ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES WildLife · WildLife YANR-197 ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES Management inAlabama ... Plant Succession Vegetation and water are the ... need

Wildlife management and other natural resource

fields are both arts and sciences that deal with

complex interactions in the environment. Wildlife “science”

is based on scientific principles, but wildlife “management”

requires creative use of the scientific principles. This publi-

cation presents information on some of these important

principles, including

� Wildlife management concepts and terms.

� Habitat needs and management recommendations for

selected wildlife species.

� Wildlife management practices and their effects on

habitat.

Some of the principles presented here have been sim-

plified to make the materials more understandable. In ad-

dition, costs and budgets have not been considered when

recommending practices. In actual situations, however,

wildlife managers must consider economics when planning

and recommending management practices. In real-life

management cases, it is always wise to call upon trained,

experienced professionals to assist you in making proper

decisions to meet your goals and objectives.

WildLife

YANR-197

A L A B A M A A & M A N D A U B U R N U N I V E R S I T I E S

www.aces.edu

Management inAlabama

P R I N C I P L E S O F

http://www.aces.edu/


2 Alabama Cooperative Extension System

Wildlife Management Concepts And Terms

have certain objectives for spe-cific species, or the general pub-lic may have concerns aboutparticular game or endangeredspecies.

Once the species are selected,identify the habitat requirementsfor each species and evaluate thecapability of the environment toprovide the requirements. If thearea is unable to supply or onlypartially provides the necessaryhabitat requirements, use man-agement practices to improve thearea’s ability to supply needed re-quirements.

It is usually best to selectmanagement practices that pro-vide the requirements that are inthe shortest supply. For instance,if a species requires trees forcover with water nearby, and thehabitat you are evaluating hasplenty of trees but no water, amanagement practice that sup-plies water will improve thehabitat more effectively thanplanting trees.

When determining whichmanagement practices to apply,remember, management prac-tices that improve habitat forsome wildlife species may bedetrimental to other wildlifespecies. It is impossible to man-age habitat for any one specieswithout influencing otherspecies in some manner.

Concept 3Plant Succession

Vegetation and water are thebasis of habitat management.Every acre of soil and water hasa definite sequence of planttypes that occurs over time. Thedifferent stages of this sequenceare called successional stages.

We can usually predict thetype of vegetation that will occurin each stage until a final or “cli-max” stage is reached. When not

disturbed, the climax vegetationis stable and will remain thesame for long periods of time. Ifhumans or nature disturb thesoil or water level, successionmay be set back and the cyclewill continue forward from thenew starting point.

In wildlife management,areas in different stages of plantsuccession are often referred toas areas with different vegetationtypes or habitat types. In general,the stages of plant successionthat occur on land are as follows:

1. Bare ground.2. Annual forbs and grasses.3. Perennial forbs and grasses.4. Shrubs.5. Young woodland or trees.6. Mature woodland or trees.

In some regions, natural fac-tors such as the soil or the cli-mate will prevent successionfrom proceeding past a certainstage. For instance, in the GreatPlains Grassland Region, lack ofprecipitation often prevents suc-cession from proceeding paststage 3. In this case, stage 3would be considered the climaxstage.

A single step in this succes-sion may take weeks, months,years, or even centuries depend-ing on a variety of natural andhuman-caused factors. If vegeta-tion is disturbed, succession willrevert to an earlier stage andbegin again. Disturbance can becaused by natural factors such asinsect or disease outbreaks, tor-nadoes, hurricanes, avalanches,or naturally occurring fires.

However, succession is morefrequently altered by humansthrough plowing (agriculture),burning, cutting of forests, graz-ing, and clearing shrubby areas,which may in many cases mimicnatural disturbances.

Nature never gives up. Evenabandoned concrete parking lotsare eventually taken over by

Before you can evaluatewildlife habitat and make man-agement recommendations, youneed to understand some basicconcepts about habitat and itsrelation to different wildlifespecies. This section presentssome of the basic concepts. It isimportant that you study and un-derstand them.

Concept 1Habitat Requirements

The four basic habitat re-quirements of all living organ-isms are food, water, space, andcover. Each species has its ownset of specific requirements. Forexample, gray squirrels useacorns for food, while wood-peckers eat insects. Mallards usethick grass and forb cover fornesting, while thrashers nest inshrubs.

