-08 5.819170E-08 8.275935E-06 3.106000000E-06 3.456100000E-05

0.9 6.520061E-08 5.819170E-08 1.161667E-05 3.705000000E-06 4.111400000E-05

1.0 9.088197E-08 1.047385E-07 1.542187E-05 4.304000000E-06 4.765600000E-05

Problem 2: 30

1,

2

1)0(,1)0(,0)( 2 hyyyxy

Exact solution:

x

xInxy

2

2

2

11)(

Table 3 : Exact and computed solutions derived when FBM and SBM are applied

to solve Problem 2


FBM


SBM

0.03 1.016668210133795800 1.016668210133794300 1.016668210142745800

0.10 1.050041729278491400 1.050041729278483600 1.050041729283864600

0.20 1.100335347731075600 1.100335347729872500 1.100335347760179400

0.30 1.151140435936466800

1.151140435926125700 1.151140436067435500



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0.40 1.202732554054082100 1.202732554011587200 1.202732554422972100

0.50 1.255412811882995200 1.255412811755616500 1.255412812681852000

Table 4 :Comparing the new method with Kuboye & Omar (2015) and Badmus & Yahaya (2009) for solving

Problem 2

x Error in FBM,

k=3

Error in SBM,

k=3

Error in Kuboye

and Omar, k=6

(2015)

Error in

Badmus

and Yahaya

(2009), k=5

0.03 1.554312E-15 8.949952E-12 1.865175E-14 ……………..

0.10 7.771561E-15 5.373257E-12 1.445510E-13 5.891E-06

0.20 1.203038E-12 2.910383E-11 3.779332E-11 8.2399E-05

0.30 1.034106E-11 1.309688E-10 3.428134E-08 3.46421E-04

0.40 4.249490E-11 3.688900E-10 6.987109E-08 7.52101E-04

0.50 1.273788E-10 7.988568E-10 2.017066E-07 1.38028E-03

Problem 3: 01.0,10)0(,1)0(,0100 hyyyy

Exact Solution: xexy 10)(

Table 5 :Exact and computed solutions for FBM and SBM when applied to solve

Problem 3.


FBM


SBM

0.01 0.904837418035959520 0.904837418465297530 0.904837425088219070

0.02 0.818730753077981820 0.818730753077845820 0.818730753134935260

0.03 0.740818220681717880 0.740818220700137030 0.740818218534376900

0.04 0.670320046035639330 0.670320046372208770 0.670320055937902670

0.05 0.606530659712633420 0.606530659731314810 0.606530671304625900

0.06 0.548811636094026500 0.548811636126916080 0.548811653040611080

0.07 0.496585303791409530 0.496585304060645380 0.496585336837662710

0.08 0.449328964117221560 0.449328964151814110 0.449329005845677590

0.09 0.406569659740599170 0.406569659786778890 0.406569713197940770

0.10 0.367879441171442330 0.367879441393991590 0.367879514727189550



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0.11 0.332871083698079500 0.332871083748311870 0.332871172348391700

0.12 0.301194211912202080 0.301194211972775740 0.301194318491970090

Table 6: Comparison of the new method with Kuboye (2015), Awari et al. (2014) and Awari et al. (2014) for

solving Problem 3.

x Error in FBM,

k=3

Error in SBM,

k=3 Error in Kuboye

(2015), k=4

Error in

Awari et. al

(2014), k=4,

Error in

Awari et. al

(2014), k=5,

0.01 4.293380E-10 7.052260E-09 8.972465E-10 1.1067E-05 1.2413E-06

0.02 1.360023E-13 5.695344E-11 2.160537E-09 3.1403E-05 3.4226E-06

0.03 1.841916E-11 2.147341E-09 3.443595E-09 5.2700E-05 5.7008E-06

0.04 3.365694E-10 9.902263E-09 4.411768E-09 7.4521E-05 8.0308E-06

0.05 1.868139E-11 1.159199E-08 2.596832E-08 8.2312E-05 1.0439E-05

0.06 3.288958E-11 1.694658E-08 5.636895E-08 9.7067E-05 1.1244E-05

0.07 2.692359E-10 3.304625E-08 8.733499E-08 1.1323E-04 1.2725E-05

0.08 3.459255E-11 4.172846E-08 1.194093E-07 1.3052E-04 1.4369E-05

0.09 4.617973E-11 5.345734E-08 1.737216E-07 1.3614E-04 1.6156E-05

0.10 2.225493E-10 7.355575E-08 2.296122E-07 1.4725E-04 1.8102E-05

0.11 5.023237E-11 8.865031E-08 2.878016E-07 1.6012E-04 1.8649E-05

0.12 6.057366E-11 1.065798E-07 3.490285E-07 1.7459E-04 1.9725E-05

5. Conclusion

Three steps block methods with three hybrid points for solving second order initial value problems of ODEs have

been developed in this paper. The results derived from FBM are more accurate than the results produced from SBM

due to the smaller hybrid points considered. Furthermore, The numerical results generated from the new block

methods are compared with existing methods of high step-length k and the accuracy is found to be best in terms of

error as shown in Tables 2, 4 and 6.

References

Adesanya, A. O., Odekunle, M. R. and Alkali, M. A. (2012). Three steps block predictor-block corrector

method for solution of general second order ordinary differential equations.2(4), 2297-2301.

Awari, Y.S. Chima, E. E., Kamoh, N. M., Oladele, F. L. (2014). A family of implicit uniformly accurate order

block integrators for the solution of second order ordinary differential equations. International Journal

of Mathematics and Statistics Invention. 2(1). 33 – 46.



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Badmus, A. M., and Yahaya, Y. A. (2009). An accurate uniform order 6 block method for directsolution of

general second order ordinary differential equations. Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 10(2), 248-254.

Brugnano, L., & Trigiante, D. (1998). Solving Differential Equations by Multistep Initial and Boundary Value

Methods. CRC Press.

Fatunla, S. O. (1991). Block methods for second order ODEs. International journal of computer mathematics,

41(1-2), 55-63.

Goult, R. A. Hoskins, R. F. Milier and Pratt, M. J. (1973): Applicable Mathematics for Engineers and

Scientists. Macmillan press Ltd. London.

Jator, S. N and Li, J. (2009). A self-stationary linear multistep method for a direct solution of the general

second order initial value problems. Inter. Journal of Computer Math. 86(5), 817- 836.

Lambert, J. D. (1973). Computational methods in ordinary differential equations. Introductory Mathematics for

Scientists and Engineers. Wiley.

Mohammed, U. (2011). A class of implicit five – step block method for general second order

ordinary differential equations. Journal of Nigeria Mathematical Society (JNMS), 30, 25 – 39.

Mohammed, U., & Adeniyi, R. B. (2014). Derivation of Five Step Block Hybrid Backward Differential

Formulas (HBDF) through the Continuous Multi-Step Collocation for Solving Second Order Differential

Equation. Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 15(2), 89 – 95.

Kuboye J. O. (2015). Block methods for solving higher order ordinary differential equations directly

using interpolation and collocation approach. Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the

requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the College of Art and Science

Universiti Utara Malaysia (unpublished).

Kuboye J. O. and Omar Z. (2015). Numerical solution of third order ordinary differential equations using a

seven-step block method. International Journal of Mathematical Analysis, 9(15), 743–754.

Omar Z. and Kuboye J. O. (2016). New seven-step numerical method for direct solution of fourth order

ordinary differential equations. J. Math. Fund. Sci. 48(2), 94–105.



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How to Sustain Private Business Schools In UAE

Dr. Belal Barhem

School of Business Administration,

Al Dar University College, Dubai, UAE

The history of private higher education in UAE is relatively short where the first private university was established

in (Ajman University was founded in 1988 as Ajman University College of Science and Technology). The private

business schools in UAE facing strong challenge to sustain operations and growth lately. The number of new

enrollment relatively decreased as shown in SHED reports. The Deans of Business schools realized the problems

every new semester and working hard to understand the case and detect the reasons to manage it. This study aims

to define the factors which cause the problem and suggest solutions to help the deans manage the problem effectively

and efficiently.

Key Terms: Private Higher Education, University, Business Schools, UAE,

Introduction

Access to education was extremely limited when the UAE was established in 1971. Since then, an enormous

transformation has taken place and considerable investment has been made to cater for the educational needs of an

ever-expanding population. Today, the UAE offers a comprehensive education to every male and female student

from kindergarten to university, with education for the country’s citizens being provided free at all levels. There is

also an extensive private education sector, while several thousand students, of both sexes, pursue courses of higher

education abroad at government expense. Business administration education in UAE offered through public and

private academic institutions. It is important to sustain the private business schools to share the responsibility with

the public universities meeting the UAE and GCC market needs currently and in the future.

The current study attempts to help the private business schools in the UAE and other countries to sustain in a

dynamic business and social environment taking in consideration the balance between education quality and

offering the financial support for the operational expenses.

The educational system in UAE is primarily the responsibility of different entities. The government has created

separate bodies, each with its own regulations to oversee the different types of institutions in the Emirate. While the

federal Ministry of Education (MOE) and the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research (MOHESR)

are responsible for overseeing all public and some private institutions in the UAE, the Knowledge and Human

Development Authority (KHDA) mandate is to ensure the quality of education in private schools and a quality

assurance framework for higher education through its University Quality Assurance International Board (UQAIB).

Qualification and Awards in Dubai (QAD) is the arm of the KHDA for regulating the technical and vocational

education and training (TVET) sector. It is the sole awarding body as authorized by the UAE National Qualifications

Authority (NQA) and Vocational Education and Training Awards Council (VETAC).

The MOHESR is the UAE federal government body and authority that regulates tertiary level education in the UAE.

It licenses universities and colleges and accredits their programs through its Commission of Academic Accreditation

(CAA) division.

The Higher Educational System in UAE

In line with UAE Vision 2021, education remains a top government priority and developing human capital is

considered to be a key enabler in the country's efforts to establish a diversified knowledge-based economy. This

focus on education is underpinned by a 21 per cent, or Dh9.8 billion, allocation in the 2014 federal budget. Dh6

billions of this is being spent on improving general education and Dh3.8 billion on academic excellence programs

in local universities (Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research website, 2017).


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According to Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research website “Ninety-five per cent of girls and 80

per cent of boys who complete their secondary education enroll in a higher education institution in the UAE or

travel abroad to study under government-sponsored schemes and a key focus of education reforms has been to

ensure that UAE students graduate from secondary school fully prepared to attend colleges and universities at home

and abroad. Significantly, according to Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research website Emirati

women account for 71.6 per cent of students in government tertiary-level institutions and for 50.1 per cent of

students in private higher education”. Furthermore, fact that the foreigner students staying in UAE are approaching

higher education in private universities in the UAE or abroad adding value to the importance of higher education in

UAE

The Emirates are exceptionally well endowed with tertiary education institutions, of which the leading state-

sponsored ones are United Arab Emirates (UAE) University, Zayed University and Higher Colleges of Technology.

There are a number of excellent vocational and technical centers too.

Figure (1): Business Administration Enrollment for the 2008-9-2014Academic Years comparing to the total

enrollment, 58 licensed institution

Source: Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research website

Figure (1) revealing that the increment ratio in the total enrollment During the period 2009-2014 was 25%, while

the increment ratio for Business schools for the same period is slightly significant. It is clear the enrolment in

business schools in UAE is decreasing which creates a serious challenge for sustaining private business schools in

UAE.

There are many universities established in the country to further nurture growth in tertiary level education. Four of

them are public institutions namely: UAE University, Khalifa University of Science Technology and Research,

Zayed University, and Higher Colleges of Technology. The remaining institutions are private and Global

Partnerships establishments such as: American Universities of Sharjah, Dubai, in the Emirates, and Ras Al Khaimah

and Sorbonne, and New York universities in Abu Dhabi; University of Sharjah (UOS); Ajman University of Science

and Technology (AUST); Abu Dhabi University (ADU); Al HOSN University; Masdar Institute for Science and

Technology (MIST); etc. The country has one of the highest rates of applicants for tertiary level education in the

world: ninety-five percent female and eighty percent male from the final year of high school apply for admission to

higher education institutions, locally and abroad. In addition, impressive new UAE-based campuses of international

institutions such as Paris-Sorbonne University Abu Dhabi and NYU Abu Dhabi have opened up in Abu Dhabi,

and Dubai International Academic City houses a wide variety of academic institution from many different countries.

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

70000

80000

90000

2013-2014 2012-2013 2011-2012 2010-2011 2009-2010 2008-2009

Business Administration Enrollment For the 2008-9-20014 Academic Years comparing to the total enrollment,58 licensed institution

Business Admi Total



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Lately, To implement government policy, the UAE Ministry of Education (MOE) developed Education 2020 vision

and later re-titled it as “Ministry of Education Strategic Plan 2017-2021”, a series of ambitious five-year plans

designed to bring significant qualitative improvement in the education system, especially in the way teachers teach

and students learn.

The study is structured as follows: first, the methodology part in which the researcher clarifying the tools of the

study and the sample structure. Second the literature review; the analysis part comes third, fourth the analysis and

Conclusions and recommendations is the last part.

Methodology

The study is qualitative basic study relies on literature review and questionnaire interview distributed to a sample

of 7 members presenting private business schools in UAE, Deans and presidents of private universities in the UAE,

and commissionaires in the ministry of Education. The sample members selected from different private universities

in different Emirates namely: Abu Dhabi, Dubai, and Sharjah. The interview conducted through e-mails directly

sent by the researcher to the respondents. The main questions were: “In your opinion, what are the major challenges

facing the sustainability of private business schools in UAE, and how to manage these challenges?”

Literature Review

Business schools (private and public) worldwide considered as a success models, Hay, (2008:371) argues are: “One

of the great educational success stories of the last century, perhaps the great story”, due in part to the fact that as the

business world has internationalized. Similarly, has business education (Muff, 2013, Bevelander, 2012). Thomas

and Thomas (2011) suggest, to the fact in the modern university the business schools are currently valued much

more for its managerial expertise, cash-generation abilities and financial strength than its intellectual capabilities

and scholarship.

The private business schools in UAE are not different from the rest of the world in terms of nature, aims, and

challenges, even it has a unique feature. The UAE business environment characterized mainly with expatriate’s

majority in terms of population, employers, job seekers, and students.

Table (1) clearly reveals that the UAE national’s ratio is less than 12% which indicates to the majority of foreigners

in all live aspects in UAE specifically in education including university students.

Table (1): Population distribution in UAE for the year 2016

Nationals of Population

India 2600000

Pakistan 1200000

UAE 1084764

Bangladesh 700000

Philippines 525530

Iran 4,50,000

Egypt 400000


https://www.moe.gov.ae/En/AboutTheMinistry/pages/ministrystrategy.aspx


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Nepal 300000

Sri Lanka 300000

China 200000

All other countries 1696334

Total UAE Population 9456628

Source: http://www.abudhabi2.com/uae-population-by-nationality/

Generally, the business environment in which the students of management/business program are entering is

dramatically different than that of fifty years ago. Changes in this business environment have an often made the

Business Schools’ curricula, and the development of new intellectual capital for use in curricula inefficient and

ineffective. The need for advanced Business Schools’ curricula meets the employers needs considered a major

challenge for business schools today and in the future.

The cost and quality of higher education, alumni employability considered a real challenge for the higher education

in UAE.

Lucill and Martin (2014), listed the key challenges influencing strategy in the five case-study business schools in

their research as following: -maintaining quality, International MBA and undergraduate student recruitment, low

ranking, Recruiting and retaining quality staff, competitive environment and Financial stability

According to McLaughlin. MaryAnn, (1995), “the new economy demanded new ways of thinking, new ways of

managing, and new ways of working. As the nature and look of jobs changed, the level of education and skills

required also changed. Many educators faced the challenge of preparing young people to participate in the

increasingly complex and changing world of work by calling on employers to articulate and communicate their

needs better”. Al-Bahhsien (2006), reported that 8% of private sector employers believe that the Saudi higher

education graduates skills are very convenient, while 22% believe that it is inconvenient.

The higher education is a major producer to the economic needs of qualified work force. It helps to satisfy the

updated society needs to achieve the social and economic development. The 2030 visions in UAE and Saudi Arabia

focusing on the knowledge based society which requires continuous development in the higher education. In support

of this contention, a new quality of Business administration graduates considers a number of attributes of today’s

business environment in the region such as:

• Increased rate and nature of change in business that is not homogeneous across countries of

geographies.

• The emergence of the internet as a global marketplace.

• Emergence of many new companies and industries that compete in the global marketplace for

employees and customers in ways not thought of many years ago.

• Increasing uncertainty caused by global competition.

• Increasing complex business transactions and events involving multi-disciplines, cultures, and markets.

• Transition to “information age” and digital based economy.

Such attributes in business environment will influence the sustainability of business schools, specifically private

business schools in UAE. Increased rate and nature of change in business that is not homogeneous across countries


http://www.abudhabi2.com/uae-population-by-nationality/


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of geographies will lead to workforce mobility. The families will move with the workforce movement as followers

or as a part time business student. The emergence of the internet as a global marketplace and Transition to

“information age” and digital based economy also creating real challenges for business schools to develop the

modern curriculum and the attributes of the students and the graduates,

Collectively, these challenges call into question the efficacy of our past ways of thinking, which often lead to local

optimization but internationally sub-optimal decisions, traditional business models that are becoming obsolete, and

past modes of business education that are now inefficient and ineffective, however still widely used. Despite the

priority attached to capture some of those challenges and the emerging trends in business education, the subject has

not been studied within the context of developing countries and particularly in the GCC countries.

The expected challenges

The sustainability of Private Business Schools in the UAE seems difficult because it requires managing different

actual and expected challenges. The next part will work to define and discuss such challenges to help the deans in

managing any possible problems.

The Localization Challenge

The business schools in general and the private business schools in UAE contributing in preparing the local business

graduates in the UAE and GCC to get jobs in the private sector. The study by Sulieman, (2001), revealed that the

main reason which blocks the local people in Saudi Arabia to be accepted in the private sector is the deep believes

of the employers of local’s disqualification, in addition to the fact that local employees prefer to work in the public

sector. Sulieman, (2001), reported also that the foreigner’s productivity is much higher than the local employees as

a result of different skills levels qualitatively and quantitatively. The UAE government work to open new job

opportunities in the private sector for Emirati job seekers through the new legislations or the new financial motives.

Rayan, (1998), explained the minority of Omani private employees compared to the foreigners as a result of lacking

qualified trained local employees, the study reveals too that the Omani graduates are under estimated professional

level in addition to the fact that they are much slow, and lacking the initiative to develop themselves professionally.

The study reported also the major reasons behind the employer’s low interest to hire local Omani; disqualified local

employees, foreigners are more loyal and discipline, and they are more productive. According to the study, one of

the reasons which discourage local Omani to work in the private sector is that they don’t believe that they are able

to get the necessary skills and knowledge.

Localization is a challenge for all GCC, therefore as members of this group, the educational authorities in UAE and

Oman started to realize the importance of Business programs quality to enhance localization programs, for example

the ADEC started to take in consideration the international accreditation such as AACSB for approving any new

business program.

Global organization needs to understand the culture with its popular dimensions that include, among others

language, time orientation, use of space, and religion. Multinational employers are an example of global

organizations, such as a Multinational Corporation (MNC) with its missions and strategies that are worldwide in

scope, has a total world view without allegiance to any one national home, and has enormous economic power and

impact. It is now not uncommon to find a successful MNC whose revenues exceed the gross national products

(GNP) of some countries. The United Arab Emirates working to achieve the 2020 project which is lunched by Dubai

government is the most inspiring source for future managers. To meet such challenges, a high level of integration

and cooperation between the private and public sector in the UAE were needed. The higher education institutes in

the UAE located in both sectors, and the business colleges are the most concern to meet such challenges.

The Required Skills and Competencies Challenge

In today’s business environment According to ERIC, (2000), Job-specific technical skills in a given field are no

longer sufficient as employers scramble to fill an increasing number of interdependent jobs. To be aware of what is



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relevant and timely, faculty need to connect more with the business community on a regular basis. Therefore,

Business Schools programs and the new curriculum development must be more responsive.