Habitat requirements forwildlife change during the sea-sons of the year. The food theyeat in the winter may be muchdifferent than what they eat inthe summer. The cover theyneed for nesting may be muchdifferent than the cover neededto survive a winter storm.

Concept 2Featured Species

There are two basic goals inwildlife habitat management.One is to provide the best habi-tat possible for specific featuredwildlife species. The other,which is explained later in thispublication under the concept“species richness,” is to providehabitat for as many differentwildlife species as possible in anarea.

When evaluating habitat forfeatured species, someone mustfirst decide which species are tobe favored. Landowners may

Principles of Wildlife Management in Alabama 3

The Stages of Plant Succession (From Bare Ground To Woodland)

Stage 1Bare ground

Stage 2Annual forbs and grasses

Stage 3Perennial forbs and grasses

Stage 4Shrubs

Stage 5Young woodland or trees

Stage 6Mature woodland or trees


plants, which first grow in thecracks and around the edges. Ifleft alone, concrete parking lotswill eventually become “habitat”for some wildlife species.

Concept 4Vertical Structure(Layering)

Vegetation can be classifiedby how it grows. Grasses andforbs generally grow close to theground and make up the groundlayer. The next highest level isusually comprised of shrubs andis called the shrub layer. Thetallest stratum is made by treesand is called the tree canopy.

How different layers of vege-tation are arranged in relation toeach other is an important factorin managing wildlife species. Forinstance, some species may re-quire a herbaceous layer forfood but also need a tree canopyfor cover. Not all areas in a sin-gle stage of succession are alike.One woodland in stage 6 ofplant succession may have a va-riety of layers, comprised ofgrasses, forbs, shrubs, and trees.Another stage 6 woodland mayhave only one distinct layer oftall trees.

Concept 5Arrangement AndInterspersion

How different successionalstages or vegetation types are sit-uated in relation to each other isoften referred to as horizontalarrangement. Many wildlifespecies need more than one suc-cessional stage to provide alltheir habitat requirements. To beof value, the different succes-sional stages must be close toeach other to allow safe travelfor wildlife. Some species obtainall their habitat requirementsfrom only one successionalstage. Mixing plots of differentsuccessional stages within an

area is called interspersion.Usually, more interspersion sup-ports a greater variety of wildlife.

Concept 6Edges And Contrast

The boundary where two ormore different types of vegeta-tion or successional stages meetis called edge. Sometimes thereis an abrupt change where onetype of vegetation stops and an-other begins. However, a changecan be less distinct with a grad-ual transition from one stage toanother. In places where a grad-ual change occurs, an edgelooks a little like both succes-sional stages or vegetation types.

Where abrupt changes occur, theedge is narrow. Edges attractmany different wildlife speciesbecause food, cover, and otherhabitat requirements arearranged close together.

Edges produced when suc-cessional stages have extremelydifferent types of vegetation aredefined as having high contrast.There is high contrast where anarea in stage 2 (grass and forbs)meets an area in stage 6 (talltrees) of plant succession. Aboundary between stages 2 and3 has low contrast. In general,edges with high contrast havemore species of wildlife thanedges with low contrast.

High-contrast edge


Concept 7Amount Of Edge And SizeOf Areas In OneSuccessional Stage

Edge is not beneficial for allwildlife. Some wildlife speciesneed unbroken areas in a certainsuccessional stage to providesome or all of their habitat re-quirements. A balance of edgewith blocks of vegetation in onesuccessional stage is desirable.Areas with unbroken blocks thatare 10 to 40 acres in size are con-sidered to have a good balanceof edge and unbroken blocks. Inlarge forests, blocks of up to 100acres may be desirable.

Concept 8Corridors

Corridors are areas of contin-uous habitat that permit animalsto travel securely from one habi-tat to another. As environmentsbecome more broken up (frag-mented) from construction ofroads, parking lots, urban areas,harvesting of timber, clearing foragriculture, etc., small islands ofvegetation remain.

Corridors allow animals tofind and use the islands of suit-able habitat. For example, in anurban area, relatively unbrokencorridors found along riparianareas and ravines allow wildlife

to move into parks and othersuitable habitats. Preservation,maintenance, and creation of un-broken corridors are very impor-tant in wildlife habitat manage-ment.