Meeting the Employers Expectations Challenge

The Business schools facing the continuous challenge of meeting the dynamic employer’s expectations, the findings

of Barhem, etl (2008) highlighted the need for increased liaison and networking between schools of Business and

business practice. Specific notice should be taken of offered skills and competences, also special attention should

be paid to the business administration courses to meet the employer’s expectations. Part of this challenge is the

ability of the business school to continuously connecting with the business community to response accurately to the

employer’s expectations. In a dynamic and open business environment such as the UAE business environment it is

a fact that importing the competent employees is the major source for work force, the Business schools can help in

offering the local graduates instead of importing it.

The Quality Challenge

The UAE 2030 aims to build knowledge-based society which is strongly rely on human development. The quality

of education in all levels is the only tool to achieve this aim. One element of this education system is the quality of

business school’s programs. Logically we need to answer the following rational question “What are the major

constituents of a high-quality business school?” (a) Faculty is number one; the size of the faculty is related to the

number of students. A combination of academically and professionally qualified, participating and supporting, and

core and non-core faculty is required, as is a mix of full-time, part-time, affiliated, visiting and partner school

professors. (b) Teaching quality. Professors possessing a combination of theoretical and practical business

capabilities are required to enhance students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes during their formation. (c) Power to

convene. This is crucial to attract academics and businesses, society and governmental leaders to their programs

and activities such as conferences, symposia and forums. (d) Students’ quality and quantity. (e) Quality and quantity

of Research, (f) Facilities, On-campus and off-campus accommodations; modest, good, or outstanding. (g) Support

services. For academic, administrative, placement, lodging, security, cleaning, food, as well as other services related

to the size of the student body.

Similarly, Fernando A., and Beatrice (2011) listed the major constituents of a high-quality business school as: (a)

Faculty size and competencies; (b) Teaching quality (theoretical and practical); (c) Power to convene and attract

academics and businesses, society and governmental leaders to their programs and activities such as conferences,

symposia and forums; (d) Students size; (e) Research; (f) Facilities specifically On-campus and off-campus

accommodations; and (g) Support services.

In referring to the sample member’s opinions we can assume the quality challenge as the most critical challenge

because it is considered as strategic challenge, costly challenge, and monitored rigorously by the formal entities.

The Financing or the Fund-Raising Challenge

According to Fernando A., and Beatrice (2011) “One of the major challenges that face the deans of many business

schools is obtaining funding for their academic operations and research to sustain world-class educational quality.

Business schools raise resources in their own way, but ways of financing strongly vary when comparing educational

institutions among world regions.” The fund raising is a major challenge to private business schools because there

is no government support to research projects or general operations due to the fact that the UAE government direct

support and financial aids to the governmental academic institutions. The private business schools in UAE rely

mainly on tuition fees to finance the budget and research requirements.

Based on the assumption that business schools finance their operations for growth and daily operations from the

funds generated by the schools themselves, (Lucill and Martin (2014), Friga et al, (2003), Thomas and Thomas,

(2011) and Fernando A., and Beatrice (2011) proposed the “business-like approach” business schools. Additionally,

schools have access to donations whether from individuals, corporations or foundations. In some countries, in

addition to donations, there is a culture of public funding for schools. The case of private business schools in the



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UAE is different since it lacks government support, and any external support is controlled and monitored by the

government.

According to Fernando A., and Beatrice (2011) generally the sources of funds and the financing of business schools

can be summarized as:

• -Resources Generated by the Business School

• -Resources Provided by the Parent University

• -Resources Granted by the Government and Multilateral Organizations

• -Resources Provided by Donations

• -Grants and Fellowships, Scholarships, and Corporate Programs

• Endowments

• Gifts

Fernando A. and Beatrice (2011) recommended business schools to react to the dynamic environment by adapting

a more business-like approach, scanning the horizon and identifying new markets and opportunities for growth.

However, some business schools remain ardently against a more business-like approach, considering it to work

against academic clarity and research excellence, expected of universities.

Challenges Based on Five Forces Model of Michael E. Porter

Lucill and Martin (2014) summarized the threats of Business schools based on the five forces model of Michael E.

Porter as the following:

-the risk of new entry by potential competing B-Schools (competitors), this challenge obviously is not strong in the

current time in the UAE due to the fact that the government started to regulate the new licenses strictly to avoid the

market over saturation.

-the extent of rivalry among established B-Schools (firms), the rivalry issue is serious in the UAE if we knew that

there are more than 90 accredited business schools.

-the bargaining power of students (buyers), the business administration students in UAE highly concerned in the

reputation of the school because it will make difference when applying for jobs.

-the bargaining power of academic and logistic support providers (suppliers), the bargaining power for suppliers is

weak since the market is saturated with business schools in the UAE, the only difference is for the school with

unique programs in both undergraduate and graduate levels.

-the threat of substitute programs (products), we can see now new online products, distance learning, professional

programs, and programs located in free zones in Dubai and Ras Alkhaima

“Considering the Five Forces model of Michael Porter as the base and applying the generic strategies like cost

leadership, differentiation and focus, the sample B-Schools may defend themselves against the competitive forces

and establish as good corporate social performer (i.e., the institution that makes reasonable earnings, reduces costs,

increases the relationship among the stakeholders and ensures social welfare as a whole) Lucill and Martin (2014),

additionally they found that the Top Three Strategic Issues facing UK business schools are: funding, student

recruitment and relevance of courses/research to industry and employers.

Rigorous Competition Challenge

Before the year 2002 there are three public higher academic institutions and three private accredited universities.

Within the next 7 years the number of private universities exceeded 40 where all looking for a share in the market.

Fernando A. and Beatrice (2011) found that “the competitive arena generated by the global economy is obliging

deans to be creative, especially by expanding their school’s operations into new markets to make their growth

sustainable. Business school’s competition is becoming global; deans attempt to attract high caliber students into

their programs; accreditations are costly in resources to be allocated; obtaining accreditations is crucial to

successfully compete; and rankings play sometimes a role in the applicants’ decision-making process.”



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The Legal Requirements Challenge

The authorities in UAE started to set higher standards in accrediting new programs or licensing new private higher

educational institutions. One of the most critical requirements is to set a ratio of the earnings for research assuming

that this amount is part of the net income, while the reality is different. Some universities are struggling to cover

the expenses and it suffering from loses due to probation decisions or restrictions on the maximum number of

admitted students in a certain program.

Additional financial burdens are a result of the new accreditation standards such as class ceilings, student’s services,

and the ratio of faculty to students. It is worth to mention again the International accreditation and ADEC

requirements as part of the legal challenges.

Challenges Based On Academicians and Experts Opinions

The study also investigated the opinions of academic leaders in the private universities in UAE to present a

comprehensive and clear picture of the real challenges for business schools. Prof. Ezz Hattab, the president of Aldar

University College declared that "Workforce mobility, and population structure" are a major future challenge for

private business schools in UAE. Prof Hattab academic and professional experience is not limited to UAE; Prof.

Hattab worked in Jordan and USA.

Dr. Hussien Saber, the chair of business administration department for the last 10 years in Abu Dhabi University

believes that private business schools facing the challenge of maintaining a balance between quality, pricing, and

market needs, in addition to integrity.

Dr Rafiq Hijazi, associate professor and academic quality expert in Al Ain University of science and Technology

stated that “I think the most serious challenge private business schools facing is the competition. The number of

HEIs (Higher Education Institutions) has been increasing dramatically in UAE and it won't stop. Most of newly

established HEIs are offering business programs trimming the shares of other HEIs in the market as they are sharing

one fixed-size cake.” Dr. Hijazi added: the enrollment in business programs has dropped in the last two years for

many reasons such as; economy, political situation in the region, population structure, etc. Additionally, the national

students are realizing that the government sector is saturated and business majors are no longer attractive and enough

to join the government sector and they are shifting slowly to other majors such as communications, modern

engineering programs and even education ones as well. So far, I do not see accreditation, local and international, as

a major challenge. There is a big variety in level of universities offering business programs and every school has its

own segment. Good schools are looking for certain quality of students and also caring about local and international

accreditation. On the other hand, others do not care about the quality and they still have their customers.

The opinion of Dr. Hajer Zarouk (assistant professor and former program chair and director of finance program)

from the higher colleges of technology revealed that the major challenge facing the sustainability

of private business schools in UAE is the economic challenges: for example, limited job opportunities or losing jobs

and workforce mobility

DR. Mohammed Dhiaf (Dean of business school in ECT) stated “I believe that the main challenges of private

business schools in UAE are:

➢ Legal Challenges coming from all stakeholders CAA and mainly from the International accreditation.

Universities translate from local standards developed by the ministry of Higher education to International

standards (International accreditation: AACSB, ACBSP, etc).

➢ Emiratization: All programs and mainly the coming new programs should be aligned with the Abu Dhabi

vision 2030 and meet the market needs.

➢ Population: UAE population is very heterogeneous and can be considered as source of competition between

universities.

➢ Reputation of many universities: Many universities (international universities) have strong reputation in

UAE (Sorbonne, New York Institute of Technology, Wollongong, American University of Sharjah, etc.)



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these universities very attractive for the students which makes the competition with other private

universities very difficult.

➢ - Obsolete programs: Many business programs are obsolete and need to be update.

➢ - Technological side: The use of modern technology in learning in many universities is very classic.

The opinion of Dr. Hassan Younies, the quality manager in NIYT Abu Dhabi declared that “The major challenge

for private business schools in UAE can be a Socioeconomic in nature, It is how to balance the profit incentives

versus academic quality incentive in a society that is not valuing quality of academic.”

Another opinion for Dr. Suleiman Almasaied the former Dean in Al albeit university and the economic consultant

in Abu Dhabi government is that the low Local demand for business programs is the major challenge for Private

business schools. Dr. Almasaied added; Rivalry, the decrease in the number of high school graduates, the need to

establish partnerships with reputable international universities, achieving international accreditation, organizing

international conferences and continuously updating the business programs to meet the changes in the employer’s

demand.

Analysis

The challenges in this study can be characterized as strategic challenges which require serious and methodological

tools to manage it. The Localization Challenge and 2030 vision can be managed through offering of the proper

budget; modern curriculum meets the future requirements and linking the business school strategic objectives with

the national vision. As a result, the business schools can ensure the production of the required skills and

competencies which easily can meet the employer’s expectations.

The Quality challenge is one of the most difficult challenges that require a holistic philosophy to achieve high

quality standards in the whole units and aspects. The UAE academic environment requires a high level of quality

aligned with the international standards which set a strong resources and advanced tools to satisfy the minimum

related standards. The resources can be described as human and financial resources. An important quality factor

is to attract qualified and competent faculty.

The Financing or the Fund-Raising Challenge

The business schools major financing source is the student’s fees; the school must achieve the optimum number of

enrollment to avoid any financial shortage. It is a fact that the business schools are the cash cow for the academic

institutions, so any weakness will affect negatively the other units. To maintain high return from students fees the

schools should attract more students by offering new demanded programs on both graduate and undergraduate

levels.

Business schools can attract fund raising to finance the research projects, quality assurance, scholarships, etc by

different methods in the UAE. The most important method is to utilize the CSR of big companies in UAE, and

establishing strategic partnerships with international universities and governmental institutions. The gifts can offer

a financial source specifically from the alumni and interested people, so the deans should maintain a strong strategic

relationship with a selected group of the alumni.

Challenges Based on Five Forces Model of Michael E. Porter can be managed easily by high quality programs and

affordable fees. Additionally, offering student services

Rigorous Competition Challenge

The dean of Business school is responsible for managing the competition threat by analyzing the external

environment and anticipating future environmental changes. Coordinating with the marketing unit is very essential.

Anticipate the workforce requirements and employer’s future needs also required offering a competitive and

advanced business programs

The Legal Requirements Challenge



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All organizations in the UAE required to response and comply with the legal requirements, and the academic

organizations are not an exception. The dean of the business school can manage this challenge by two strategies,

the first one is to response and complies with any legal requirement, and the second to anticipate the future legal

changes and prepare the school to deal with it successfully.

Conclusions and recommendations

It is a fact that the private business schools in UAE required to manage a serious challenge to sustain the academic

and administrative operations. The study found that the government not committed to offer financial support to the

private universities which force The business school’s deans to offer 100% of the budget by self-support. The deans

also should maintain high quality business programs and recruit and retain qualified faculty, achieving international

accreditation, attract more students for the different programs (graduate and undergraduate), establish strategic

partnerships, professionally and strategically analyze the environment, utilize all possible CSR opportunities, and

coordinate with other units in the institution to cover the financial needs for the school operations.

The researcher recommends the deans to establish a research track to help in sustaining the operations of the school.

The deans also need to utilize the available CSR opportunities.

Future studies might discuss the tools to encourage the UAE government to offer financial support for Private

business schools.

References

1- Albahussain. Sami (2006), Employability skills required by private Saudi employers and the role of higher

education system in delivering them: a field study, Journal of administrative and economical sciences, vol.22, no.1

2-Barhem. Belal, Yousef. Darwish, and Saleh. Adel (2008), “The Business Curriculum and the Future Employment

Market: The Views of UAE Business Leaders”, Education, Business and Society: Contemporary Middle Eastern

Issues in 2008 Journal

3-Bevelander, D.L (2012) Who is engaging with whom? Internationalizing opportunities

for business schools in emerging economies. International Journal of Educational

Management 26 (7) pp: 646-663.

4-ERIC development team (2000), Employability Skills: An Update. ERIC Digest, ERIC Clearinghouse on

Counseling and Student Services Greensboro NC, Canadian Guidance and Counselling Foundation Ottawa

(Ontario), ED445236.

5-Hay, M. (2008). Business schools: a new sense of purpose. Journal of Management

Development, 27 (4), 371- 378.

6-Friga, P. N. et al (2003). Changes in graduate management education and new business school strategies for the

21st century. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 2 (3), 233 – 249.

7-Fernando A. D’Alessio, Beatrice Avolio (2011), Research in Higher Education Journal, Business schools and

resources constraints: A task for deans or magicians? Volume 13 - October

8-Lorange, P. (2005). Strategy means choice: also for today's business school! Journal of Management

Development, 24 (9), 783 – 790.

9-Lucill Curtis, Martin Samy, (2014) "Investigating whether UK business schools need to be more business-like in

order to survive in today's dynamic environment", International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 28 Issue:

6, pp.728-750, https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-08-2013-0133


http://www.emeraldinsight.com/author/Samy%2C+Martin

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10-McLaughlin, MaryAnn (1995), Employability Skills Profile: What Are Employers Looking For ERIC

Clearinghouse on Counseling and Student Services Greensboro NC., Canadian Guidance and Counselling

Foundation Ottawa (Ontario). ? ERIC Digest. ERIC Identifier: ED399484

11-Mohammed. Solaiman, Syed Ahsanul Alam, and. Tayub Chowdhury (2009), Corporate Social Performance For

Generic Strategies In Private Business Schools Of Bangladesh: A Holistic Approach, Asian Affairs, Vol. 31, No.

2: 21-36, April-June

12-Muff, K (2012) Are business schools doing their job? Journal of Management Development 31 (7) pp: 648-662.

13-Prince, C (2007) Strategies for developing third stream activity in new university business schools. Journal of

European Industrial Training, 31 (9), 742 – 757.

14-Rayan. Adel, 1998, 20معوقات إحالل العمالة الوطنية محل العمالة الوافدة في القطاع الخاص العماني: دراسة ميدانية, اإلداري, السنة ,

55, 44, 40, ديسمبر, صفحة 75العدد

15-Sulieman. Ahmed, 2001, صفحة 2, عدد 41ي وسياسة توظيف العمالة الوطنية, اإلدارة العامة, مجلد نموذج نظري لسوق العمل السعود ,

243

16-Thomas, H., and Thomas, L. (2011). Perspectives on leadership in business schools.

Journal of Management Development, 30 (5), 526-540.



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Islamic Banking: from ethical premises to secular achievements! Mehboob ul Hassan

Professor and Senior Researcher,

Islamic Banking Center, Department of Economics

College of Business Administration, King Saud University,

Riyadh Saudi Arabia.

Electronic Address: [email protected]

Abstract

Due to the reason of interest charging, conventional banks and financial institutions were no go places for Muslims.

Started in the second half of 1970s Islamic banks and financial institutions are institutional outcomes of the Islamic

economics movement started in the mid-twentieth century. Muslims expressed unprecedented interest in this

banking and financial system since the day they were established because the basis for establishment of Islamic

banking system is Islamic socio-ethical framework. Islamic banking has performed phenomenally both in the

development and growth. The cumulative aggregate growth rate (CAGR) of Islamic finance is near to 20% much

higher than the CAGR 3% of conventional counterpart. To a great extent, this progress, however, disappointed

majority of Muslims as the fruit of this impressive growth and development of Islamic banking did not reached to

the majority of Muslims both in developing and developed countries. Majority of the population in Islamic world

is still unbanked and living in vicious economic and social conditions. After making an historical overview and the

objectives of establishing Islamic banks and financial institutions, this paper highlights the socio-economic issues

of the Muslim countries and demand to the Islamic bankers and the authorities for making a reconciliation on the

banking policies and practices in the consideration of the objectives of Islamic economics.

Introduction

Qur’an the revealed book onto the last messenger of Allah, about fourteen centuries ago, has provided a framework

of guidance for a successful economic life to its believers. Along with other economic related injunctions, Qur’an

has very firm and clear stance on the prohibition on Riba (also referred as interest or usury). Modern Islamic banking

industry, emerged in the 1970s, is an attempt of Muslims to make their economic dealings in compliance with the

teachings of Qur’an. Islamic banks are designed to help Muslims to fulfill their financial needs within the religious

injunctions. This late twentieth-century invention are also regarded as an Islamic response to the world against the

backdrops in the capitalism and socialism. In 1950s and 1960s, there were some attempts to establish interest-free

financial institutions in Pakistan and other parts of Muslim world. These institutions had small market share and

very limited financial capacity. Therefore, most of these institutions were disappeared in the later times but these

experiments paved the pathway for the establishment of modern day’s Islamic banking and finance industry. The

induction of moral imperatives and prohibition of interest are foundational basis for the establishment of Islamic

banks. The establishment of Islamic banking manifests the attempt of Muslims to relate the financial sector with

the Shari’ah, i.e. Islamic law of economic transactions. Islamic banks are also sometimes termed as Islamic financial

institutions (IFIs) refer to any financial institutions that perform their operations according to Islamic law. An

Islamic bank performs all the conventional banking services such as deposit taking, loan provision, checking

account, savings and investment services, and so forth, under a strict compliance framework of Islamic teachings.

In the beginning, Islamic banking institutions were established in Dubai and Saudi Arabia during the 1970s, and in

the later decade, a significant increase in the number of Islamic banking and finance institution was noticed all

around the world. Islamic finance presents an alternate way of banking and finance in the world where the

conventional banking and financial institutions had sole dominance for more than 300 years. Since its inception,

Islamic banking faced a series of critics about its feasibility and acceptability and it was feared that the practicality

of Islamic banking and finance would not be possible, but with the passage of time the tremendous growth and

development has nulled all the criticism on this industry. Islamic banking and finance now has got significant

integration into the global finance, and in many countries, it is being practiced in parallel to conventional banking

industry; providing all the range of the financial products and schemes and caters the needs of individual clients to

multinational firms and governments. Keeping the territory of Gulf Council of Cooperate (GCC) as the main hub,

Islamic banking and finance industry has crossed the geographical borders and is being successfully practiced in


mailto:[email protected]


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Africa, America, Asia, Australia, and Europe. Over the past three decades, the cumulative aggregate growth rate

of Islamic banking and finance has been between 15-20 per cent per annum as compare to 2-3 percent of its

counterpart. The exponential growth of this fast-growing industry was continued even the period 2005-2016, before

and after the first great financial crises of 21st century. Nowadays, Islamic banking and financial institutions has

crossed the number of 300 and the industry has reached to more than US$ 3 trillion in terms of assets. The successful

achievement is a clear proof the feasibility of Islamic economics concepts into banking and finance practices. This

outstanding manifestation of Islamic economics principles into banking and finance is a testimony to the resilient

nature of Islamic financial teachings and the financial industry. Islamic finance industry has passed significant

milestones in its integration into the global economy. The growth in Islamic banking and finance industry is all

rounded; it is growing in terms of innovations and products developments, increase in assets accumulation,

diversification and market sharing and internationalization. This successful achievement recognizes the application

of Islamic teachings into banking and finance practices. Moreover, the implementation of Islamic principles into

banking system and the proliferation of Islamic financial institutions across the global boarders is also a successful

demonstration of the objective oriented nature of this industry.