Concept 9Species Richness

Species richness is defined asthe number of different kinds ofwildlife found in an area. As dis-cussed earlier, one goal inwildlife habitat management maybe to provide habitat for asmany species as possible. Landsthat are high in species richnessusually have many of the follow-ing characteristics:

• A mixture of areas in dif-ferent successional stages.

• A balance of edges withunbroken blocks of vegetation inone successional stage.

• Unbroken blocks of 10 to40 acres.

• Edges with high contrast.• A wide variety of vegeta-

tion layers present within eacharea containing only one succes-sional stage.

These characteristics can beused to estimate the relativenumber of different wildlifespecies that may be present inseparate areas. They also may beused to identify managementpractices that could increasespecies richness. For example,consider an area that is in stage6 of plant succession. It hasbeen proposed to harvest thetrees by clear-cutting half of thearea. Clear-cuts in 40-acre blocksthat leave adjacent unharvestedblocks 40 acres in size would bedesirable. Strips or corridors oftrees that link the larger unhar-vested blocks together could beleft uncut (see Concept 8,Corridors).

Remember, when managinghabitat for species richness, it isoften not possible to provide thebest habitat for featured species.

Low-contrast edge


Instead of providing the best habi-tat possible for one species, thegoal is to provide some habitat foras many species as possible.

Concept 10Carrying Capacity

There is a limit (carrying ca-pacity) to how many animalscan live in a habitat. The quanti-ty and quality of food, water,cover, and space determines thecarrying capacity. If one basicrequirement is in short supply,the carrying capacity is lowered.By adding the missing ingredi-ent, a manager can increase thehabitat’s carrying capacity.

Carrying capacity varies fromyear to year and from season toseason. It is usually greatest fromlate spring through fall. This iswhen most young are born andgrow. With the coming of winteror summer drought, food andcover gradually diminish as doesthe habitat’s carrying capacity.

More animals are producedeach year than will survive tothe next. When this happens, allextra or surplus animals will belost in an existing habitat. Youngwildlife and animals in poorhealth experience the highestdeath rates. The obvious way toincrease the number of animalsis to increase the number bornand reduce the number that die.However, if the habitat cannotsupport any more animals, theseefforts will fail. A long-term in-crease in population can only beaccomplished by increasing thehabitat’s carrying capacity.

Concept 11Pond Dynamics

No two ponds are ever ex-actly alike. Even ponds side-by-side and in the same watershedcan look very distinctive fromone another and each may re-spond somewhat differently tomanagement efforts. These visu-al differences are usually associ-

ated with water quality and algalbloom differences. Managementefforts are meant to controlwater quality, improve fishing,and attract wildlife.

Dissolved oxygen, alkalinity,hardness, and pH are waterquality factors that can be man-aged in ponds. Water quality af-fects the natural production offood in the pond and the healthof the fish.

Oxygen dissolves in waterfrom the atmosphere throughthe action of wind and waves oris produced by aquatic plants inthe process of photosynthesis.Oxygen is only slightly solublein water (measured in parts permillion—ppm) and can drop tolethal concentrations in ponds.Ponds seldom have more than10 or 12 ppm dissolved oxygen,even on sunny or windy days.However, dissolved oxygenbelow 4 ppm is stressful to mostfish and below 2 ppm will killmany fish. Aquatic plants, partic-ularly planktonic algae (or phy-toplankton), produce most ofthe oxygen dissolved in pondwater during daytime photosyn-thesis. Therefore, dissolved oxy-gen concentrations tend to in-crease throughout the day. Atnight, everything living in thepond (fish, plants, insects, bacte-ria, etc.) consume oxygen and

the dissolved oxygen levels fall.Under normal conditions dis-solved oxygen will not fallbelow 4 ppm overnight.

Alkalinity, hardness, and pHof pond water are related to soiland vegetation in the watershedand in the pond. Many soils areacidic and need to be limed toadjust the pH, alkalinity, andhardness upward to a range thatwill promote growth of naturalfood organisms. Ponds shouldhave a pH that fluctuates be-tween 6.5 and 9, and alkalinityand hardness of at least 20 ppm.Ponds with low pH, alkalinity,and hardness should be limed,based on soil tests of the pondmud. Usual liming rates canrange from 1 to 5 tons per acre.