Philosophical Foundation of Islamic Banking and Finance

The philosophical foundation of the Islamic finance is primarily derived from the Qur’anic and Prophetic

commands. Qur’an is considered as fountain head of all the Muslim thinking and stands as epistemological source

of Islamic Shari’ah. Quranic teachings are universal in nature and are not open to anyone for bringing any change

in its meaning or implications. While, the tradition of the last Prophet Muhammad is considered as ontological

source. Both Quran and Tradition form the primary sources Islamic legal system. This also implies that no one can

alter any single commandments of these sources. While the secondary sources, Ijma’a, i.e. the consensus among

the Muslim jurists of their time, and Qiyas i.e. process of deductive analogy, provide a great flexibility to the Islamic

finance industry in terms of product development and innovation. Muslim jurists, through the Ijma’a and Qiyas add

their analogical thoughts into the philosophical foundation of Islamic Shari’ah. These secondary sources of the

Shari’ah along-with the transcends traditions-based rituals among Muslims have now resulted in a number of

Muslim scholars and professional in Islamic banking and finance industry with diverse analogy and thoughts.

Nowadays, there are varieties of Shari’ah approved banking and investment techniques available to cater the needs

of diversified customers. The financial needs of Muslim, especially of developing countries are dire and more severe

than the other, and Islamic finance ensures the needs are fulfilled in a just manner. An Islamic Shari’ah scholar,

based on the need of the customer, approve the financial scheme and ensure that the Islamic principle of risk-sharing

is not neglected. Contrariwise, due to variation of understandings among the Shari’ah scholars, Islamic finance

industry lacks standardization, in terms of, recognition, operational flow, Shari’ah application and accounting

aspects of the financial products among the different regions. Shari’ah scholars from GCC and South Asian

countries prioritize orthodox doctrine, while Malaysia and East Asian countries prefer the modernist approach in

Shari’ah compliance in the Islamic banking and finance industry.

Three major components of Islamic banking and finance are Islamic banking, Takaful and capital markets. Islamic

financial industry includes, Islamic banks, Islamic capital market and Takaful. Islamic capital markets are markets

for buying and selling equity securities and debt securities. While, Takaful institutions provide insurance services

on non-interest basis. All these essential Islamic financial institutions have single aim in common, i.e. enhancing

human wellbeing within Islamic Shari’ah. Their existence and successful operation is an indication that Shari’ah

provides a sound feasible economic system of its own with its values, percepts and institutions, which work within

the Islamic framework.

Islamic banking and finance industry is, sometimes, regarded as a practical implication of Islamic economic

thoughts, a part of Islamic resurgence movement, and the study of Islamic finance is incomplete without

understanding the themes and concerns of the Muslim scholars and the historical developments in Islamic

economics thoughts.

The core objective of all kinds of scientific studies is a to develop the ways for a better and happy life of man and

the societies in this world and economics does the same. The subject matter of economics is the allocation and

distribution of resources in such a way that maximum benefit from these resources can be achieved. During all the

economic resources allocation and planning process, economists prefer to be value neutral and sidestep moral issue.

They study the choice and decision making of human purely based on trade-offs and incentives, and leave the value



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judgement aside. However, this value-neutral allocation and distribution of resources, even though in most efficient

way, may not be acceptable to the society if it is value-neutral, pure rational and pay no attention to the social

welfare. Moreover, because of this value-neutral and self-interest maximization attitude, the resulting outcome of

the economic planning can bring social injustice, unfair distribution of wealth and high rate on unemployment; all

of these contribute to the financial and economic crises at intra and international levels. Muslim scholars are on the

opinion that the failure of economic development could be overcome with a socially constructed moral model of

economics, where economic development goals are mutually consistent harmoniously with the high standards of

morals and ethics of the society.

As discussed in previous chapter, socio-economic justice is one of the featuring premises in Islamic finance and

distinguish Islamic finance from its counterparts. Islamic finance, as contrast to value-neutral conventional finance,

value-loaded, which is shaped by Islamic Shari’ah. The insertion of this premise in the Islamic finance is an essential

aspiration of Islamic economics. Therefore, understanding the Islamic economics as a system became particularly

in the studies of Islamic finance. As Islamic banks are regarded as the institutional aspect of Islamic economics to

finance the economic activities in Islamic framework, there is need to have particular understanding of Islamic

economics.

In the following section, we will briefly explain the features of Islamic economics, its philosophical vision and other

aspects.

Islamic Economics: Features and Philosophy

Islamic economics, sometimes, referred to a refined edition of the mainstream economics; in Islamic economics,

the economic pursuits are performed under a governing framework of value judgements of the outcomes. However,

Islamic economics, in the above narration, is not precise true. Islamic economic as a scientific discipline that

examines the economic behavior of human being and economies and solve the economic problems based on the

values, norms, laws and principles derived from the sources of Islam. Islamic economics is different from the

conventional economics from many aspects, such as:

• Epistemological source of Islamic economics is Qur’an, while in conventional the reason and logics form

the primary source;

• The ultimate goals of economic behavior in both, Islamic and conventional economics are different;

• Fundamental concepts and commands in the Qur’an are universal and are not open to anyone for changes

in meaning and application, hence, the fundamental concepts of Islamic economics are not changeable.

While, in conventional economics fundamental concepts are exposed to change at any time and in changing

situations;

• The nature of concepts and theories in Islamic economics are different than the conventional economics.

Qur’an has provided a set of instructions on how Muslims shall behave in economic pursuits at individual as well

as collective levels. This set of instructions have given birth to a distinct doctrine on economic matters that is known

as Islamic Economics System.

Islamic economics as a scientific knowledge that aims to develop a system where the ontological and

epistemological sources of determining the framework of economic activities are Qur’an and Sunnah. Both of these

sources are considered as primary sources of Islamic Shari’ah and provide the ethical as well as legal bases for the

economic interactions. All the economic behaviors, ranging from individual to society and from intrastate to

interstate, are governed under the Islamic Shari’ah. The working mechanism of Islamic economic system is

managed by a set of principles derived from the Qur’an with the objective of economic wellbeing of human and

societies on one hand bring them closer to their creator on the other hand. Islamic economics is the application of

Islamic Shari’ah that requires the promotion of social justice along with the economic pursuits of self-interest

through efficient allocation and distribution of scarce resources. While examining the human relationship between

scarcity and human needs, Islamic Shari’ah stresses that only economic pursuits are not the ultimate ends

themselves, but value judgement of these economic pursuits are equally important. Islamic economics knot the

economic pursuits and moral with a strong bond. Thus, in Islamic approach, acquiring self-interest is an essential

guide for the utility-maximization, but for this economic quest, the social utility must not be give-up. Islamic strictly

overrules the principle of trade-off between the economic outcomes and social values. Thus, Islamic Shari’ah

requires a human behavior where economic pursuits are governed by a blend of moral and ethical framework of

guideline. Shari’ah, therefore, aimed at creating a new economic system which has the following features in it:

• It is a value-based system and is a part of greater Islamic order;



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• Economics activity under Islamic system become a part of Islamic religion;

• Only the Halal choices and activities of individual as institutions are permitted; and

• Even a Halal choice can become Haram if the operational process is not incompliance with the Shari’ah.

Muslim scholars consider the Islamic morals and ethics as the foundation of Islamic economics and treat these moral

and ethics as benchmark or yardstick for the assessment of economic and social aspects of individuals, institutions

and societies. As Islamic financial institution is regarded the institutional aspect of Islamic economics to finance

the economic activities in Islamic framework, there is a need to have particular institutions using instruments

according to rules and regulations, which are all bound by the Shari’ah.

The promotion of socioeconomic justice is the ultimate objective of Islamic economics and result of all the economic

activities, whether rendered at individual or collective levels, must lead to achieve this greater objective. Thus

Justice is the raison d’etre of Islamic economics and equity among the human in all the aspects of life is the goal

not the byproduct of the economic activities.

Quran in Chapter 83 verses 1-6 says:

1. “Woe to those, who give less (than due)”.

2. “Who, when they take a measure from people, take in full”.

3. “But if they give by measure or by weight to them, they cause loss”.

4. “Do they not think that they will be resurrected”.

5. “For a tremendous Day”.

6. “The Day when mankind will stand before the Lord of the worlds”.

The set of above and many other verses provides a glimpse of the economic system to be established based on

certain assumptions and principles, some of which are as followings:

First, Islam and economics are closely linked. The Quran and the Sunnah are for the proper guidelines of human

beings.

Second, man on this earth is vicegerent of Almighty and Omnipotent Allah (the Creator of all the universes), and

he is accountable and responsible for the economic activities. Throughout his life, in each and every phase of

existence, at every step, Muslims are endeavoring to act in harmony with moral values.

Third, Islam does not allow to possess, consume or produce goods or wealth which are prohibited. As an individual,

complying with Islamic economics principles, he/she needs to uplift social welfare through not only seeking the

material wellbeing but also inculcating the moral and spiritual values in the economic matters.

Fourth, the main purpose of consumption and production is to satisfy the commands of Allah. These should be

maintained at moderate level by avoiding miserliness and extravagance. Islam discourses any form of laziness,

idleness and most importantly non-utilization of resources that hinders productivity.

Fifth, the goal of the firm in Islam is not merely driven by the principle of profit maximization. There are certain

goals of an economic enterprise in Islamic which are: fulfillment of one’s own needs in moderation, meeting the

needs of one’s family, provision for future contingencies, provision for posterity and social service and contribution

to the cause of Allah.

Sixth, Allah is the absolute right of ownership and human beings are the trustees of the property. Any form of

oppression or illegal take over someone’s property, misuse or un-utilization of property, monopolizing the property

rights etc. are prohibited. Seventhly, Islam ensures individual freedom, but everyone is accountable and responsible

for the duties vested upon him or her. Finally, Islam favors cooperation instead of competition. This can be possible

through sound spiritual, economic and social affairs. Last, the main goals of Islamic economics are to ensuring

justice, prevention of income inequalities, redistribution of wealth, prohibition of extravagance and excess,

promotion of welfare, literacy and human development.

The philosophical foundation of Islamic economics is also related to the principles of Islamic finance since both

relies on of Qur’an and Sunnah as their primary sources. There are some other aspects too which are mandatory for

Islamic financial institutions to follow. Islamic Shari’ah promotes right of private ownership, free consent and

mutual co-operation, law of inheritance, honesty, fairness and promise-keeping, benevolence, zakah, charity

(sadaqah). On the other side, it prohibits some fraudulent elements. Any transaction to be called Shari’ah compliant,

it must be free from certain prohibitive elements i.e., Riba, gharar, mysir etc. Following section highlights on these

prohibitive aspects of Islamic finance along with Islamic modes of financing, sharing risk and responsibilities, role

of money, documentation and transparency.

The Distinguishing Feature of Islamic Banking and Finance



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The foundational premises of Islamic banking and financial institutions can be distinguished from conventional

banking and financial institutions by the following features:

• Restriction in the prohibited business practices and Prohibition of interest in financial arrangements. A list

of prohibited business transaction includes the sale and purchase in haram commodities like, liquor, pork,

and prostitutions along-with many immoral activities such as gambling, speculation and unjust. Moreover,

this imply not only that Islamic financing transactions are structured differently than in conventional

finance, but also that all the financial transaction must be genuine and back-up by a physical or tangible

asset.

• Islamic banking and financial institutions are held responsible to ensure the integration of religious

injunctions into business operations. The banking operations are governed by an independent team of

Shari’ah scholars, sometimes referred as Shari’ah Board. The primary responsibilities of Shari’ah team,

or Shari’ah Board, is to indemnify the compliance of Shari’ah rulings in the business transactions.

• Another premise that makes Islamic banks different from its counterparts to great significance, is the

inception of the concepts of socio-economic justice and partnership both in the business practices and

details of business transactions with its clients. The emphasis of Islamic economics is on risk-sharing rather

than transferring risk to the weaker party. Islamic banks receive the funds from the investors or depositors

on partnership basis and then invest these funds into the project on the partnership basis. In this way, the

depositor of Islamic banks, instead of receiving predetermined risk-free return, bear the risks of the

business out-comes. On the other side, the entrepreneur feels herself secure from bearing the operational

and other risks solely. This unique inception into business practice foster the transparency, morality and

justice into the business operations, hence lead to the greater resilience of the banking and finance industry.

• In addition to above, Islamic banks are also held responsible for developing a business culture in which

the Islamic ethics, values and décors are reflected in all facets of conduct ranging from policies and

procedures development, dealing in international relations, behavior clients and industry, and employer to

employee relationships. The purpose of establishing this is to develop a collective environment where

economic affairs of this worldly life are combined with the spirit of Islam.

Global Outlook of Islamic Finance

Islamic banking is an emerging sector in the global financial market. Started over three decades earlier, there are

more than 1,000 Islamic financial institutions scattered around the globe. In banking sector, more than 300 banking

institutions in 60 countries of the world are applying Islamic principles in their operations. Islamic banking has

made a remarkable growth rate in the past decade at the Cumulative Aggregate Growth Rate (CAGR) of 17.8%.

The total assets of Islamic finance industry at the mid-2017 were estimated at US$ 2.7 trillion, triple the amount in

2005. It is projected that Islamic finance will cross the milestone of US$ 3.0 trillion as assets by the end of 2017 at

a Cumulative Aggregate Growth Rate (CAGR) around 15%. This growth is likely to continue in future despite the

fact that a sharp decline in the price of oil and its by-products has been witnessed. It is expected that Islamic finance

industry will maintain its growth rate and will cross the milestone of US$ 3.5 trillion within the 2020 at CAGR 14

percent, Islamic banking credited most for this growth.



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The two most important parts of global Islamic finance are banking institutions and Sukuk market. These two sectors

composite around 94% or near to US$ trillion worth

Islamic banks, with more than US$ 1.95 trillion as their assets, is the largest shareholder in the Islamic finance

market of US$ 2.7 trillion (estimated). While, the Sukuk (bonds) having issuance of US$ 400 billion as outstanding

stands second, Takaful (insurance) industry has assets of US$ 90 billion and Islamic finds for US$ 110 billion, and

other financial institutions for US$ 140 billion. Islamic banking sector is the largest contributor of global Islamic

banking market in terms of total assets shares. Its accounts for around 80 percent market shares that mostly comes

from Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, UAE, Kuwait and Qatar.

Few countries have been experiencing a substantial increase of Islamic banking market share in 2015 compared to

the previous year, as indicated in chart 2.1, for instance, Yemen at 33% (2014: 27%), while Kuwait at 38.9% (2014:

38%), Qatar at 26.1% (2014: 25.1%), Malaysia at 23.0% (2014:21.9%), Bangladesh at 19.4% (2014: 17%) and the

Size of Global Islamic Finance Market (US$ Billions)

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

800 900 950 1,100 1,300 1,600 1,700 2,100 2,400 2,700 3,000 3,300

20112012201320142015201620172018



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United Arab Emirates at 18.4% (2014: 17.4%). Overall, less than fifty percent of the jurisdictions (17 out of 31)

have gained an increased in their domestic market share for Islamic banking sector in 1H2015 compared to 1H2014

whereas nearly twenty-five percent of the jurisdictions (8 out of 31) i.e., Iran and Sudan etc. have enjoyed constant

market shares, however, only 3 jurisdictions have experienced a very minimal decline Saudi Arabia, Turkey and

the United Kingdom.

Conclusion

Now, as we have seen, Islamic banking industry started in 1970s with a few number of banks, have crossed the

regional bounders and now have a significant appearance global financial industry. Islamic banking has established

its credentials both as moral as well as financial industry, Islamic banking has proved that it is good competitor and

strong rival of conventional banking. Now, it is time for Islamic banking and finance to think for the development

of the less served people and build the models of financial inclusiveness and sustainability for the greater benefits

of the societies and the economies. When I assert to the Islamic banking for serving the less served or ignored

peopled by the conventional banking, I am not talking about giving money to them in the way as charity, but for

investing in developing the opportunities that will provide them the platform to participate in economic activities.

One way for developing the opportunities for the neglected ones is offering the schemes of microfinance to them.

As we witnessed, Grameen bank of Bangladesh has contributed to a significant level for developing the

entrepreneurship skills of the poor through interest based microfinancing schemes. And many NGOs and Social

organization are already offering low-interest financial schemes around the globe. There is no reason that Islamic

banks could not offer Shari’ah based microfinancing schemes to the less developed communities in their vicinities.

Islamic banking now has to look at its foundation premises and principles and work for meeting the longstanding

desires and demands of the Muslims and decide who we want to be from now on. Only when Islamic banking start

moving towards the provision of socio-economic responsibilities and justice for all, only then it truly be able to say

they are ethically legitimate, mature and Shari’ah compliant industry.

References

Hassan, Mehboob-ul (2017). Islamic banking: where we are going? Editorial in Islamic Banking Bulletin Volume

1. No. 3 July-September, 2017

Hassan, Mehboob-ul. (2017) Changing Trends in Global Development Agenda and Islamic Proposal for Achieving

the Equitable Development, Financial Inclusion and Poverty Alleviation, Paper presented at Global Forum

on Islamic Finance (2017) March 21-23 2017, organized by COMSATS Institute of Information

Technology, Lahore, Pakistan.

Hassan, Mehboob-ul (2017). Islamic Social Financing Institutions for achieving the Poverty Alleviation and other

Objectives of Shari’ah, Paper presented at 2nd Global Forum on Islamic Economics, Finance and Banking

(IEFB), 25-26 January 2017, organized by University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan.

Hassan, Mehboob-ul (2016). Access to finance: Is this a Right of the Poor or Benevolence from the Bank, Paper

presented at 1st ICIEF International Conference, January 27-28, 2016 organized by Institute of

Management Sciences, Peshawar Pakistan.

Hassan, Mehboob ul. (2011). Meeting with History: A Conversation with Prof. Khurshid Ahmad; an Islamic

Economist and Activist, Kyoto Bulletin of Islamic Area Studies, Vol. 4 (1), pp. 74-123. URL:

http://www.asafas.kyoto-u.ac.jp/kias/contents/pdf/kb3_2/11mehboob.

Hassan, Mehboob ul. (2010). Searching for Customers’ Perceptions and Behavior towards Islamic & Conventional

Banking in Pakistan, Review of Islamic Economics, Vol. 14 (1), pp. 77-102.

Hassan, Mehboob ul. (2010). Islamic Approach of Economics: Some Discourses on Khurshid Ahmad’s Vision of

Socio-Economic Order, Self-Reliance and Economic Development, Kyoto Bulletin of Islamic Area Studies,

Vol. 3 (2), pp. 216-240 URL: http://www.asafas.kyoto-u.ac.jp/kias/contents/pdf/kb3_2/11mehboob.

Hassan Mehboob ul. (2010). Islamic and Conventional Banking: Analysis of Patronage Behavior and Perceptions

of Pakistani Customers, The Islamic Culture. Vol. 22, pp. 1-43.

Hassan Mehboob ul. (2008). The Islamization of the Economy and the Development of Islamic banking in Pakistan,

Journal of Islamic Banking &Finance, Vol. 25 (3), pp. 16-40.


http://www.asafas.kyoto-u.ac.jp/kias/contents/pdf/kb3_2/11mehboob

http://www.asafas.kyoto-u.ac.jp/kias/contents/pdf/kb3_2/11mehboob


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Sustainable Tourism:

Mirror, Mirror Everywhere But Not An Image To Believe

Syed Ahmad Rizwan1 Dennis Powers2 Atul Tripathi3 Meraj Naeem4

1. Dr Syed Ahmad Rizwan, Tourism Consultant, Lucknow, UP, India.

E-mail: [email protected]

2. Dr Dennis Powers, Head of Projects, Aflaj Research Unit, University of Nizwa, Sultanate of Oman.


3. Prof. (Dr) Atul Tripathi, Head, Department of History of Art & Tourism Management, Banaras Hindu

University, Varanasi-221 005.


4. Dr Meraj Naem, Dean (Research), Al Dar University College, Dubai, UAE.


Introduction

Sustainability and tourism seems to be antonyms wedded by the ‘business priests’ to gain selfish motives.

Sustainability and sustainable development has stayed with tourism for more than three decades and assumption is

that ‘small is better’ (McCool 2013). Initially sustainable tourism was aligned with natural environments but then

it was realized that economic strategies are also governed by sustainability. The worry about the earth could be

related to McHarg’s masterpiece Design With Nature (1967) where he expressed his concerns over the black bruises

on the green apple of the earth. This concern should have evoked the genuine concerns about the sustainability

issues but it seemed to be a howl of the publicity seeking supporters. The definitions of sustainability created a new

issue of being vague. These definitions just directed the public’s attention to the increasing shortage of natural

resources. The current research discussion keeping the above mentioned tone discusses the futility of sustainable

development in general and sustainable tourism development in particular.

Methodology

Sustainability as a topic has been taken for granted for too long. This research piece is a discussion on the futility

or utility of sustainability. History has ascertained the utility and success of Socratic Method which was used as a

methodology for this research essay. Socrates liked to ask probing and often humiliating questions and this street

corner philosophy made a career of deflating pompous windbags (Dummies 2017).

The same approach was used where the authors read literature of all kinds academic and non academic, went through

many case studies and discussed the topics with experts, industry and with students. To reach a final commentary

the authors discussed the readings and realized that sustainability is the Qubla Khan palace that is just a vision in

dream. These discussions have been penned down as a research essay. The success lies in opening a debate or the

application of discussion on a case which either supports or refutes the ideas presented in this paper.

The Origin And Definition Of Sustainability

Often the academician and industry recognize the sustainability concept to the Brundtland Report by World

Commission on Environment and Development (WCED 1987). The concept balances the equilibrium between

economic development and environmental protection (Dresner 2002). This is a myth actually sustainable term was

first used by World Conservation Union in its World Conservation Strategy (1980).

So it was seven years later that generally academics and industry point to but actually World Conservation Union

was the organization that should be given the credit; and that too almost seven years before. Since then

“Sustainability” has become indispensable. Be it 1992’s ‘Earth Summit at Rio de Janerio, or the ‘World Summit on

Sustainable Development’ in Johannesburg in 2002, or the ‘Agenda 21’ of ‘Earth Summit’ at 1992, or the ‘World

Summit on Sustainable Development’ in the year 2002 or even the ‘World Ecotourism Summit’ at Quebec in the



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year 2002, Sustainability received a global endorsement as the new industry (tourism) paradigm (Godfrey 1996:

60).

Sustainable development was the new talisman that widespread like a jungle fire but the issue was the lacunae of

majority over the real meaning of the term. Given a choice between defining ‘sustainable development’ and defining

‘what is not a sustainable definition’ the later seems to be an easier task. The people’s interpretation has been varied

and the definition often arises from the context in which it is used which provides multiplicity of definitions and

creating issues in turn. As early as 1990s this issue was noticed as more than seventy definitions already had

touched the horizon by then (Steer and Wade-Gery 1963). Sustainable tourism in the eye of certain academics has

become a meeting point for environment and development (Dresner 2002:54) and to create a pathway to get

permission for development at environmental costs at times. To complex it further the literature has used the term

‘strong sustainability’ or ‘ecocentric’ and ‘weak sustainability’ or ‘techno centric’. It is similar to the demarcations

between ‘development’ and ‘transformations’.

The Environments Of Sustainability

The era of the 70’s was flooded with the idea of limiting growth to the maxim so that undue demands of the

ecosystems may be stopped. The 1980’s effort of IUCN’s World Conservation Strategy introduced sustainable

development which it thought will be boon or panacea for all ills but later it was realized that the assumption itself

was whimsical. The important add on to the Caring for Earth document (IUCN 1991) the Brundtland report focused

on meeting the basic needs focusing on neo classical economic growth (Reid 1995) and supported economic growth

for sustainable tourism whereas Caring for Earth advocated that people’s approach should be tamed and transformed

with regards to environment and consumption. The thought that global environmental pressures are actually not

resource issues, but human issues further support the Caring for Earth philosophy (Ludwig et al. 1993).

It is noteworthy that objectives of sustainable development and environments that we talk about have striking

similarity. The bigger objectives of sustainable development are:

Environmental Sustainability: Involves Conservation alongwith effective management of resources.

Economic Sustainability: Prosperity spread over a longer period for a continuous development.

Social Sustainability: Working with marginalized communities, human rights, freedom in all sense and providing

equal opportunities.

Be it the objectives or the environments political sustainability serves as a poorer cousin. Often strategies for

tourism may be ecologically, economically and socio-culturally sustainable yet often the lack of political will may

make it politically redundant to be followed and implemented. In a democratic setup the overall welfare of public

is the priority but in totalitarian set-ups the thoughts and interests of the elites and the state will over rule. Different

political ideologies will have differing viewpoints on development. Neo-liberalism which argues for personal and

development based on free market economic growth stands in opposite to radical ecological movement which

perceives that solutions lie in restricting personal freedom and capping it. When it comes to the political thoughts

of Socialist Political Economies it sees capitalism and drive for profit as a culprit and feels should be reduced and

collective ownerships should be enhanced. Marxists followers support sustainability by allowing people to have a

direct interaction with the environment which will lessen the sense of alienation and yield in personal freedom and

fulfillment. The advocates of eco-feminism feel that the traits of femininity like interrelationships, balance, care,

compassions are an ideal climate in which sustainability can be conceived.

Tourism of late has been selling the triple bottom line which states that economic, social and environmental

considerations should be equal in the decision making process. The discussion in this paper proves that economic

viability makes the social and environmental efforts redundant and that when it comes to sustainability the scenario

has changed and it is now a quadruple bottom line with the fourth pillar or line being the politics. Sound economic,

political and social benign developments will not be operational unless it is politically acceptable. It is not the

global, national or regional but also local level politics that also dominate the show. Academicians have proved this

fact through their writings (Sofield 1996).



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The Arguments: Sustainability As A Mirage Or A Curtain To Hide Dirty Development

Sustainable tourism as discussed above is a one common pill for multiple woes especially for economic and

environmental issues; by creating small businesses, employing local people the environmental impacts are

minimized, personal income raised and quality of life is enhanced (McCool 2013).

The summary of following cases exposes the foolishness of this believes when Sustainable Tourism is seen in the

current light. Brunet et al. (2001) and Dorji (2001) prepares the case study of Bhutan which in all sense to maintain

sustainability believes in restricted tourism. Bhutan was a lost kingdom until Airport was constructed in 1983 and

runway extension in 1990. Till then it had one route and complex permission to enter that too via India. Tourism

was accepted with a clinching heart as there were lesser avenues to generate forex besides tourism. This clinching

heart led to high-yield but low-impact tourism. Tourism is controlled with a day charge being levied differing in

high and low season. Everything has been regulated the local tourism industry, local tour operator, supply of

accommodation and slowly from a permission of 200 international tourists the elasticity and favourism has lead to

more than 15,000 arrivals. Bhutan is being cited as successful Sustainable Tourism Development, but success

parameters have been questioned by the society

Regulations restrict access of industry to local people but doesn’t that restrict people from benefitting from the

industry too?

The seasonality has not been focused upon of the industry which has impacts on employments and income levels?

Tourism is district centric to maintain sustainability the inner areas have been closed do they do not have right to

benefit from the industry?

The selective areas which have been designated have developed garbage trails, probably one of the reasons being

concentration of tourists in particular or selected areas as per sustainable propositions.

The presence of PP model where private tour operators exists of course benefit locals but the increasing competition

will lead to lower costs and question the paradigm on which the sustainable tourism was established, i.e. high yield

low volume tourism.

Another arguments which question the actual existence of sustainable tourism was the development of alternative

approaches like ‘green, ’responsible’, ‘appropriate’, ‘low-impact’, ‘soft’ or ‘eco-tourism’. If sustainability was

enough in itself then, why such aids in the form of these terminology were required for tourism and development.

The critics provide excuse that an alternative to mass tourism had to be developed. But the author sees it in this

paper as a creation of a common enemy on whose behest development of any form and type be camouflaged

depending on which name suits the best to curtain the misdoings of human in the form of tourism development.

These terms were classified under a common banner ‘alternative tourism’ which also was small, appropriate to area

and protects and enhance the quality of tourism resource. Thus was it to just keep showing that new developments

are taking place in sustainability theme and it is standing the test of the time. Later this point was proved in the

sense that alternative tourism was recognized as an alternative rather than ‘solution’ to the ‘problem’ of mass

tourism; including eco tourism was in itself considered a controversial subject (Fennell 1999).

Sustainability seems to be the new “politically correct” mantra. Sustainable tourism or it’s mother Sustainable

development is undefined and the supporters bring in an array of viewpoints to prove their points. The politicians

seems to have accepted them as phrases and slogans that too ones which are generalized in nature suits them as it

helps them to baptize people who have their views enclosed in a range. As discussed above the need for political

environment assessment and a modified four or a square shaped bottom line has arisen is a proof in itself that

sustainability and sustainable tourism in particular enjoys a lot of support from the political side.

Examples abound the history and the current times and not only haunt the developing or underdeveloped nations

but even developed nations too. The controversy at Yosemite National Park and the issue of bigger dams

construction which can easily be replaced with more sustainable but less popular multiple smaller dams prove the

point. The Silent Spring (Carson 1963) Or Limits to Growth (Meadow’s et al 1972) argues between the conservation



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and preservation where conservation represents use of resources with wisdom and preservation means non use and

protection of resources. Concepts like limits to growth restrict acceptance of the concept by the politicians but

sustainable tourism providing ample opportunities for growth became a boon for the politically motivated fraternity

to meet their self focused goals.

Of late there is a blurring of the demarcation between the terms like ‘sustainable tourism ‘ and ‘maintainable

tourism’ (Hardy and Beeton 2001). Maintainable tourism is introduced instead of sustainable tourism where the

short term concerns have to be used and impacts have to be managed rather than sustainability has to be introduced.

The balance is struck by trade-offs between objectives of a variety of stakeholders (Cater 1995). For an actual

Sustainable Tourism to be brought in practice each stakeholder’s analyses needs to be done (Grimble and Wellard

1997).

Sustainability argues that ‘the needs of the future generations need to be kept in mind”. Tourism is very few of the

industries that have survived the shocks of depression, wars, terrorist attack; climate upheavals yet emerged stronger

with a continuous increase in international tourism. If international tourism stagnated at times domestic tourism

filled in to increase the number of arrivals which helped in keeping pace with the continuous development graph in

tourism industry as a whole. But the concept of tourism or holidays for the present generation is so indefinable with

terms like ‘staycations’ ruling the dictionary, how can we assume the ‘needs’ of the future generations and then

even start planning for sustainability in their needs continuum. With tourism so vulnerable can predictability for

future a realistic dream? Most of the awards for sustainability are bagged by entrepreneurs who have set up their

enterprises in remote locales which are virgin and using all sorts of local support to achieve sustainability. But

bringing in tourist to places which host biospheres, biodiversities and biology that too arriving these destinations

by the use of fossil fuels makes this overall concept of sustainability utopian. Sustainability seems to be the greener

and more socially accepted veil that tourism can wear and camouflage the advocates who say ‘yes to “No Tourism”’

at places which needs to keep up the sustainability.

Sustainability and Measurement Misnomers

Carrying capacity was the talisman which seemed to have solved the issue of measurability in sustainability concept.

But this joy too was short lived as it was found to be too vague like sustainability. Environments were considered

to be very much scientific when Taylor-Stanley matrix established the carrying capacity levels, where the

underlying belief was ‘the ability of a given environment to accommodate particular activities without suffering

significant and irreversible damages (Owens and Cowell 1996) for tourism in variety of locales and circumstances.

The scientific approach and the concept of objectives with scientific undertones for determination of an area’s

carrying capacity were appealing to tourism managers. This short-lived joy was crashed with the dawn of the truth

that ‘carrying capacity is a social construct involving a complex interplay of economic, environmental, political,

and social forces means that the concept has been used little in practice (Wearing and Neil 1999). The belief that

the environmental disturbance should be ‘augmented by consideration of human values’ (Wagar 1964) also crashed

high hopes set by carrying capacity which provided further that environment being the sole base for assessing

sustainability of a project. Middleton and Hawkins (1998) advised carrying capacity to take into account “factors

such as tourists’ behavioural patterns, facility design and management, the dynamic character of the environment

and the changing attitudes of the host communities’. LAC or limits to acceptable change (Shackley et al. 1995;

Wearing and Neil 1999) was a new daughter concept born out of carrying capacity, and so was Ecological Footprint

Analysis (EFA)(Gossling et al. 2002). This twists in sustainability was more of attempts of people with selfish

motives to keep the concept alive and development may be continued to reap in the benefits which serve their

personal motives. LAC and EFA principles may be applied relatively effectively at the local level but have limited

applicability at global scales (Gossling et al. 2002). EFA advocates the complete banning of the planes

(Wackernagel and Rees 1996) run on fossil fuels which itself is utopian.

The issue is that sustainability in general and LAC, VIM, EFA concepts in particular examine sustainability from

the supply aspect of tourism experience but the view should be from the customer side who rule the roost. But this

discussion of seeing things from customer’s side needs a separate platform altogether for a healthy research debate.



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Conclusion

The increased interest in sustainability and support for sustainable development has not missed the eyes of the critics

and skeptics alike. The gargantuan environmental issues that the earth is facing makes sustainable development a

fuzzy concept and a-little when it comes to practicality. Despite that the concept has remained alive for more than

three decades yet the need every now and then to define and redefine it makes it a passing fad similar to energy

crises of the past. If sustainability has been around for three decades and same is the period when environmentalists

started noticing the environment’s degradation why the issue has still grown by leaps and bound to an extent that

non-environmentalists too have started to sit up and start taking a note of.

Cater (1994) beautifully states that “what appears to be sustainable from one point of view is likely not to be so

from another”. She adds that “ecotourism and sustainable development need to be overworked terms, neatly co-

opted by political and business interests to confer an aura of sustainability to their activities” which syncs with Rees

(1990) which classifies both; ecotourism and sustainable development are ‘a labored excuse for not departing from

continued economic growth. Writers like Sisman (1994) support Cater and Rees by stating that post Brundtland

and post Rio many an organizations have “discovered” ways to “fit in” the concept of sustainability by deciding

their own benchmarks. This robs sustainability off from standardizations.

This research essay resounds the wordings of a-many from the academe who have raised criticism over the

fundamental concept of sustainable development, raising eyebrows over the oxymoronic nature of the term itself

(Huckle 1996). They have even observed that ‘sustainable’(with its steady state implications) and ‘development’

(with its growth implications) are mutually exclusive (Page and Dowling 2002). Barkin (1996) questions the goal

settings in sustainable development scenario. Barkin remarks that the concept of sustainable development has

created seemingly impossible goals for policy makers and development practitioners.

As a responsible academic the authors of this discussion perceives that sustainability will remain ‘Utopian: Ideally

Perfect but Impracticable’ until fair trade tourism is advocated which will involve parity in salaries and wages for

same work in developed and developing countries, where local communities share profits in equal ratio but again

this will be utopian as the costs of tourism in such scenario will be so high that it would be beyond the reach of

many.

Gratitude

Authors are thankful to Tourism Recreation Research its team. TRR’s section Research Probe provided a lot of

food for thought and was an inspiration to write this research piece in this format.

REFERENCES

• Brunet, S. Et Al. (2001). Tourism Development In Bhutan: Tensions Between Tradition And Modernity.

Journal Of Sustainable Tourism 9(3):243–263dorji, T. (2001). Sustainability Of Tourism In Bhutan.

Journal Of Bhutan Studies 3(1):84–104.

• Carson, R. (1963). Silent Spring. Boston. Houghton Mifflin.

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21-28

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Eds. New York: Wiley (1994): 3-17.

• Dresner, S. (2002). The Principles Of Sustainability. New York. Earthscan.

• Dresner, S. (2002). The Principles Of Sustainability.Taylor And Francis. London, Uk: 54

• Dummies (2017). Socrates, Plato And Aristotle: The Big Three In Greek Philosophy. Available At

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Greek-Philosophy/. Accessed On October 15, 2017.

• Godfrey, K. B. (1996) ‘Towards Sustainability? Tourism In The Republic Of Cyprus’, In L. C. Harrison &

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• Gossling, S. Et.Al. (2002) Ecological Footprint Analysis As A Tool To Assess Tourism Sustainability.

Ecological Economics 43: 119-211.

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Review Of Principles, Contexts, Experiences And Opportunities. Agricultural Systems 55: 173-193.

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J. And Sterling S., Earthscan, London: 105-119.

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Gland, Switzerland, And Earthscan, London

• Ludwig,D., Hilborn, R. And Walters, C. (1993). Uncertainty, Resource Exploitation, And Conservation:

Lessons From History. Ecological Applications 3(4): 547-549

• Mccool, S. (2013). Is Concept Of Sustainability Utopian: Ideally Perfect But Impracticable? Trr 38(1):

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• Mccool, S. (2013). Sustainable Tourism: Guiding Fiction, Social Trap Or Path To Resilience. Trr 38(2):

214.

• Mcharg,I. (1967). Design With Nature. Garden City. Ny. Natural History. Press

• Meadows, D.H., Meadows, D.L., Randers, J. And Behrens, W.W. (1972). Limits To Growth. A Report For

The Club Of Rome’s Project On The Predicament Of Mankind. London. Pan Books.

• Middleton, V.T.C. And Hawkins, R., (1998). Sustainable Tourism, A Marketing Perspective. Oxford:

Butterworth-Heinemann.

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Report For The Council For The Protection Of Rural England, London .

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Enhancing programming logic and algorithmic understandability for students

visually using Raptor

Dr.Sujni Paul

Assistant Professor

School of Engineering and Information Technology,

Al Dar University College, Dubai, UAE.

Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This research paper helps students to visually understand and develop algorithms easily using Raptor. Usually

students find very difficult in dealing with the syntax rather than solving the problem. Raptor is a visual

programming environment, designed specifically to help students understand the algorithm and avoid syntactic

baggage. These raptor programs are created visually and can be executed by tracing it visually. Raptor allows

students to create a program with less syntax from any programming language. We can demonstrate concepts like

functions, if, and loop constructs. Students will find it more easy and interesting using flowcharts to interpret their

algorithms more successfully.

The results indicate that the efficiency of using raptor can be improved by indulging this into the student’s

curriculum and teaching them programming and algorithm writing with raptors.

Key terms: Flow charts, Raptor, Programming, Algorithms.

1. Introduction

In UAE generally student’s find difficult to write programs and understand algorithms. As teachers we find really

challenging in teaching programming concepts to students. Raptor is a flowchart based programming technique

which is designed particularly to help students to visualize what they learn. This makes them clearly understand the

logic of the program and they can write the program themselves. Looping and other control structures are easily

understandable as they could really visualize what they do and can correct their logic if the output is not clear.

Traditional programming language and syntax may be confusing for the new programming learners, so this visual

tool raptor will be interesting and helpful to write their own logic. This paper provides students a good understanding

of the steps and strategies involved in solving a program systematically.

1.1 Significance of the Study

The significance of this study is to make programming easier for the students and make them to do it themselves.

Since raptor is visual programming based on flowcharts it will be clear and easy to use. There will be different

graphic symbols, where each symbol represents a specific type of instruction to be executed. Students must know

the symbols and the connection between symbols which will determine the order in which the instructions get

executed.

2. Review of Related Literature and Studies

In order to support our research paper on RAPTOR, the below mentioned literatures were reviewed.