Plankton is the term for allmicroscopic and near microscop-ic life that floats in the water.Plankton is divided into animal(zooplankton) and plant (phyto-plankton) groups. Phytoplankton(microscopic algae) are the baseof the pond food chain.Zooplankton and aquatic insectsfeed on phytoplankton, andthey, in turn, are eaten by smallfish (fry). Small fish are eaten bylarger fish and so on. Managingphytoplankton through fertilizingand liming, if necessary, is thekey to producing abundant andhealthy fish populations.


Habitat Needs And ManagementRecommendationsForSelectedWildlife Species

American RobinGeneral Habitat Pref-

erence: Urban settings withlarge open areas and nearbytrees and shrubs. Parks, golfcourses, and lawns in residentialareas are favorites.

Habitat Requirements:

Food: Insects and worms inwarm seasons. Fruits and berriesfrom shrubs and trees in winter.Do not often use artificial feeders.

• Plant fruit- and berry-pro-ducing shrubs such as sumac,nanking cherry, golden currant,and Russian olive.

• Leave open areas of shortgrass and forbs.

• Use insecticides only whennecessary. When using insecti-cides, carefully follow the in-structions given on the label.

Cover: Nesting sites and hid-ing areas in shrubs, evergreentrees, and broad-leaf trees.Evergreen trees are preferred forearly nests. Will use nesting plat-forms.

• Plant and maintain treesand shrubs. Include some ever-green trees in plantings.

• Provide nesting platformsin areas lacking nest sites.

Water: Robins require waterdaily in warm seasons. Obtainwater from yard irrigation, rainfilled gutters, low lying areas,ponds, etc.

• Provide birdbaths andpans of water. Do not placewater in areas where cats andother pets can catch the birds.

Brown ThrasherGeneral Habitat Pref-

erence: Stages 3 and 4 of plantsuccession. Dense, woody vege-tation associated with shrubthickets, hedgerows, shelterbelts, forest edges, riparianareas, and young forests.


Food: Invertebrates andplant seeds are the principalfoods. Forage primarily on theground. Occasionally feed onfruits and berries in shrubs andtrees. More food is availablewhen there is more ground litter.The management practices listedunder cover will usually supplysufficient food.

Cover: Nesting and hidingcover are supplied by denseshrubs with some trees. Will useareas that have shrubs only.Need a minimum of 2.5 acres ofwoody vegetation to support abreeding population.

• Selective-cut forests inlarge expanses of stage 5 or 6woodland.

• Clear-cut timber harvestcan improve habitat once suc-cession proceeds to stage 4 afterharvest.

• Plant shrubs and trees(shelter belts, hedgerows, fieldborders, clumps).

• Use brush chopping,chaining, roller beating, andcontrolled (prescribed) burningto rejuvenate and improve habi-tat in large areas of old stage 4vegetation.

• Manage livestock grazingin riparian areas and otherwoody areas so shrubs and treescan regenerate and ground litteris present. Grazing in the winterusually does less damage towoody vegetation than at othertimes of year.

Water: Requirements un-known.

American KestrelGeneral Habitat Pref-

erence: Stages 2 and 3 of plantsuccession for feeding, andstages 4, 5, and 6 for nesting.Large open areas where ade-quate nesting sites are available.


Food: Primarily insects andsmall mammals associated withopen areas.

• Brush chop, chain, orroller beat small areas (40 acresmaximum, 10 to 20 acres pre-ferred) in large expanses ofstage 4 (shrub) vegetation.

• Control burn small areas(40 acres maximum, 10 to 20acres preferred) in large expans-es of stage 4 (shrub) vegetation.

• Clear-cut or selective cutsmall areas in large expanses ofstage 5 and 6 woodlands.

• Manage livestock grazingto leave enough herbaceouscanopy to support insects andsmall rodents.

Cover: Kestrels nest in treecavities and other sites includingholes in cliffs, canyon walls, andartificial nesting boxes.

• Maintain areas of stage 5and 6 vegetation interspersedwith stage 2 and 3 vegetation.

• Plant trees in large openareas (irrigate if necessary) onidle lands.

• Provide kestrel nestingboxes in areas lacking adequatenesting cavities. Boxes can beplaced on fence posts in openareas.

• Manage livestock grazingto maintain trees in riparianareas.

Water: Kestrels obtain neces-sary water from diet.


Eastern BluebirdGeneral Habitat Pref-

erence: Stages 2 and 3 of plantsuccession interspersed withstages 5 and 6 vegetation.


Food: Insects and spidersmake up a large portion of thediet. They also eat a limitedamount of fruit. Bluebirds usual-ly forage in open areas.

• Clear-cut or selective cutsmall areas (40 acres maximum,10 to 20 acres preferred) in largeexpanses of stage 5 and 6 wood-land.

• Brush chop, chain, orroller beat, small areas (40 acresmaximum, 10 to 20 acres pre-ferred) in large expanses ofstage 4 vegetation.

• Control burn small areas inlarge expanses of stage 4 and 5vegetation.

• Use livestock grazing tokeep some areas in stage 2 and3 vegetation.

Cover: Nesting sites are innatural cavities and old wood-pecker holes.

• Leave three to four stand-ing dead or nearly dead largetrees per acre during timber har-vest operations.

• Place nest boxes 4 to 5feet high in or adjacent to openareas. Space nest boxes morethan 200 feet apart.

• Plant shrubs and trees alongfencerows, field borders, etc.

Water: Eastern bluebirds ob-tain necessary water from diet,but will use other water sourceswhen available.

Hairy WoodpeckerGeneral Habitat Pref-

erence: Stages 4, 5, and 6 ofplant succession are best habitat.Will use stage 3 of plant succes-sion if areas with mature treesare nearby. Also use woodedurban and riparian areas.


Food: Majority of food is an-imal matter such as ants, beetlelarvae, caterpillars, and adultbeetles. The diet is supplement-ed with fruits and nuts. They for-age in a variety of places such astree trunks, stumps, snags,downed logs, and the ground.Where adequate cover exists,food is usually not limiting.

Cover: Holes are excavatedin mature and dying trees andsnags for nesting.

• Maintain areas with largemature and dying trees, especial-ly in open areas. Within woodedareas maintain at least one largesnag per acre.

• Plant softwood trees.• Manage livestock grazing

in riparian areas to maintaintrees. Grazing when woody veg-etation is not growing fast (falland winter) usually does lessdamage to woody vegetationthan at other times of year.

Water: Hairy woodpeckersprobably obtain necessary waterfrom diet.

HummingbirdGeneral Habitat Pref-

erence: Found in or near mixedwoodlands and forests rich inflowering plants. Prefers stages 5and 6 of plant succession mixedwith areas in stages 2, 3, and 4.In urban settings, prefers areaswith large trees and nearby flow-ering plants.


Food: Nectar from flowersand insects found on flowers.Hummingbirds require high-en-ergy foods. Nectar is high in sug-ars that supply the needed ener-gy. Insects are an importantsource of protein.

• Plant flowers.Hummingbirds seem to be at-tracted to the color red. Somepreferred flowers are petunias,

gladiolus, nasturtiums, begonias,morning glory, evening prim-rose, columbine, and cardinalflower.

• Plant flowering shrubs andtrees. Favorites are honeysuckle,lilac, salvia, trumpet vine, andvarious fruit trees.

• Use artificial feeders filledwith sugar water as a substitute(1 part table sugar to 4 partswarm water). Never use honeyrather than sugar as it cannot bedigested by hummingbirds. Keepfeeders clean.

• Use insecticides only whennecessary. Carefully follow in-structions on the label.

Cover: Hummingbirds con-struct small nests on tree branch-es, usually 5 to 20 feet above theground. Occasionally build nestsin secluded areas on houses andbuildings. Nest is made out ofleafy materials and spider silk.

• Plant and maintain trees.Trees with rough bark are pre-ferred.

• Do not disturb nests foundon houses and buildings unlessthey are causing a problem suchas plugging a rain gutter.

Water: Hummingbirds obtainnecessary water from diet.

Mourning DoveGeneral Habitat Pref-

erence: Stages 2 and 3 of plantsuccession with some shrubsand trees nearby. Often use agri-culture areas for feeding.


Food: Waste grain fromcropland and a variety of grassand forb seeds.

• Do not till in fall after har-vest of small grain crops. Leavewaste grain available.

• Leave some areas of smallgrains (wheat, barley, millet,milo, or oats) unharvested.

• Plant annual food plots inareas lacking grain.


• Brush chop, chain, orroller beat small areas (40 acresmaximum, 10 to 20 acres pre-ferred) in large expanses ofstage 4 vegetation.

• Clear-cut or selective cutsmall areas (40 acres maximum,10 to 20 acres preferred) in largeareas of stage 5 and 6 woodland.

• Control burn small areas(40 acres maximum, 10 to 20acres preferred) in large areas ofstage 5 and 6 woodland.