The research paper entitled “RAPTOR: A Visual Programming Environment for Teaching Algorithmic Problem

Solving“Martin C. Carlisle, Terry A. Wilson1 , Jeffrey W. Humphries, Steven M. Hadfield United States Air Force

Academy Department of Computer Science 2354 Fairchild Dr, Suite 6G149 USAFA, CO 80840-6234 which talks



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about how their students were successful in creating algorithms using RAPTOR than using traditional language

programming.

The research paper “Learning Programming Concepts Using FlowchartingSoftware”, Kwan Chi Kuen Computer

Department, King Ling College, Hong Kong concluded the following [2]. Raptor will be easier for students who

struggle with the syntax to solve the problems more easily .

Tia Watts developed a structured flowchart editor for the user to develop a flowchart and shows a textual

representation with C syntax. [3]

Fischer, G., Giaccardi, E., Ye, Y., Sutcliffe, A.G., and Mehandjiev, (2004) N. “Meta-Design: A Manifesto for End

User Development” uses programmable world as graphical metaphors that can be instructed to have condition-

action rules [4].

“Programming Right From the Start with Visual Basic .NET” [5] model which abandons the waterfall model of

programming, and supports one dimensional arrays and turtle graphics.

3. Conceptual Framework of the Study

3.1 Raptor

Raptor is a combination of Ada, C# and C++. It runs in the .NET Framework. Based on loops, selections,

procedure calls, inputs and outputs by choosing the respective from the palette [6]. Raptor programs are structured.

Students prefer using flow charts to understand the logic easily and express their algorithms rather than the

traditional programming language.

Raptor first when opened has a blank workspace with a start and end symbol. Then we can add symbols

related to loops, selections, etc from the palette in the upper left corner inserting at the required place in the

flowchart. The syntax used in the flowchart is also very flexible. Comments can be added by right-clicking on a

flowchart symbol and selecting “comment”. Raptor has many built in functions and procedures which can be used

to generate random numbers, draw graphics like boxes, circles etc. Raptor can automatically search in the current

folder for “plugins.dll”.

3.2 Description

Flowcharts are charts that are used mostly for introducing novices to algorithms and in programming. Flow

charts are more effective for visual learners. Array variables can be used as a[2], a[23-20] , etc. The expressions

within square brackets can be any expression that returns a positive integer. It recalculates the index value every

time a symbol is executed. Raptors can be used in graphics as well. In the graphics window we can draw rectangles,

arcs, ellipses, lines of various sizes and colors.



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Fig.1 Sample Raptor Graph

Students will be more excited working in graphics with its built in functions. Various filled and unfilled graphic

shapes are drawn in the graphics window above. The cylinder was created by drawing two ellipses and drawing a

line between the top and bottom of the ellipses. A small cube is created with two rectangles connecting the four

corners with lines. Yellow moon is created by flood-filling an enclosed area. Interaction for this graphical program

can be determined by the position of the mouse in the graphics window and determining if and where a mouse

button has been clicked [7].



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Fig.2 Flow chart for a sample Graphic image

These are some more raptor program that uses all the raptor graph procedures.



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In raptor data files can be created and read from files. The figure below shows a simple flow chart to write records

into a data file.

Fig. 3 Flow chart to write records into a data file.

3.3 Programming Environment

Raptor is a programming based flow chart environment. The different properties of algorithm has to be

taken care. For example, for any given non-trivial task there will be many possible algorithms for completing the

task. There can be many possibilities to think about one type of problem but the success is in writing the correct

algorithm and mapping it for getting the exact result.

3.4 Problem Statement



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Learning programming is a challenge for IT and non-IT students. Students can be taught this programming

interesting and easier by using visual representation of flowchart. They can easily trace the flow of execution and

can change steps accordingly.

4. Methodology

4.1 Research Design

Below are the steps for making the students understand and do their own way of programming. Initially the

student must understand the problem, which one they are going to solve or write a program about. The next step is

to visualize it into a flow chart. Once it is visualized the steps can be traced so that we know if there is any problem

or the steps are executed correctly. Finally the results are obtained. The proposed work is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 4 Proposed Framework

Raptor will allow the students to carry out dry run by adjusting speed which means the students can trace the

algorithm as and when it progresses. Raptor will display the value stored in different variables, which will allow

the student to understand the changes that happen in the variables at different point in time. Raptor files can be

exported to the required pseudocode with Ada, C#, C, Java. The help menu provides a way for students to do self

learning also once they start understanding the usage and the basic concepts.

4.2 Sample design of Raptor

The design of the simple assignment statements and its usage must be clearly interpreted to the students. They

must understand the normal usage of If. .then statements so that they can clearly visualize it.

1 –Making

students

understand the

problem.

2- Develop it

visually using

flowchart.

3 – Trace the flow

step by step. 4 – Obtain the

Results.



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Fig.5 Selection Statement

Raptor has built-in functions but supports only user-defined procedures and not functions.

Fig. 6 Create Procedure

When the user is creating a subprogram that returns only one value in raptor it uses procedure with an output

parameter.



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5. Findings of the Study

5.1 Preliminary Results

In this paper instead of just developing normal programming algorithms I have developed some games, so

that students will find it more interesting when it is in the form of a game. So simple games were developed using

raptor. The below one is a snake and ladder game which will demonstrate the logic involved in the game with a

good visualization technique.

Fig. 7 Snake and Ladder Game

First interpret the ladders and snakes position and if there is a ladder how many steps to be moved and if there is a

snake how many positions behind. All these are analyzed systematically and done.

Also a Guessing Game was developed to demonstrate the students very easily using visual flow charts. Syntax

problems are avoided so that students can focus more on the algorithms rather the syntax.

A simple Guessing Game was also created to evaluate the performance. Two players will take turns to play this

game.

Step 1: Pick any number and write it down on an index card.

Step 2: The other person has to guess what is written down.

Step 3: Then based on the guess you must tell if it is low or high.

Step 4: If the other person wants to continue.

Step 5: If the above response is Yes repeat steps to 2 to 4 else quit.



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Fig.8 Guessing Game Flow chart

Games will be very interesting for the students. They can understand it very easily using the dry run step by step

what is happening in each step. Based on this understanding they can start writing their own games and visual flow

charts.

6. Conclusions

Raptor provides a very easy environment for students to develop simple algorithms. Instructors can also

customize the environment to give the students more interesting exercises using built in procedures. Raptor

programming is really an improvement over the normal traditional techniques. This will be continued to be worked

in order to integrate it into our curriculum so that all the programming subjects will be very interesting and lively

for the students.

In future Raptor can be applied for Object oriented programming also. We can import classes from other

files and provide pre-compiled classes as DLL’s. Also code generators can be added.

List of References

[1] Martin C. Carlisle, Terry A. Wilson1 , Jeffrey W. Humphries, Steven M. Hadfield United States Air Force

Academy Department of Computer Science 2354 Fairchild Dr, Suite 6G149 USAFA, CO 80840-6234, “RAPTOR:

A Visual Programming Environment for Teaching Algorithmic Problem Solving “.

[2] Kwan Chi Kuen“Learning Programming Concepts Using Flowcharting Software”, Computer Department, King

Ling College, Hong Kong.



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[3] Watts, T. SFC – A Structured Flow Chart Editor Version 3. Faculty Poster SIGCSE 2003. Available at:

http://www.cs.sonoma.edu/~tiawatts/SFC/.

[4] Fischer, G., Giaccardi, E., Ye, Y., Sutcliffe, A.G., and Mehandjiev, (2004) N. “Meta-Design: A Manifesto for

End User Development”. Communications of the ACM, September 2004, 33-37.

[5] Crews, T., and Murphy, C. “ Programming Right From the Start with Visual Basic .NET”. Pearson Prentice

Hall, 2014.

[6] Feldman, M., and Koffman E. Ada 95 Problem Solving and Program Design, 3rd edition. Addison-Wesley

Publishing Company, 2010.

[7] http://raptor.martincarlisle.com/ - To download


http://www.cs.sonoma.edu/~tiawatts/SFC/

http://raptor.martincarlisle.com/


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Student empowerment as a sustainable academic approach to knowledge evaluation Oxana Svergun, PhD, CHRL

George Brown College, Toronto, Canada

Abstract The present research investigates the impact of learner empowerment on students’ test-modality (or test-

mode) preference and academic success. The research seeks to understand whether providing choice of test modality

(paper on online) increases academic success of students with diverse learning styles. The article also examines

criteria applied by students while making a decision on their preference of test modality. Another issue explored is

whether there is any dependence of students’ choice of test modality on their dominant learning style (LS).

According to our research most of the students prefer paper version of the test regardless of their learning

style. On the other hand, two dimensions of the Index of Learning Style (ILS) impact students’ decisions on test

modality preferences, meaning that having high score in sensing or sequential scales results in higher probability of

selecting online version of the test. Our data also confirms that students apply different criteria for their decision on

test modality preference, partly these depend on student’ information understanding (sequential-global) and

information perception (sensing-intuitive) learning style components.

Finally, our data shows that ILS score impacts multiple choice (MC) test results in both paper and online

version of the test. High visual score in ILS is associated with higher MC test results in both paper and online

modalities. On the other hand, learners with higher sensing score are more successful in paper testing and

disadvantaged in online testing. This means that test modality moderates the impact of information perception

component of ILS towards test performance.

The results are discussed from the perspective of student empowerment leading to higher academic

achievements and reducing academic stress.

Introduction Environment

Current approach to program and course design provides some flexibility through allowing a choice of

electives, managing sequence of courses and controlling out-of-class academic activities. However, students are

rarely allowed to decide on evaluation procedures, as more standardized approach is associated with equal and fair

treatment by schools and professors.

Universal design for learning framework, however, recommends introducing more flexibility into both in-class

academic activities and testing procedures, providing students more choice while selecting specific questions and

assignments from bigger pool of available tasks, as well as allowing some freedom of choice of topics for their

research projects.

Rapid expansion of online educational programs utilizing Learning Management Systems (LMS) has become

a reality with global market for LMS reaching 51.5 million dollars (Ramírez-Correa et al., 2017). According to

scholars’ expectations, the number of students who have enrolled in at least one online course is increasing ten

times faster than actual enrolments in college education (Ramírez-Correa et al., 2017). Many technology-enhanced

components are also added into in-class and blended courses. For example, computer-based testing (CBT) has

become increasingly popular as a testing modality in both under- and postgraduate education. Students value online

learning experience for supporting self-regulated learning providing them more flexibility in organizing their

academic asynchronous activities and invigilated testing (Paechter & Maier, 2010).

Thus, introducing online testing procedures together with offering students a choice between online and in-

class version of the same test, may facilitate student’s engagement and academic success (Rao et al., 2015).

Statement of the problem With growing demand for online education courses, students more frequently have to pass an invigilated online

test for their learning outcomes assessment. Research examining test-modality effect on student performance states

that there is no proven impact of test modality towards overall sectional grade distribution. On the other hand, there

is an anecdotal evidence of individual students complaining that their performance is adversely affected by test

modality and their grades on the CBT (online) exams are lower than they would have been on paper-and-pencil



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format. To address students’ concerns of the test modality impact, it is important to understand whether or not the

test modality can lead to increased or decreased students’ test performance. If there is any interconnection of test

modality and individual academic achievements, and if it depends on students’ preferred learning style; professors

need to consider this to increase the quality of evaluation procedures.

While collecting related data and analysing it, it is worth engaging students in deciding on their preferred test

modality by providing them a choice to register for either in-class or online invigilated tests. Based on the theory

of empowerment and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) framework, this will increase students’ motivation,

reduce academic stress, which in turn results in students’ higher academic achievements and satisfaction.

Significance

Understanding students’ preferences of test modality and factors impacting their decision, professors and

instructional designers will increase capabilities of better accommodating disadvantaged students by providing them

adequate options for knowledge evaluation and customized test preparation considering their preferred learning

styles.

For students, this will facilitate better academic achievements due to effective test-preparation and selecting

an optimal test-taking strategy. It will also allow them to reduce academic stress and increase their subjective well-

being.

For the academic institutions, the research will enhance online or technology–enabled academic courses and

invent individually-oriented practice procedures to prepare students for achieving academic success in online or

technology-enhanced academic environment. Expected results of this study can help academic institutions to

increase students’ awareness on their learning styles and help them to leverage their strengths for achieving better

academic results. This in turn will boost students’ satisfaction with their academic experience, as well as increase

the retention rate at the course and institutional level.

Scope and limitations

The present study investigates students’ criteria of choosing test modality while making a decision on their

preference of test modality. Another issue explored is whether there is any dependence of students’ choice of test

modality (in-class paper based or CBT) depending on their dominant learning style; and, lastly the research seeks

to understand whether providing choice of testing procedure increases academic success of students with diverse

learning styles.

This research is an initial pilot stage of academic research and contains all the challenges associated with

research start-up. At the pilot stage, we are going to test several broad non-specific hypotheses allowing to find out

future focus of related investigations. Contrary to traditional, this pilot study aims to suggest a meaningful

framework for future studies through describing existing trends observable in inherent data from relatively small

sample. Pilot results serve to inform feasibility and identify modifications needed in further research design

improvements. This pilot study is a requisite initial step in exploring a novel intervention or an innovative

application of a larger, ensuing hypothesis testing study.

Literature review Academic empowerment

The concept of empowerment was first introduced in the workplace (Conger & Kanungo, 1988) and later

transferred to the academic environment (Frymier et al., 1996). Like employees, students also need to feel

responsibility, meaningfulness, and intrinsic motivation to their academic work. Empowered learners having an

impact on their learning process are more motivated to perform classroom tasks, find the required assignments more

meaningful, feel more confident and demonstrate better academic achievements (Houser & Frymier, 2009).

According to research data, learner empowerment consists of three major dimensions: meaningfulness,

competence, and impact, with the latter meaning proactive approach to co-creating academic activities through

making decisions on content-related and process-related choices within provided by the teacher options (Jones,

2009).

Similar to the workplace empowerment, academic empowerment results in better individual and school

achievements (Jones, 2009), as well as enhances individual and institutional outcomes such as satisfaction,

productivity, and stress resistance (Zhang & Bartol, 2010; Maynard et al., 2007). Students, similar to employees,

report on better motivation and energy to study and higher achievements, which in turn allows them to successfully

prepare themselves for pursuing careers. Thus, learning empowerment is expected to play a pivotal role in



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identifying student learning needs, enhancing their subjective well-being, and creating lifelong intention to learn.

Engaged learning is an important indicator of quality of learning, and the findings demonstrate that learning

empowerment is a significant antecedent of student engagement (You, 2016).

According to the research exploring empowering educational settings, empowerment can be facilitated by

shared power and decision-making, positive sense of community, quality activities, and mutual goals (Kirk et al.,

2016). For the classroom environment this means positive teacher-student relationships, equitable teacher-student

roles, and a sense of community in the classroom. To achieve equitable teacher-student roles, students need to be

enabled to control the situation and be capable to influence their schedule, academic process, learning content and

other elements of academic process.

Universal design principle: evaluation strategies

Universal design for learning (UDL) provides students with multiple and flexible means of representation,

expression, and engagement in the classroom. These principles are based on Vygotsky’s zone of proximal

development and advances in neuroscience research (Benton-Borghi, 2013).

Application of UDL principles to evaluation procedures making assessment accessible to a more diverse

population of students highlighting situations in which making tests identical for all examinees can result in testing

procedure becoming less fair and more stressful. ‘Equivalent surface conditions may not provide equivalent

evidence about examinees” (Mislevy et al, 2013, p.121). Testing accommodations have become a standard practice

in most academic institutions, however formal educational measurement theory and UDL argue that the principles

should apply more broadly through individualized customization of assessment procedures empowering student to

select different tasks for better showcasing their knowledge and skills (Rao et al., 2015).

Each design pattern includes three essential elements around which all the assessments spin: the student’s

competences about which the teacher wants to make claims (Focal KSAOs); the relevant characteristics of what

students say, do, or make that would provide evidence about achieving Focal KSAOs (potential observations); and

features of task environment that are needed to evoke the desired evidence (characteristic features) (Mislevy et al,

2013). Due to the test procedure design and environment, there could be other non-focal KSAO impacting students’

performance, such as increased anxiety due to unfriendly environment, low typing speed, inability to physically

manipulate the drag-and-drop device, or lower language skills for international students. Though these can be also

important, they are irrelevant to the specific testing procedure measuring focal KSAOs and reduce the validity of

testing procedure.

In addition to the three principles of UDL (multiple means of representation, expression, and engagement)

researches identify particular categories of student abilities, such as perceptual, expressive, language and symbols,

cognitive, executive functioning and affective. Student abilities are required for successful performance in

assessment tasks, but are usually not the assessment target. Sustainable and fair approach to academic evaluation

requires using task features that support students who lack such construct-irrelevant abilities, or select features that

minimize demand for them. Thus, abilities associated with learning style preferences, such as information

perception, processing and understanding, can impact students’ testing behaviour and achievements though being

non-target KSAOs measured in testing procedures.

Besides, technological aspect of UDL requires making a decision on the integration of technology in teaching

and learning. One of examples of such a decision will be a choice of test modality (online or paper-based) selected

by either a teacher or a student.

Learning style

Learning style is defined as the use of preferred behavioural patterns and learning strategies while processing

and arranging the information, as well as reacting to stimuli coming from external environment (Felder & Brent,

2005). Individuals learn in different ways and apply diverse personal strategies while gaining and processing

knowledge. If a learner has a strong affinity for a particular learning style, the learning material and strategies should

match this style to enhance learning (Felder & Silverman, 1988; Felder & Soloman, 1997; Fedler & Spurlin, 2005).

Strong attention has been paid to learning styles while inventing adaptive e-learning and technology-enhanced

learning systems (Brusilovsky, 2004). These studies consider learning styles as derivatives of behavioural patterns

of students during studying process, including the online one. The studies aimed to match different forms of



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behaviour to the opportunities provided by different learning systems (Graf et al., 2007). As a result, learning styles

were mapped to the features of adaptive learning systems for making them more user friendly.

Researchers have yet to clarify exactly which underlying constructs are measured by the many learning styles

questionnaires available. However, some of the models are applied by researchers more frequently. One of the

reliable models of learning style measurements is the one developed by Felder and Silverman, who have developed

a learning style model compiling several major learning style theories, such as the Kolb’s experiential learning

theory (Kolb, 1984), the MBTI personality profile (Myers & McCaulley, 1985) and the Dunn & Dunn cognitive

style theory (Dunn & Dunn, 1974). The model includes four dimensions/scales: information processing (active-

reflective), input modality (visual-verbal), information understanding (sequential-global) and information

perception (sensory-intuitive). Active information processing refers to proactive approach supporting new

experience, trying out things and working with others, while reflective learners like to think things through and

work alone. Sensing learners prefer facts, details, and well-established procedures, while intuitive learners prefer

studying theories and concepts. Input modality stands for visual (pictures, diagrams, video) or verbal (oral or

written) perception preferences. Finally, sequential learners study through small incremental linear steps, while

global learners are holistic thinkers who enjoy seeing the big picture (Fedler & Solomon, 1997).

Learning style and modality preferences

Of the eight dimensions defined above, four appear to describe learning styles that are more compatible with

online learning, which benefits those who are self-directed, independent, and goal-oriented and prefer courses that

are non-collaborative and independent in nature. Reflective learners prefer thinking quietly about information rather

than being interactively engaged with persons or learning activities. While active learners prefer social interaction,

reflective learners should theoretically prefer working online because the environment itself favours self-

directedness and accommodation (Battalio, 2009; Mehlenbacher et al., 2000). Doherty and Maddux (2002) showed

that reflective learners were more likely to enroll in online courses than active learners.

Intuitive learners prefer discovery, innovation, and abstractions due to their orientation toward self-directed

learning; online students must be the masters of their own learning, even in very organized, instructor-centered

courses. Intuitive learners tend to explore the variety of materials made available online and integrating these

materials into a unified whole. Thus, these learners would be more comfortable managing their own learning.

Verbal learners get more out of words than from visual representations. Online course requires intensive

reading though it also can add a significant visual component that may inhibit verbal learners, as shown by Becker

and Dwyer (1998).