• Control burn small areas(40 acres maximum, 10 to 20acres preferred) in large areas ofstage 4 and 5 of plant succes-sion.

• Use livestock grazing tokeep some areas in stage 2 and3 vegetation.

• Disk small areas in largeexpanses of stage 2 and 3 to en-courage annual forbs and grass-es.

• Lime fields as neededwhen determined necessary bysoil tests.

Cover: Prefer tall shrubs andtrees for nesting and loafing.Nest is made of twigs placed onbranches of shrub or tree. Nestsare also placed on ground.

• Plant shrubs and trees inlarge areas of stage 2 and 3 ofplant succession, or in agricultur-al areas having few trees orshrubs. Plant on field borders,along fence rows, or any otheridle land area.

• Mourning doves often con-struct loose, flimsy nests. Highwinds and rainstorms often de-stroy many of them. To providesecure nesting sites, wire conenesting structures can be placedwhere tree limbs fork 6 to 15feet above the ground. Thispractice is most useful in regionswhere high winds and large,open areas are common.

Water: Require water daily.Prefer shorelines and bankswithout vegetation.

• Where water is limited orabsent, develop water sources(such as catchment ponds, guz-zlers, windmills, and spring de-velopments).

• Remove trees near dam.• Repair spillway.• Stop pond leaks.

Northern BobwhiteGeneral Habitat Pref-

erence: Stages 2, 3, and 4 ofplant succession interspersed.Ideally, habitat components aremade up of one quarter grass-land, one half cropland, oneeighth shrub cover, and oneeighth woodland.


Food: Young quail eat in-sects. Adult quail eat a variety ofseeds, green vegetation (mostlyforbs), insects, and small grain.

• Plant 1⁄8 to 1⁄4 acre annualfood plots in areas with too littlecropland. One plot per 15 acresmaximum.

• Leave some grain unhar-vested.

• Plant 1⁄8 to 1⁄4 acre peren-nial food plots in areas with toolittle permanent food and cover.Again, 1 plot per 15 acres maxi-mum.

• Clear-cut small areas(small, 10-acre patches or strips)in large expanses of stage 5 and6 woodland.

• Selective-cut stage 6 wood-lands.

• Brush chop, chain, rootplow, or roller beat small areas(10 acres or less) in large ex-panses of stage 4 vegetation.

• Control (prescribe) burnsmall areas (10 acres or less) inlarge expanses of stage 3 and 4vegetation. Annual burning instage 5 and 6 woodlands is alsobeneficial.

• Disk small areas in largeexpanses of stage 3 and 4 to en-

courage annual forbs and grass-es used by bobwhite.

• Livestock grazing shouldavoid using planted food plots.Ample amount of herbaceousvegetation used for food byquail should be left in appropri-ate areas. This is especially im-portant in riparian areas.Livestock grazing also can beused to revert or maintain vege-tative succession in stages 2 and3 vegetation.


• Do not till in fall after har-vest of small grain crops. Leavewaste grain available.

Cover: Thick shrubs for hid-ing and roosting cover.

• Plant shrubs in areaswhere cover is scarce.

• Construct brush piles.• Manage livestock grazing

to maintain dense shrub andherbaceous cover. Again this isimportant in riparian areas.

Water: Require water regu-larly in warm seasons.

• In the Woodland and por-tions of the Prairie BrushlandRegions where available water islimited or absent, developmentof water sources is desirable(such as ponds, dugouts, guz-zlers, windmills, and spring de-velopments).

Wild TurkeyGeneral Habitat Pref-

erence: One-half to three-quar-ters of range in stages 5 and 6 ofplant succession interspersedwith areas in stages 3 and 4 ofplant succession.


Food: Forage mostly on theground for herbaceous plantseeds, nuts, acorns, and insects.Will use waste grain from crop-lands if adjacent to woodlands.


• Brush chop or disk smallareas to maintain some stage 3or 4 vegetation.

• Control (prescribed) burnevery 3 to 5 years in stage 4 and5 vegetation in eastern andsouthern United States.

• Clear-cut small areas (40acres maximum, 10 to 20 acrespreferred) in large expanses ofstage 5 and 6 woodland.

• Selected-cut forests inlarge areas of stage 6 woodland.