Global learners, who learn through large jumps by seeking for the “big picture” rather than learning in sequentially

organized course, often prefer online studying, as opposed to sequential learners, who prefer a live class with

instructor leads the class through course materials and discussions (Battalio, 2009). According to Sabry & Baldwin

(2003) global learners prefer frequent navigating through LMS and Web sites, and rely on posted materials, while

sequential learners tend to ask their instructor questions to verify information.

Though not all of these facts are consistently supported by all the studies, much of the literature recognizes

that reflective and global learners prefer online modality. However, this refers to the course as a whole, not to the

exam modality specifically. No information is currently available about the impact of learning style towards test

modality preferences, as well as on advantages or disadvantages for students fulfilling diverse test tasks, such as

multiple choice and short answer questions.

Learning style (LS) and academic success: in-class and online

The available research usually states that there is no significant difference in section average scores between

the two modalities (online and in-class). For example, while comparing two sections of the same course

(online/asynchronous and face-to-face) taught by the same instructor and using the same instructional materials,

researchers found no significant differences in test scores, participation grades, and final grades distribution

(Neuhauser, 2002; Choi et al., 2003; Kauffman, 2015). Most of the studies show that equivalent learning activities

can be equally effective for online and face-to-face learners.

The interest in investigating learning style impact is consistently growing, as it has been found that students

are capable to achieve learning goals more efficiently, when pedagogical procedures are accommodated to their

individual differences and preferred learning style (Newby et al.,2000, Kumar, Kumar & Smart, 2004; Woolhouse



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& Blaire, 2003; Simpson & Du, 2004). Mehlenbacher et al. (2000) reported on proven benefits of online courses

for reflective and global learners, even though course interactivity should have favored active learners. Lu et al.

(2007) reported on the significant effect of learning style on study behaviours of students taking online courses,

such as total reading time and total discussion time.

On the other hand, existing research data states that no significant correlation exists between learning styles

and learning outcomes (Santo, 2006; Lu, 2007). This is quite reasonable, as experienced professors and course

designers try to consider different styles by applying a variety of tasks and activities to advance diverse groups of

students.

This, however, does not refer to exam behaviours, where the procedure is more standardised. Despite a huge

interest of researchers in the learning style and its impact towards pedagogic methods, student’s preferences and

students’ achievements, no information on the impact of LS on test-taking behaviour and test-modality preferences

of students is currently available.

Methodology Sample

A total of 218 college students studying HR Management and Organizational Behaviour participated in this

study. The students ranged in age from 18 to 50 years old with an average age of 23.69±0.49 years old. The sample

was closely split by gender with 48% male and 52% female.

Procedure

Students were invited by a professor to assess their index of learning styles (ILS) using 44-question ILS

questionnaire (Felder & Soloman, 1997). ILS is an instrument designed to assess preferences on the four

dimensions of the Felder-Silverman learning style model. Based on the available data on reliability of learning

style evaluations (Fedler & Spurlin, 2005), ILS is recommended to measure learning style preferences. Each

learning style dimension is associated with eleven forced-choice items, with each option (a or b) corresponding to

one category of the dimension. For example, to evaluate the score for active/reflective dimension, one of the

questions was: “In a study group working on difficult material, I am more likely to a) jump in and contribute ideas;

b) sit back and listen.”

Students were also instructed how to calculate their scores and develop their ILS profile, as well as got brief

explanations on scales interpretation, and links to references that provide more detail on ILS. After analysing their

profile students were asked to make a decision on their preference of test modality (paper or online) and to share

criteria applied while making this choice. The list of criteria included seven options selected based on anecdotal

evidence from students and related to testing environment, testing procedure, individual learning style and skill set,

as well as open-ended option suggesting to add any other criteria they consider to be important for their choice. The

question was:

“I choose test modality based on the following criteria (please select no more than three most significant criteria

by circling ‘Yes’ below)”. The answer options included;

to write the exam in more suitable environment Yes No

to better manage my exam schedule

Yes No

to better manage my load during the test

Yes No

based on my previous success/failure Yes No

based on my skill-set (e.g., handwriting, typing speed, text

comprehension)

Yes No

based on my understanding of my learning style

Yes No

to get new experience

Yes No



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other (please specify below)

____________________________________________

____________________________________________

__________________________

Yes No

Students were incentivised for submitting their ILS data by getting points for their course participation; no

consequences for nonparticipation were supposed, as students could select other forms of activities to gain

additional participation marks.

Productivity of test performance was evaluated by multiple choice test score. The test included 15 multiple

choice questions. Tests were randomly generated from the 30-question pool with control taken over the level of

difficulty and balanced learning objectives representation of course material.

Study hypotheses

This research aims to investigate the reasons of selecting paper-based or online test modality in college

students, the impact of learning style on this choice and its influence on the effectiveness of test performance. We

are going to test the following four hypotheses:

1. Students select test modality based on their ILS and ability to control testing procedures, load and

environment.

2. Students with diverse learning styles apply different criteria for making decision on their test modality

preference.

3. Learning style and test modality impact academic success in multiple choice test.

4. Test modality moderates the impact of learning style on multiple choice test score.

Data analysis

Data were entered into SPSS 24 for analysis. Crosstabs and Multivariate Nominal Regression were used to

estimate interrelation between learning style dimensions and preference on test modalities. Descriptive statistics

were applied to evaluate ILS dimension distribution across the sample. Crosstabs with Chi-Square test were

calculated to evaluate the impact of criteria on students’ choice of test modality. Multiple linear regression was used

to evaluate the impact of test modality and learning style on test performance and academic success.

Results

Criteria for choosing test modality

To check the first hypothesis, we firstly reviewed criteria students applied while making their decision on the

test modality preference. To evaluate this, we used Chi-Square Crosstabs an comparing those who preferred online

and paper version of the test.

Our research showed existing preference of paper based testing, as compared to the online version across the

sample. 34.6% of students participating in research selected online test as their preferred modality. 65.4% preferred

paper-based version of the test.

Among those selecting paper version, 72.1% reported on the importance of friendly environment as their

selection criterion. Among students who selected the online version of the test only 52.8% considered friendly

environment as a major criterion for their decision. This means a significant difference between groups selecting

online or paper modalities with a Pearson Chi-Square equal 7.733, which is significant at the 0.005 level.

Graph 1.Criterion of friendly environment applied (yes) or ignored (no) by students preferring paper or

online version of the test.



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Students selecting online test reported on the importance of flexible scheduling as a criterion of their choice.

66.7% of them confirmed this criterion to be important. While those preferring to do in paper preferred the test

scheduled during the regular class hours; they considered flexible scheduling to be less important. This results in

significant difference between groups preferring online and paper test modalities with Pearson Chi-Square equal

4.429 and significant at the 0.035 level.

Graph 2. Criterion of flexible schedule applied (yes) or ignored (no) by students preferring paper or


Both groups reported on the importance of new experience, but confirmed negative attitude towards this

criterion; 72.2% of those selecting paper version and 80.8% of giving preference to online version reported on their

intention to avoid new experience related to test procedures. Still the difference between groups is significant at

0.02 significance level, meaning that students preferring online version have higher tolerance to new experiences,

as compared to those selecting paper modality.



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Graph 3. Criterion of new experience applied (yes) or ignored (no) by students preferring paper or


52% of all the students used criterion on load management during the test to make their choice; however,

significant between-groups difference was not confirmed.

26.0% and 31.7% of students based their choice on their previous success/ failure or existing skill set

correspondingly with no intergroup difference between those selecting paper or online modality.

50% of students in both groups based their choice on analysing their learning style and considering ILS profile.

This means that half of students participation in out research consider information on ILS important for making

their educated decision on test modality preference. However, there is no significant difference between groups

preferring paper on online version of the test.

Graph 4. Criterion of ILS interpretation applied (yes) or ignored (no) by students preferring paper or


To investigate the impact of LS on test modality preference, we applied Multivariate Nominal Regression with

dependent variable of test modality preference and independent variables of four dimensions of the learning style

(active/reflective; sensing/intuitive; visual/verbal; sequential/global).



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Multivariate Nominal Regression analysis showed that test modality preferences are related to learning style

with significant impact of sensing (p=0.024) and sequential (p= 0.002) dimensions. Visual and active dimensions

are approaching to statistically significant level. For more information please see table 1.

Table 1. The impact of ILS dimensions on students’ preference of test modality. Dependent variable - test

modality preference; independent variables - four dimensions of ILS (active/reflective; sensing/intuitive;

visual/verbal; sequential/global).

Effect

Model Fitting

Criteria

Likelihood Ratio

Tests df Sig.

-2 Log Likelihood of

Reduced Model Chi-Square

Intercept 203.046 .000 0 .

active/reflective 221.216 18.170 11 .078

sensing/intuitive 222.193 19.148 9 .024

visual/verbal 217.852 14.807 9 .096

sequential/global 228.871 25.826 9 .002

Thus, our first hypothesis was confirmed. Students prefer to control testing schedule, load and environment,

as well as tend to avoid new experience related to testing procedures. They also tend to consider their learning style

(50%), existing skills (31%) and previous experience (26%).

Based on Nominal Regression analysis, sensing/intuitive and sequential/global dimensions of ILS impact

students’ decisions on test modality preferences, meaning that having high scores in sensing or sequential scales

results in higher probability of selecting online version of the test.

Preferences by learning style

Descriptive statistics of ILS measures show that 45% of the sample possess reflective style, while 55% are

active learners. The distribution on sensing/intuitive style is not as balanced. Most of the students reported on their

sensing preferences (79%) and only 21% are intuitive learners. 87% of the sample are visual learners, meaning that

the rest of 12% are verbal learners. Finally, 67% of the sample are sequential learners, while 33% are global.

Nobody suggested to include other then seven listed criteria to be added to the list as ‘other’ option, which

means the most significant reasonable criteria were properly predicted in our research.

The second hypothesis on learning style impacting student’s decision making was tested by T-test on equity

of means for independent samples.

For the T-test, we compared the sample of active and reflective learners, as well as three other dichotomies of

learning style, on their preferences of test modality and criteria used for their choice.

No significant difference in test modality preferences between ISL dimension groups were found through T-

test means comparison; as mentioned before most of the students (65.4 %) preferred paper-based testing regardless

of their learning style.

However, students demonstrate differences in applying criteria for their decision making. Reflective learners

prefer to rely on friendlier environment and already existing skill set with group mean difference significant at 0.008

and 0.000 level correspondingly. On the other hand, active learners do not apply these criteria more frequently then

other options from the list.

Sensing learners prefer paper version of test (p=0.012) basing their choice on previous success (p=0.000),

while intuitive learners are more attentive to their learning style profile (p=0.000).

Visual and verbal learners differ in considering their previous success/failure (p=0.009), learning style

(p=0.036) and seeking of new experience (p=0.000). Verbal learning style is associated with more attentive

treatment of previous success/failure and opportunities for new experience, while visual dimension leads to decision

making based on awareness on students’ learning style.

Sequential and global learners also tend to use different criteria for their decision. Sequential learners prefer to

rely on friendlier environment and skill set with group mean difference significant at 0.008 and 0.001 level

correspondingly, as well as they report on the importance of their previous success/failure (p=0.001). No



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preferences of these criteria can be observed in global learners, who have approximately equal frequencies of

applying all the criteria offered in the list.

Our second hypothesis on ILS profile impacting criteria applied for selecting the test modality was confirmed.

Learning style and academic success

In this part of research, we investigated if students’ multiple choice (MC) test score depends on their learning

style and selected test modality. For this purpose, we used a multiple linear regression procedure with dependent

variable of test score and independent variables of learning style dimensions and test modality preference. As not

all the ILS dimensions showed significant impact on test score, we left only those demonstrating significant impact

(sensing/intuitive and visual/verbal) in our final model.

The tested model was significant at 0.002 level, though demonstrating only 9.6% of impact on test score

variability (R2=0.096).

Test modality does not impact significantly test score, however its interaction with sensing dimension of ILS

is significant at the 0.05 level. Both sensing (p=0.03) and visual (p=0.05) dimensions of ILS significantly impact

the test score.

Table 2. The impact of ILS dimensions and test modality on students’ academic success. Dependent

variable - test score; independent variables – test modality and dimensions of ILS (sensing/intuitive;

visual/verbal).

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

t Sig. B Std. Error β

1 (Constant) 50.201 7.789 6.445 .00

Modality preference 9.213 9.496 .235 .970 .33

Sensing 1.788 .825 .213 2.167 .03

Visual 1.312 .685 .144 1.916 .05

Sensing*modality

preference

-2.432 1.282 -.467 -1.898 .05

Dependent Variable: Test score

Students with sensing learning style tend to show better results as compared with those preferring intuitive

style (β=0.235). This means that every one standard deviation point of increasing sensing or reducing intuitive score

results in 23.5% increase of the test score. Students with visual learning style demonstrate higher test score in

comparison with verbal learners (β=0.144). This means that every one standard deviation point of increasing visual

or reducing verbal score results in 14.4 % increase of the test score.

Our third hypothesis was partly confirmed; two ILS dimensions (sensing/intuitive; visual/verbal) impact the

score of MC test. Test modality preference does not impact the test score directly.

Moderating effect of test modality

To test the fourth hypothesis, we used the same linear regression model. To evaluate moderation effect of test

modality we need to analyse how test scores change depending on the ILS score separately for groups selecting

paper or online test modality. We have compared this for visual/verbal and sensing/intuitive dimensions, which are

both significant according to our regression model.

While analysing separately paper and online tested groups we can observe that there is a significant difference

in scores between the two groups; the group taking paper test was more successful. We can also see that regression

lines are almost parallel (β equal to 1.47 and 1.54 correspondingly), meaning that visual/verbal preference impacts

both groups (paper and online) in a similar way (see Graph 5). The more visual preference score is, the higher test

score is predicted for both modalities of the test.



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Graph 5. Test score depending on visual/verbal ILS index for paper and online testing groups.

On the other hand, we can see completely different dynamics in intuitive/sensing dimension. Higher sensing

score is associated with reduction of their test score for students selecting online modality, while the same increase

in sensing score for students selecting paper modality is associated with test score increase (see Graph 6).

This fact can explain why the interaction of sensing ILS index and test modality preferences is negatively

associated with the dependent variable of the test score (β=0.467).

Graph 6. Test score depending on sensing/intuitive ILS index for paper and online testing groups.



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Our fourth hypothesis was partly confirmed for only one dimension of the ILS. Test modality preference

moderates the impact of sensing/intuitive index of ILS on the MC test score.

Discussion

First of all, it is interesting that students representing tech savvy new generation (average age of 23.69) mostly

prefer paper-based version of test when provided a choice. This can be explained by their intention to select more

comfortable or predictable environment and disposition to reduce any additional source of stress during the test. As

traditionally most of the institutions still prefer paper versions of tests, students are afraid of breaking this routine.

Those who have enough confidence to select an online version of test are mostly attracted by flexible scheduling

allowing them to effectively control preparation process and load during the test (timing is continuously monitored

and can help to better self-organize during the CBT procedure).

Based on results of our pilot study, we can conclude that self-reflection (knowledge on ILS profile and their

own abilities) together with capacity to control testing environment can facilitate empowerment of students allowing

them to make educated decision on preferred testing options. According to our research 50% of students consider

learning style to be an important factor impacting their choice.

Students apply different criteria to make their decision on their preference of test modality; however, their

choice can be educated or intuitive, right or wrong. To help them select appropriate option corresponding to their

learning style, it is essential to inform them on the connection of their ILS dimensions and skill set with their

predicted academic success, associated strengths and limitations, as well as how it can impact their test behaviours.

This comes in tune with the UDL framework promoting cognitive accessibility of education for diverse groups

of students, including those related to their individual learning style. Rooted in the neuroscience of learning,

cognitive access emphases individual strategies of acquiring of knowledge and developing skills. These cognitive

processes may include comprehension of information, demonstration of knowledge and skills, self-regulation

during the learning and testing process and the level of motivation and engagement. UDL framework recognises

that learners’ variability existing due to students’ varied backgrounds, experiences and abilities. Scholars

investigating the impact of UDL state that cognitive access and empowerment can be created by built-in supports

and flexible academic and testing options that address learners’ variability (Meyer et al., 2013), including their

learning style preferences.

While making decision on the preferred test modality, students demonstrate different priorities in decision-

making criteria applied. Reflective learners prefer autonomy and self-direction (Fedler & Spurlin, 2005). This can

be a reason for them to value friendly environment allowing more autonomy. Sensing learners base their choice on

previous success/failure, as they learn through experience, facts, examples, and prefer well-established procedures.

Intuitive learners are more attentive to their learning style index, as they prefer studying theories and concepts.

Sequential learners base their decision on their previous experience and abilities, which is in line with their major

intention to apply self-reflection criteria to predict their behaviours.

It is obvious that learning style is not the dominant factor impacting academic success (only 9.6% of dependent

variable dispersion is caused by ILS dimensions according to our model). However, the fact that visual and sensing

ILS dimensions impact academic success in multiple choice test should be considered by educators. This means

that MC testing procedures used as an only option for knowledge evaluation can significantly disadvantage verbal

and intuitive learners. However, this negative impact can be partly compensated for intuitive learners by using

online test procedures. On the other hand, online modality is not the best choice for sensing learners, according to

our measures.

Knowing potential risks associated with inappropriate choice of test modality, can help students to make

educated decision on their test modality preferences, which can help them to increase their confidence, reduce

academic stress and achieve better test score. Making educated decision will allow students to control testing

procedures and request those better matching their individual learning style.

Recommendations

Our research shows how providing students a choice of selecting between two possible options of test

arrangement can result in improving their academic success, which in turn leads to their growing interest to studies

and better engagement. Academic empowerment applied at the institutional level can create inclusive learning

environments for the range of students enrolled in both in-class and online courses. Suggesting flexible options for



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knowledge evaluation with the intention of supporting a range of students possessing different learning styles and

diverse life priorities, thereby provides built-in customised academic support.

Our research should raise educators' awareness of the importance of students' empowerment. Student

empowerment promotes an individual's motivation for learning and ultimately enhances learning engagement. As

previously mentioned, engaged learning is an important indicator of quality of learning, and the findings

demonstrate that learning empowerment is a significant antecedent of engagement. Thus, it is suggested that

educational practitioners recognize students’ empowerment as a valuable learning resource and strive to develop

effective strategies for developing and practicing empowerment in classrooms by providing choice matching

student’s learning style. Learning empowerment, which makes students find value, feel competent, and recognised,

will result in higher commitments and better academic achievements.

Moreover, by empowering students and allowing them making their own choice on preferred testing procedure,

we facilitate their proactive approach to academic activities and higher level of responsibility for the overall

academic success. According to the UDL principles, multiple means of representation (including test modalities),

diverse forms of activities included into evaluation procedures and better engagement through empowerment and

reducing academic stress should result in higher level of academic achievements, better student retention and

growing index of student satisfaction.

College students are required to engage in their academic works, but at the same time, they must be prepared

to enter the organizational workforce. The present study reveals advantages of empowerment beyond the

organizational context, which suggests that being included into arranging academic and evaluation procedures could

be beneficial for preparing students for making decisions and understanding the outcomes of these decisions, which

is an essential employability skill.

Limitations and future research perspectives

While the results of this preliminary study raise important questions, a number of limitations can be identified.

The sample size was moderate (N=218) and the voluntary sampling strategy may have excluded students that could

have changed the results. However, the study was able to assess a diverse array of students representing different

learning styles and test modality preferences and provide results that suggest the justification for expanded studies

in the future. Despite attempts to encourage honesty, student responses may have been subject to bias including

social desirability due to teaching staff administering the surveys which may have influenced student response.

As a preliminary study, the goal of this work was to highlight the need and opportunity for expanded research.

The trends and models available through this research can serve a good prerequisite for further investigation of

student’s empowerment practices and their impact on academic success and student engagement.

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Green Supply Chain Management & Green IT: A Necessary Convergence for

Sustainable Development

Prashant Kumar1

Sajal Kabiraj2*

1. Corresponding author: *PhD Research Scholar, Dongbei University of Finance and Economics,

Dalian, China.

2. Corresponding author: *Full Professor, International Business College, Dongbei University of

Finance and Economics, Dalian, China.

Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract: Deteriorating environmental quality is harming Planet, People and Profit which are the key elements of

triple bottom line. Today business organizations have understood the necessity of Green Supply Chain Management

(GSCM) for environmental concerns and have started practicing it. Integration of Supply Chain Management with

environment through green packaging, green manufacturing, green logistics & distribution and reverse logistics

results in generation of innovation towards sustainability. It also minimizes and eliminates wastage like solid waste,

carbon emissions, hazardous chemicals, thus ensuring maximized consumer satisfaction and healthy profits. In this

study extensive review of literature on GSCM and its relationship with Sustainable Development has been done

and a conceptual model has been proposed among the various components of GSCM and Sustainable Development.

The study would be beneficial not only for companies to achieve sustainable performance but also for the end users

to understand the seriousness of their role in implementing Recycle, Reduce and Reuse by increases use of

environment friendly products and supporting those firms who are implementing it religiously.

Keywords- Green Supply Chain Management (GSCM), Sustainable Development, Green IT, Green Packaging,

Green Manufacturing, Green logistics , Green Design , Green Supplier, Green Procurement and Reverse logistics.

Introduction

“Green”: Meaning and Concept

“Green”, the colour of nature symbolizes the hope, symbol of fertility, freshness and positivity. The world is

nourished by nature which makes environment beautiful and prosperous, but misuse of natural resources by

humanbeing due to industrialization has lead to many problems like reduction in ozone layer, reduction in forest

cover, global warming, melting of ice mountains and glaciers etc. In order to save our planet Earth from the future

disaster the companies should start green movement to protect the environment.

To define Green, Yaranella et al. (1999) expressed that, “Green induces small improvements in modern technology,

social practices, and human habitats, and on the other hand sustainability indicates a transformation in organizing

our personal and collective lives and occupying the planet”.

"Going green" means to chase the practices that promote more environmental friendly and ecological responsible

lifestyles and decisions, assist in environment protectionand maintain the natural resources for present and future

generations.

Many companies are focusing on green innovation as an onus to protect the environment and for sustainable

development to produce eco friendly products and services. Energy Star Label, a government backed symbolfor

energy efficiency is used by many of the consumer durable companies as a marketing strategy for their

productswhich means that their usage will reduce the energy consumption thus enabling the consumers to save

money& energy.





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NDTV,the famous media group has started its campaign “Greenathon” to promote green values.

(http://green.ndtv.com/milind.aspx).Godrej Consumer Products offers additional incentivesto buyers for

exchanging their old products with environmental friendly and modern green products i.e promoting Recycling and

Reuse.

Companies like Tanishq ,Titan e.t.cdeliver goods incarry bagsmade of recycled paper. Kansai Nerolac have worked

on removing hazardous metals from their paints in order to go green and are promoting” lead” free paints in India..

“Go Green with Dell” strategy has been adopted by Dell and is producing green IT products with eco-friendly

packaging.Mc Donald replaced “Clam shell” packaging by waxed paper forconsumers concern pertaining to ozone

depletion and polystyrene production. To satisfy firm’s demand for less environmental harmful products, Xerox

introduced high quality recycled photocopier. Coca-cola modified their packaging and invested large sum of money

in various recycling activities to minimize its environmental impact. Walt Disney World had introduced a waste

management program in support of environment sustainability.

From above quoted examples it can be inferred that substantial amount of awareness is created on sustainable

practices companies are indulged in sustainable development as a goal in general.

Green Supply Chain Management (GSCM) : Meaning and Concept

Supply Chain is a system consisting of parties like suppliers, manufacturers, retailers to finally the customer. It

constitutes both upstream and downstream chain where flow of information, finances and physical distribution of

goods and services takes place directly or indirectly. (Mentzer, 2001; Chopra et al., 2010).

To address the relationship and the influence between SCM and natural environment, a green component has been

added to SCM (Hassini et al., 2012 ; Meythi et al,,2013), which is a green initiative and technique to improve and

rectify product or process performance based on perquisite in environment regulations (Hu A.H. et al., 2010).

The SCM gained momentum in 1950 as many firms were finding waysto minimize the cost of production through

mass production (Huque et al., 2007).From 1990,the firms started to act in more ethical and socially responsible

manner due to increased awareness of green practices and intensified competition in their supply chain

practices(Diabat et al., 2011). Also supply chain has turned out to be an important issue for greener industrial

development.(Srivastava, 2007).

GSCM to Green Business to Sustainability According to Brown & Ratledge, 2011 when firms indulge in green output or production, then it is termed as Green

Business, which has a right mix of commitment towards humanity, environmental sustainability and profitability

(Makower & Pyke, 2008). Further green business uses renewable resources for environmental sustainability

(Slovik, 2013). GSCM is a multi-dimensional concept highlighted in past literatures by many authors (Zhu Q et

al., 2004; Holt Det al.,2009; Ninlawan et al., 2010; Green Jr KW et al., 2012; Lee SM et al., 2012; Laosirihongthong

T, 2013; Thoo AC et al., 2014; Fahimnia et al., 2015).

Companies are adopting contemporary GSCM practices for the improvement of environmental performance & have

competitive advantages. (Testa and Iraldo, 2010).As per Zhu and Sarkis, 2004 GSCM is practiced in varied ways.

It is integrated not only into inbound supply chain and outbound supply chain but finally completes with reverse

logistics and reaching the end user through Recycling and Reuse. According to Srivastava, 2007 the major

dimensions of GSCM are Green manufacturing, purchasing, logistics and distribution for the enhancement of

sustainability.

Rao, 2006 further added that many South East Asian firms have started using eco-friendly raw materials,

emphasizing on pollution reduction and wastage in logistic activities with eco-friendly disposal of waste and waste

water treatment plant. A study of GSCM conducted by Shang et al. (2010) pinpointed that Green Manufacturing,

Green Packaging, Eco design, Green marketing, environmental participation and suppliers interaction are all part



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of it. Thus to conclude, GSCM has become an integral organizational philosophy to attain profits and increase

market share by mitigating the environmental risks and its impact and increasing the sustainability efficacy in the

organizations and their partners (Van Hock & Erasmus, 2000).

Sustainability has been defined by World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) in 1987 as

headway in order to meet the needs of the present and the resources should be utilized in such a way that future

generations don’t have to compromise and their needs are also met out.

Starik and Rands (1995), defined Sustainability as “the ability of one or more entities either collectively or

individually to improve their activities in long run without losing sight of the next generation.”

Motivation for the study Green Supply Chain Management (GSCM) is not a very old concept, in fact it is a recent innovation in Supply

Chain Management field which has added value &enhanced its capabilities. As it’s a known fact that environment

is effected by business activities, so GSCM in manufacturing concerns has become an essential part for

sustainability in organizations. In addition, it was found during the literature review that GSCM as a concept has

wide variety of dimensions to it and in most of the studies; one dimension or the other has been included or excluded.

In this study, the dimension of Green Information System (IT) has been included. The objective of this paper is to

identify the various dimensions of GSCM, the effect of GSCM on sustainability performance and specifically the

role of Green IT in achieving the sustainable performance. It’s a conceptual study based on secondary data

interpreting relation of Green Supply Chain Management with sustainability. A model has also been proposed in

lieu of it .

Conceptual Model and Hypotheses Development Today not only organizations are integrating environmental practices into their operations and strategic plans but

Researchers and Practitioners are showing keen interest towards environmental friendly business practices. (Sarkis,

2001). To achieve more environmental friendly and sustainable green globe it is pertinent to adhere to GSCM

practices which are sum total of green procurement and purchasing, materials/manufacturing management, total

quality management, green design and packaging, marketing/distribution, environmental-friendly transportation

and reverse logistics and product recycle, reuse practices. (Hervani et al. 2005; Kumar, Teichman & Timpernagel,

2012).

According to Seuring and Muller (2008), GSCM can be considered as a tool of capital flows, material information

along with the cooperation among companies aiming towards three dimensions of sustainable development i.e.

social, economic and environmental thus fulfilling stakeholders requirements. In order to satisfy the triple objectives

of sustainability Organizations should take into consideration the concept of sustainable development right from

the beginning of policy making and supply chain management ( Ioppolo et al., 2014; Deutz et al., 2015).

Below figure 1 proposes the dependency of sustainability performance on GSCM practices. GSCM practices are

divided into three parts i.e. Upstream components, Internal components and downstream components.

. Figure 1: Conceptual Model

Green Supply Chain Practices

Sustainability

Performance

• Environmental Performance

• Economical Performance

• Social Performance

Internal Components of GSCM

• Green Manufacturing

• Green Design

• Green Information System(IT)

• Green Packaging

Upstream Components of GSCM

• Green Procurement

• Green Suppliers



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Figure 1: Proposed Conceptual Model

Model Fitness Analysis

Independent Variable: Green Supply Chain Management Practices

1. Upstream Components of GSCM

Kahannali et al., (2015) proposed that to have environmental, social, economic and intangible benefits, an upstream

element of GSCM i.e. Green procurement should be conducted and its effectiveness depends on whether the firm

is decentralized or centralized .In a survey among purchasing managers, the impact of environmental regulations

on activities like purchasing is listed asa second very important future concern (Monszka et al., 1995).

According to Chaturvedi, 2010; Luthra et al., 2011; Srivastava, 2007; GSCMpractices reduces wastage, emission

of greenhouse gases by making eco friendly biodegradable packaging, using recycling techniques,best green

procurement with hybrid technology for transportation (Chaturvedi, 2010; Luthra et al., 2011; Srivastava, 2007).

In green procurement suppliers are selected based on their ability to develop environmentally friendly goods

(Lamming and Hampson, 1996; Paulraj,2011). Green procurement can be defined as an initiative based on

environmentally-conscious purchasing whose objectives is to make sure that the products and materials are

purchased on the basis that they met out environmental objectives which involves the three R’s i.e. reduce,

recycle and reuse that are set by manufacturing firms(Salam, 2008).GSCM practices have many advantages

and it promotes innovation in environment. (Bowe et al., 2001; Hall, 2003; Rao, 2002).

Rao ,2006 said organization should help suppliers in managing their own environmental program by collaborating

in designing green goods with suppliers and arrange seminars on GSCM practices as an awareness exercise. In

order to have long term sustainable performance suppliers should be selected cautiously by organizations (Rajan et

al. ,2010) their environmental performance should be assessed and it should be seen that suppliers are taking

measures to ensure environmental quality of their products (Handfield et al., 2002).

Manufacturer should cooperate with suppliers to increase environmental sustainability [Green Jr et al,

2012].Manufacturers should work with suppliers to develop new source reduction strategies how to have cleaner

production to achieve environmental objective (Paulraj ,2011).In order to ensure whether suppliers are following

green practices and processes suppliers audits are very important which will also ensure that they provide

compliance statements(Hu A.H. et. al , 2010).

2. Internal Components of GSCM In the last few years manufacturers all around the world have strategized& implementedGreen Supply Chain to

improve their environmental practices (Rao, 2002; Begum et al., 2009). Companies by engaging in ISO 14001

certification are not only improving business growth, acquiring high international recognition, gaining competitive

Downstream Components of GSCM

• Green Distribution

• Green Logistics

• Reverse Logistics



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edge but also improving environmental performance thus achieving sustainable growth (Rao, 2002; Zhu et al.,

2005).

The basic requirement of green manufacturing is that manufacturers should delineate products that have the

possibility of recovery of materials and parts components that couldbe recycled and reused; mitigate hazardous

products usage in production process and reduce energy & materials consumption (Zhu et al., 2005).

Green manufacturing activities can be pursued by firms by using solar energy, environmental friendly and

biodegradable energy sources and recycling of raw materials in their manufacturing operations. (Amemba et al.,

2013).In this process better corporate image will be build by ensuring low pollution (Al-Odeh & Smallwood, 2012).

Green design also called Eco-design are environmental designs with objectives to reduce environmental impact

during product development cycle right from procuring raw materials from suppliers to manufacturing, to using it

and then finally disposing the materials left (Johansson,2002).

Harrison,2011also interpreted the importance of green design as it reduces the environmental effects of a product

produced ,distributed and consumed. Green design is also termed Design for environment (DFE) as it refers to

reduce the environmental effects of a product before production, during production, distribution and final usage.

Flammer, 2013 pinpointed that eco-friendly companies’ enjoy significant higher stock price, however eco-harmful

firms face decrease in stock price.

The term Green Design and Green Information are considered as effective tools and solution to the various

environmental problems, cost reductions and safety objectives. In fact, triple bottom line adoption led firms to

achieve cost reduction through green design (packaging reduction), Reduce, Reuse and Recycle. The safety

objectives are met through green transportation, neat and tidy warehouses, improved working conditions; reduction

of labor cost through effective motivation of employees leading to increased productivity. The reduction of

operation cost and lead times, improved product quality with ISO 14000 standards implementation and ethical

business goals leading to corporate image enhancement are sensitized by both customers and suppliers (Carter &

Rogers, 2008; Carter & Easton, 2011; Kumar, S., Teichman, S. & Timpernagel, T., 2012 ).

Many authors have talked & interpreted the remarkable importance of Green IT. According to Fuchs, 2008 the

Information technology (IT) applications such as in digital media, E-commerce, mobility of virtual goods, smart

buildings, and intelligent transport systems (ITS) helps in reducing/controlling carbon emissions & environmental

pollution. Hence Green IT has integrated itself in accomplishing energy conservation. As per Elliot, 2007, Green

IT has emerged as an important branch that is catching wide attention from both practitioners and scholars. This is

due to its core role in coordinating, monitoring various business activities and optimizing energy conservation. Bose

et.al, 2011 also gave credit to Green IT for the promising reduced carbon emissions and power consumptions. This

improves and enhances operations performance and increases collaboration and interaction.

Green Packaging is a very important term and means for sustainability. Today product designers focus to use

renewable materials such as biopolymers, card, paper e.t.c for packaging. Many companies like Dell is examining

the viability of packing materials like bamboo, wheat straw and mushroom-derived material and Tetra Pak intends

to manufacturing high-density polyethylene made from renewable feedstock. These moves not only limits the

materials used for packaging, makes environment friendly, but also helps in reducing costs of raw materials.

Reduced packaging also cuts down shipping costs for the companies (Kassaye & Verma, 1992).

According to L. Kroon et al., 1995, countries now have a program with objectives to minimize the amount of

packaging that goes waste to strengthen green packaging efforts. Ninlawan et al.,2010, asserts that Green packaging

implies greener materials & downsized packaging like , collapsible shipping containers.

3. Downstream Components of GSCM As per Nimawat & Namdev, 2012 Green distribution could be achieved through Green packaging, Green logistics

and transportation. Same was asserted by Rao,2006 about Green distribution with the objectives to (Wisner et.,

2012) use green packaging, downsize it and (Srivastava, 2007) promote Reuse & Recycle programs.

Diabat et al., 2011discussed the importance of cooperation with vendor to standardize packaging. Luthra et al., 2014

encouraged to adopt returnable packaging methods, however Beamon, 1999 proposed to minimize material uses

and time to unpack.

The basic difference between reverse logistic and green logistics is that the former is viewed as sustainable

development while the latter emphasise on forward flow of supply chain (DeBrito 2003) and is often known as



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ecological logistics (Rogers and Tibben-Lembke, 1998). In Green logistics goods are not delivered in smaller

batches rather they are ordered together and they are delivered directly to user site using environmentally friendly

vehicles. (Holt et al, 2009; Ninlawan et al, 2010).

According to Sbihi and Eglese (2007) green logistics considers environmental and social factors and produces and

distributes products in a sustainable way. To attain sustainable performance the firms should extend traditional

supply chain and include reverse logistics (Beamon, 1999).

GSCM include both economic development as well as environmental protection (Zhu et al, 2012) and is concerned

with forward and reverse flow(Chien et al, 2007).Reserve logistics has an impact on environment, economic and

intangible performance (Laosirihongthong et al.2013). According to Nimawat & Namdev, 2012; reverse logistics

implies the logistics in product returns, reuse & recycling of materials, disposal of waste, remanufacturing &

repairing.Wu and Dunn, 1995 talked about the need for a environmental friendly logistics system. In addition

Chouinard et al., 2005 pinpointed the problems in Reinforcement learning (RL) integration within an

organization.Thoo Ai Chin, 2014, analysed that reverse logistics is nothing but green logistics which means

collection of used packaging and products from customers for Recycling, providing to suppliers back for reuse and

pressing them to collect their packaging materials.

Eltayed et al, 2012 discussed the incorporation of eco- friendly design and raw material for diminished consumption

of energy & material, usage of cleaner technology processes for energy, solid and liquid waste minimization, as

well as reverse logistics usage to achieving green logistics. Also Rao, 2002 proposed that management of wastes in

the upstream such as reverse logistics and exchange of waste could lead enhanced competitiveness and cost savings.

Dependent Variable: Sustainability Performance

The focus of firms now has shifted from creation of wealth through high economic performance to social and

environmental concern in order to reach the optimal levels of sustainability (Carter et al., 2008).If the organization

have to be competitive in long run and has to achieve sustainability it needs convergence of environmental,

economic and society superiority (Paulraj, 2011; Thoo et al., 2014).

Stakeholders which includes customers, employees, non-government organizations and the regulatory bodies are

continuously demand that organizations now increase the management of the sustainable issues which could create

a dent through their green operations (Linton et al., 2007; Carter & Rogers, 2008; Teuteberg, 2010; Gupta & Palsule-

Desai, 2011; Rehman & Shrivastava, 2011;Carter et al., 2011; Aboelmaged, 2012;Kumar, Teichman &

Timpernagel, 2012).

Bhateja, et al.,2011 proposed International organizations & governments should take necessary & corrective action

to protect the environment and achieve sustainability for long term economic development.

Hence with deteriorating environmental conditions the attention is given to entire supply chain process i.e. from

production to disposition of products rather to only local optimization of environmental factors (Linton et al., 2007).

The term sustainability is the convergence of social, environmental and economic activities (Elkington 1998) and

the integration of all these activities will have economic benefits and competitive advantage which would have

positive impact on the organizations& society in the long run.(Elkington, 2004).

The manufacturing firms now have to adopt GSCM practices like green procurement/purchasing, green production,

green logistics and distribution to achieve enhanced economic growth. (Ninlawan et al., 2010; Paulraj, 2011).

The important parameters of sustainable performance are economic performance, social performance and

environmental performance (Paulraj, 2011; Holt et al., 2009).In order to respond to immediate needs of the

environment and market challenges the firms must rethink to develop green innovative practices in their business

strategy (Jaworski, 1993).It has become mandatory to consider economic and society performance as factors that

can lead to achievement of sustainability. Many manufacturing firms have started implementing GSCM to abide

government rules and regulations regarding environment and customer request for products and services which are

environmental sustainable, (Murray, 2000). Top management should take full responsibility through supply chain

for environmental monitoring efforts (Evans, 2005).End-of-pipe control a new approach should be followed for



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environmental regulations which will lead to increasing economic profit thus reduced ecological impacts (Meythi,

2013).

Nowadays cost reduction in material purchases & energy consumption are one of the main parameters for

sustainable future.(Jr, Green et al., 2012). Green practices leads to a profound relationships between economic and

environmental performance.(Fortes,2009).The sustainability of greening process can be achieved when suppliers

get/share information through manufacturers about best practices of environmental adherence and eliminating

environmental risks during manufacturing process (Barasa, 2014).

Zhu and Sarkis (2004) talked about a favorable alliance between adoption of GSCM practices through Green

purchasing, Eco- friendly designs, cooperation with customers in order to boast economic and environmental

performance(Diabat and Govindan, 2011).Organizations have recognized today the significance of strategic

initiative to compete in global market for green and Sustainable growth due to increased social, economic and

regulatory pressures (Dao et al., 2011;Butler, 2011; Melville, 2010) .

Hence it could be concluded that the core elements of GSCM are primarily Green procurement/purchasing, green

production and design, internal management of environment investment returns and reverse logistics. (Amemba, et

al., 2013; Sarkis et al., 2011; Zhu et al., 2008; Zhu et al., 2008; Hervani et al., 2005; Carter, 1998) . The upgradation

of supply chain to green supply chain in organizations plays a vital role in attaining Environmental awareness.

These sustainable practices help in diminishing the adverse effects of climate change, natural calamities ecological

imbalance and other environmental problems. (Sarkis et al., 2011; Hervani et al., 2005).

As a precursor to the H2, it’s quite important to know the implementation of various GSCM practices and its

effect on sustainability performance. The following hypothesis has been formulated based on above arguments

and discussions:

H1: GSCM practices have a positive relation with sustainability performance.

As the introduction of IT in the business has changed the way we perform the various business activities, it’s

highly imperative to explore the role of IT in facilitating the GSCM and its effect on sustainable performance.

Considering this fact, the following hypothesis has been formulated

H2: Green IT has a highly positive effect on sustainability performance.

Conclusion and Future Scope GSCM is a very vast concept where the major components have been summarized in the proposed conceptual model

of this paper. However, there are still many other dimensions of GSCM which can be explored in relation to many

other variables as facilitator and their effect on sustainability performance can be researched, mediated or moderated

by certain other variables. Like the role of consumers can be explored as it is also critical in encouraging reverse

logistics and using recycled products and services.

But now its crystal clear from different literatures that practicing GSCM will actually lead to sustainable

performance and in turn firm’s performance (Green et al, 2012; Lee SM et al, 2012).Also significant relationship

between GSCM practices and sustainable performance has been identified and confirmed.(Zhu et al, 2005; Green

et al,2012; Thoo et al, 2014)

Now companies could not remain untouched by GSCM practices to reduce environmental risks, increase ecological

efficiency thereby achieving environmental sustainability with increased profit and market share ( R. I. van Hock,

2000). The important parameters of sustainable performance includes economic, environmental and social

performances (Zhu et al,2005;Holt et al, 2009; Paulraj, 2011; Laosirihongthong et al, 2013).

By adopting GSCM practices companies can conserve materials, reduce energy and water usage thus reducing cost

and decreasing environmental liability and most of all achieve better public image (Wisner et al., 2012).The

environmental performance of supply chain could be improved by adopting green packaging, green marketing

practices and green distribution (Rao,2002). The companies now facilitate and adaptGSCM as aninnovative strategy

for higher profits and inturn help society and economy(Srivastava, 2007).

To sustain in this competitive environment it has become essential for the firms to have balance between

environmental and economic performance (Shultz et al., 1999) and according to Zhu et al., (2004) managers can

also improve environmental compliance by addressing environment issues to customers and thus reducing

environment impact of goods and services. Having green supply chain approach for sustainable development can



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save resources, increase productivity and reduce wastage (Porter et al., 1995; Srivastava, 2007; Kumar,et al., T.,

2012).

The organizations will flourish only if they succeed in their supply chain activities (Chopra and Meindl,

2004).Businesses will only flourish and achieve sustainability if they follow green supply chain practices like

purchasing, manufacturing, marketing, logistics, and information systems (Vachon & Klassen, 2007;Zelbst et al.,

2010).

Dheeraj and Vishal, (2012) in their study said that major components of GSCM practices are green procurement,

green manufacturing and materials management, green distribution and marketing and reverse logistics and they

will lead to sustainable development. Hasan (2013),analyzed that GSCM practices in firms can minimize cost

,increase efficiency, improve service, increase sales and market share, growth and revenues well as reputation. This

would ultimately head towards sustainable development.

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Analysis of MANET Security Issues: Vulnerabilities, Attacks, and Measures

Dr. Mohammed A. Afifi

School of Engineering & Information Technology

Al Dar University College,

Dubai, United Arab Emirates

[email protected] & [email protected]

Abstract Wireless networks became very popular and spread everywhere around us, at home, office, mall, restaurant, and

coffee shop etc. It illustrates the necessity and needs of one being connected and being online around the clock.

Mobile Ad hoc NETwork (MANET) is a wireless network that consists of wireless mobile nodes with no

infrastructure as the participants’ nodes can simply join and leave the network on their own. There is no fixed set

infrastructure and centralized administration in this type of networks. The lack of infrastructure and the nature

of the Mobile Ad hoc NETwork makes it very weak and vulnerable to various types of random attacks rather than

planned and engineered attacks. Since the participating nodes are not static nodes, and most probably they are

not related to each other, and the only common interest among them is sharing the same network. Engineered

attacks does not target random in the move victims where the attack will never be neither perfect nor effective for

granted. This paper addresses the importance of MANET security issues insight of security measures, needs, and

attacks.

Keywords MANET Security, Mobile Ad hoc Network, Network Security, Wireless Network Security.

1. Introduction Wireless communications, by definition, are easier to intercept because they use air/space as the medium. This is

a passive threat, because interception can occur without exposure of the recipient. Some receivers and transmitters

are protected, making interception a bit more difficult; others that rely on nomadic receivers or transceivers are,

by far, the easiest to intercept, resulting in a violation of security. Where interception of communications on a

wired medium requires physical location and contact, interception of wireless communications requires only that

the receiver be in the region of reception intended for the authorized recipients [1].

This type of network does not rely on a well-defined or known infrastructure, such as routers and switches,

instead, each participant node is involved in routing by simply forwarding data to other participant node and

establishes different pathways among other participants on the network in order to communicate. The

determination of which participants’ nodes forward data is made dynamically on the basis of the network

connectivity.

The security issue becomes more of concern in MANET, as participants are communicating in a multi-hop, open,

and decentralized network. This environment creates a wide range of vulnerabilities and becomes richer for

security attacks. This paper is organized as follows: section 2 will discuss vulnerabilities of MANET; section 3

will explore the security and protocol based attacks; section 4 discuss the measures one should follow to protect

MANET; finally, discussion and future work will be discussed.

1.1 Significance Of The Study The significance of this study is to state the management and control issues that became very crucial and important

to the security of most if not all computer networks that one is using. MANET became one of the top and essential

part of our day-to-day connectivity and it is the most important computer network type that all are using.

Security might not be an issue for the majority of ordinary people connected to the computer network socializing

and exchanging social messages, while it is one of the most important issues when it comes to official and sanative

communication where data being exchanged are of a very important, classified or even confidential of nature.

2. Manet Vulnerabilities



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The dynamic nature of MANET makes it susceptible to a rich number of security implications; here are the most

important security vulnerabilities of MANET:

• Wireless Links: All the participants in the network are connected through wireless interfaces, which are

time-varying in nature, as a result, transmission impediments such as blockage that may occur as a result

of the presence of thick concrete walls and excessive presence of metal on site, also it is always open for

new connections [2].

• Limited Bandwidth: Wireless transmission has a limited range to cover that results signal fading and

connection instability at or near the border line. In comparison with conventional networks, limited

bandwidth of wireless networks can be easily interrupted among connected nodes [3].

• Route Changes: Due to the high activity of random node mobility and the dynamic nature of the network

topology, the network has a high path breaks and changes which results weak protection and performance

between nodes [4].

• Link Capabilities: Nodes are varying in transmission and receiving, software configuration, hardware

configuration, and operating systems that results different and variable link capabilities including poor

quality links not knowing if the reason is due to malicious nodes [5].

• Autonomous Nodes: MANET does not have network infrastructure or centralized administration that

results no fixed set of topology. Each node acts as a router and generates its own connections in a mutli-

hop routing fashion. Nodes that are leaving the network results a path loss that brings difficulties in

network management [6].

• Lack of Defense Mechanism: The application of defense mechanism in MANET is limited due to the

high mobility and ad hoc nature of the network. For example, the lack of centralized administration

prevents the use of a centralized firewall so the network can be attacked either internally or externally

[7].

• Limited Resources: MANET participants’ nodes are devices such as laptops, PDAs, tablets, wearables,

mobile phones, and smartphones …etc. all of which are having different processing capabilities, storage

capacity, and power source. Such poor resource devices joining the network bring more vulnerabilities

and attacks [8].

There might be more vulnerabilities to MANET based on the circumstances, consequences, and timing of the

attacks. It faces a number of security threats either active or passive like interruption, interception, modification,

fabrication, and other security attacks.

3. Security Attacks The previous section shows the MANET potential vulnerabilities that makes it subject to different types of attacks.

3.1 Passive Attacks

This type of attack tries to know and make use of the information extracted from the network but does not cause

any damage to the network or its resources. Passive attacks are normally intercepting (eavesdropping on), or

monitoring the incoming and outgoing transmission. The main objective of the attacker is to get information that

are being in transmission. There are two types of passive attacks, the release of transmission contents and traffic

analysis. Since passive attacks neither involve in any alteration of data being transmitted nor participate on the

network transmission, they are really difficult to be detected. For both sides of the transmission, the traffic is sent

and received in a normal fashion, where neither the sender or the receiver is aware that a third node is there

intercepting their transmission and analyzing traffic patterns. However, it is possible and easily convenient to



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prevent these attacks, usually by the means of encryption. Thus, the importance in dealing with passive attacks is

preventing rather than detecting it [9].

3.2 Active Attacks

Active attacks can be very harmful and directly damage the network transmission. It involves different attacks

that manipulate the original data or the creation of a completely forged data stream. The active attacks are mostly

divided into four types: denial of services, replay, modification, and fabrication. Active attacks are the contrary

in nature of the passive attacks, as the passive attacks are really difficult to be detected, Afifi

Whereas passive attacks are difficult to detect, measures are available to prevent their success. On the other hand,

it is quite difficult to prevent active attacks absolutely because of the wide variety of potential physical, software,

and network vulnerabilities. Instead, the goal is to detect active attacks and to recover from any disruption or

delays caused by them. If the detection has a deterrent effect, it also may contribute to prevention [9].

Active attacks are presented as follows:

• Dropping or Selfish Attack: Selfish nodes can drop packets that do not belong and not sent to them, if

the dropping node is at a critical point, it can also prevent the end-to-end communications between other

nodes [10].

• Modification Attack: It modifies the packet contents and drastically alters or destroys the structure of

the packet. It also delays the overall communications between nodes. Sinkhole attacks is an example of

the modification attack [11].

• Fabrication Attack: The attacker sends fake message to other nodes pretending to be a different entity

without receiving any related message from the same node. Similarly, it can also send fake route reply in

response to related legitimate route request messages [12].

• DoS Attack: Flooding attack is a form of Denial of Services where attacker prevents or inhibits the

normal use of communications by disabling the network or by overwhelming it with messages to degrade

the network performance [13].

As mentioned earlier, the characteristics and dynamic nature of MANET makes it easily exposed to wide range

of attacks on the different protocol layers. The table 1 below shows some of the potential types of attacks that

can have a serious effect on the network:

Table 1: Potential attacks on protocol layers

Attacks Layer

Data corruption

Data mismatch

Malicious code

(viruses, worms,

etc.)

Application

Hijacking sessions

Flooding

Transportation

Blackhole

Grayhole

Wormhole

Sinkhole

Spoofing

Network



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Rushing

Replay

Sybil

Overwhelming

Selfish nodes

Malicious behavior

Traffic analysis

Data Link

Eavesdropping

Jamming

Physical

• Data Corruption: Some types of malicious software can make the data unusable by changing or

overwriting it with meaningless unrelated information. Tempering the nodes operating system files may

lead to system malfunction or even not operable [14].

• Data Mismatch: Alteration of the data contents that makes it different from the original expected data.

It is more like modification of the original data content that might change the facts in a dramatic

unexpected way [15].

• Malicious Code: Malicious code attacks include several types of security threats such as viruses, worms,

spyware, Trojan horses, and more. They can directly attack the nodes at different levels depending on the

nature of the node like the operating system and the application programs been in use [16].

• Hijacking Session: Attackers take an advantage to exploit any unprotected session after its initial setup.

During this session, attackers try to collect sensitive information about the nodes participating in the same

session especially user credentials i.e. username, password, credit card particulars etc. [17].

• Flooding: It is a type of DoS attack, where malicious nodes may overwhelm the network with false

packets, or create packet loops that keep the network busy due to its false routing information. This has

especially serious effects on ad hoc networks, since the nodes of these usually possess only limited

resources in terms of battery and computational power. Traffic may also be a monetary factor, depending

on the services provided, so any flooding which blows up the traffic statistics of the network or a certain

node can lead to considerable damage cost [18].

• Blackhole: In this attack, an attacker advertises a zero metric for all destinations causing all nodes

around it to route packets towards it. Fake routing information is being sent by the attacking node

pretending that it has the best and shortest routing distance which causes other good nodes start to route

data packets through it, then starts to drop all the received data packets [19].

• Grayhole: This attack is also known as routing misbehavior attack which leads to dropping of messages.

Gray hole attack has two phases. In the first phase the node advertise itself as having a valid route to

destination while in second phase, node drops intercepted packets with a certain probability [18].

• Wormhole: In a wormhole attack, an attacker receives packets at one point in the network, “tunnels”

them to another point in the network, and then replays them into the network from that point. Routing

can be disrupted when routing control message are tunneled. This tunnel between two colluding attacks

is known as a wormhole. In DSR, AODV this attack could prevent discovery of any routes and may

create a wormhole even for packet not address to itself because of broadcasting. Wormholes are hard to

detect because the path that is used to pass on information is usually not part of the actual network.

Wormholes are dangerous because they can do damage without even knowing the network [20].

• Sinkhole: The attacking node tries to offer a very attractive link e.g. to a gateway. Therefore, a lot of

traffic bypasses this node. Besides simple traffic analysis, some other attacks like selective forwarding



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or denial of service can be combined with the sinkhole attack [21].

• Spoofing: In spoofing attack, the attacker assumes the identity of another node in the network; hence it

receives the messages that are meant for that node. Usually, this type of attack is launched in order to

gain access to the network so that further attacks can be launched, which could seriously cripple the

network. This type of attack can be launched by any malicious node that has enough information of the

network to forge a false ID for one of its member nodes and utilizing that ID and a lucrative incentive,

the node can misguide other nodes to establish routes towards itself rather than towards the original node

[22].

• Rushing: Two colluded attackers use the tunnel procedure to form a wormhole. If a fast transmission

path (e.g. a dedicated channel shared by attackers) exists between the two ends of the wormhole, the

tunneled packets can propagate faster than those through a normal multi-hop route. The rushing attack

can act as an effective Denial-of-Service attack against all currently proposed on-demand MANET

routing protocols, including protocols that were designed to be secure, such as ARAN and Ariadne [23].

• Replay: The attacker collects data as well as routing packets and replays them at a later moment in time.

This can result in a falsely detected network topology or help to impersonate a different node identity. It

can be used to gain access to data which was demanded by replayed packet [10].

• Sybil: The Sybil attack especially aims at distributed system environments. The attacker tries to act as

several different identities/nodes rather than one. This allows him to forge the result of a voting used

for threshold security methods. Since ad hoc networks depend on the communication between nodes,

many systems apply redundant algorithms to ensure that the data gets from source to destination. A

consequence of this is that attackers have a harder time to destroy the integrity of information [25].

• Overwhelming: In this attack, an attacker might overwhelm network nodes, causing network to

forward large volumes of traffic to a base station. This attack consumes network bandwidth and drains

node energy [26].

• Selfish Nodes: The selfish node is not serving as a relay to other nodes which are participating in the

network. This malicious node which is not participating in network operations, use the network for its

advantage to save its own resources such as power. Practically, it drops all the packets that do not

belong to it.

• Malicious Behavior: The normal operation of the routing protocol is being disrupted by the main

malicious node. The impact of such attack is increased when the communications take place between

neighboring nodes. Attacks of such types are Denial of Services, attacks on network integrity,

misdirecting traffic, and attacking neighbor sensing protocol [17].

• Traffic Analysis: Traffic analysis is a passive attack used to extract or try to know any piece of

information on which nodes communicate with each other and how much data is being processed. It

compares traffic patterns trying to know the repetition of the exchanged data packets [27].

• Eavesdropping: The term eavesdropping implies secretly hearing or listening to a conversation,

overhearing without any extra effort. Mobile host in mobile ad-hoc network shares a wireless medium.

Majorities of wireless communication use RF spectrum and broadcast by nature. Message transmitted

can be eavesdropped and fake message can be injected into network [28].

• Jamming: In jamming, attacker initially keep monitoring wireless medium in order to determine

frequency at which destination node is receiving signal from sender. Then it transmits signal on that

frequency so that error free receptor is hindered [29].



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4. Security Measures There are several ways of protecting data and communications, but every kind of protection has its own

limitations. It is being believed that “the absolute computer network security dos not exist!” the reasons are

simple and clear, gaining illegitimate access is the same way or even equal to gaining legitimate access. In other

words, if an account is accessed by a username and password, an unauthorized person can access that account

using the same username and password. There are a number of security measures that need to be taken in

consideration in order to keep the network secure to an extreme extent:

• Data Encryption: I always believed that data encryption is the best way to secure data and

communications from malicious attacks. Since one is expected to have access to the network, the prefect

way to secure data is to encrypt it, that makes it close to impossible to read the data contents without the

decryption key [30].

• Limit Access: Setting the user level of permissions and denials having a strong access policy that prevents

the user from making any privilege escalation and gaining unauthorized level of access. It is very crucial

to grant or not restrict ordinary users from gaining access to restricted data or even become root or super

user and have full unrestricted access to the whole network [31].

• Password Manager: Using strong password and changing it periodically makes it harder to be attacked.

However, the most important of all is using 2-step, at some sensitive access 3-step, verification, where

after providing the login password, a code or OTP will be sent to the registered phone via text, voice, or

email etc. [32].

• Secure Operating System: Make sure that you use reliable operating system, where a secure operating

system is the major aspect of data and network security. It illustrates why technical people understand

and consider Linux and UNIX operating systems as more reliable and secure as compared to single user

design systems like many others [33].

• Security Updates: It is extremely important to ensure that the system has the latest and up-to-date

software and security patches. It is necessary to configure for update notifications and periodical system

check for any changes. Some software tools can be used for such a purpose that can track and install

updates [34].

• Suspicious Email: Beware and do not become a naive phishing victim. It is very obvious and clear to

identify such emails, so not open links or attachments from unknown source. None of the service

providers will ever ask about your credentials, it is a common sense; why would they? Never click an

unknown link out of curiosity, if necessary, copy/cut and paste the link into your browser’s address bar,

if it was bad, most probably the system will block it [35].

• Backup and Restore: Sometimes systems get badly infected or hardware fails; especially storage media

like hard disks and portable storage devices. It has never been about the cost value of the device, but

always about the value of data on that device that can be in some situations absolutely priceless. Just

make sure if that happens, data can be restored from the backup vault [17].

Remember that most of the systems and networks that are well-protected against malicious attacks are not really

safe or having immunity against security threats and breaches.

5. Discussion & Future Work Based on the necessity and need of having instant connection to computer networks; grows the necessity and need

of MANET in our daily life. Wireless technology is replacing the wired technology gradually, that one day will



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be completely replacing it. With the use of wireless technology comes a number of security challenges that need

to be taken care of. Security is not a single layer issue, as presented in table 1; it is a multilayer issue that requires

a multi solution that provides a relatively complete security framework.

The MANET security framework consists of, but not limited to; access policy, secure routing, encryption key

exchange, network management, and intrusion detection system …etc. It emphasizes on protecting and preventing

from malicious attacks by applying cryptographic functions and other mechanisms like limited access, password

manager, using secure operating system, security updates, beware of suspicious emails, and having periodical

backups that can be restored in case of disasters.

The research on MANET security is still in its cradle and has a lot of potential work to be done. Most of the

existing solutions are based on the nature of attacks where it must be identified first to apply its counter solution.

A major need has strengthened the existing protocol suite to start preventing such attacks at the front defense line

instead of waiting them to happen and stop or prevent them.

Finally, computer networks and its security will remain the twin issues for many years to come, it is more like the

same issue of the key and lock; one is complementing the other. Still, there will be a number of unsolved issues

that will remain existing and cannot be completely controlled or avoided due to the nature of MANET.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to acknowledge all experts, authors, and all contributors who have participated

and helped to complete this work. Special thanks to Dr. Meraj Naem for his continuous support.

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