• Plant several perennial foodplots and small (1 to 10 acre)fields to grasses and legumes inlarge expanses of stages 4, 5, or 6vegetation and in any other areaswhere food is limited.

• Plant mast trees.• Eliminate fall tillage of

grain crops, especially adjacentto woodlands.

• Leave small areas of graincrops unharvested.

• Plant annual food plotsnear woodlands.

• Livestock grazing manage-ment should leave some forbsand grasses available for food.This is especially important in ri-parian areas and may includethe development of livestockwatering facilities on adjacentuplands to discourage congrega-tion in and overuse of theseareas.


Cover: Nest is shallow de-pression on ground lined withleaves and grass that is well con-cealed in thick shrubs or wood-lands. Usually nest within 1⁄4mile of available water. Roost intrees or tall shrubs at night.

• In some areas will use arti-ficial roost structures.

• Maintain a significant com-ponent of vegetation in stages 5and 6 of succession, especiallynear streams.

• Plant trees and shrubswhere cover is sparse.

• Livestock grazing manage-ment should leave thick herba-ceous cover for nesting. Springgrazing can be detrimental tonesting habitat, especially in ri-parian areas.

Water: Require water fre-quently. In Alabama, the avail-ability of water is usually notconsidered a limiting factor towild turkey populations. Turkeysmay acquire water from succu-lent vegetation, fruits, insects, orfree-standing water.

Wood DuckGeneral Habitat Pref-

erence: Stage 5 woodlandsflooded with water, open wateradjacent to stage 5 and 6 wood-lands, or wetlands dominated bytrees.


Food: Fruits and nuts ofwoody plants, some grains,seeds of water lily and otheraquatic plants, and some insects.Insects are used by young woodducks.

• During late fall and win-ter, temporarily flood stage 5 de-ciduous woodland with masttrees, such as oak, and graincrops. Natural flooding mayoccur, or small dikes and watercontrol structures may be used.

• Leave small areas of crop-land that are near wetlands andopen water unharvested.

• Plant mast trees adjacentto wetlands or in areas that canbe temporarily flooded.

• Selective cutting of wood-lands that can be flooded is de-sirable to improve mast produc-tion.

• Construct ponds and/orwetlands and provide shallowwater areas where aquatic emer-gent vegetation can grow.

• Manage livestock grazingto maintain thick herbaceousvegetation surrounding pondand in watershed that drains into

pond. Develop livestock water-ing facilities away from pond orallow access to only a small areaof pond.

Cover: Nest in cavities intrees of flooded woodlands oradjacent to water. Use wetlandswith an abundance of aquaticvegetation to raise young.

• Nest boxes can be provid-ed if adequate nest sites are lim-ited.

• Plant trees for future nest-ing sites.

• Construct ponds and wet-lands. Provide shallow waterareas where aquatic emergentvegetation can grow.

• Control water level to pro-vide open shallow water areasadjacent to areas dominated byemergent aquatic vegetation.

• Remove trees near dam.• Repair spillway.• Stop leaks in ponds.Water: Require water as de-

scribed above.

Eastern CottontailGeneral Habitat Pref-

erence: Stages 3 and 4 of plantsuccession. Ideally, habitat com-ponents made up of one-thirdgrassland, one-third cropland,and one-third shrub cover all in-terspersed together. Also useparks, golf courses, and streamcorridors in urban areas.


Food: A variety of forbs andgrasses are eaten from springthrough fall. In winter often eatbark of shrubs and trees.

• Plant 1⁄8 to 1⁄4 acre annualfood crops (grain sorghum isgood) in areas with too littlecropland. One plot per 15 acresmaximum.

• Plant 1⁄8 to 1⁄4 acre peren-nial food crops (grass andclover) in areas with too littlegrassland. Again, 1 plot per 15acres maximum.


• Brush chopping, chaining,roller beating and controlled(prescribed) burns can be usedto maintain or rejuvenate smallareas of stage 3 and 4 vegetation.

• Clear-cut or selective cutsmall areas (10 acres maximum)in large expanses of stage 5 and6 woodlands.

• Livestock grazing manage-ment should avoid use of foodand cover plots, and leave ampleamounts of herbaceous vegeta-tion in other areas used by cot-tontails for food and cover.


Cover: Use thick shrub orherbaceous vegetation for hidingand resting cover.

• Plant shrubs in large areasof stage 2 and 3 of plant succes-sion, or in agricultural areas hav-ing few trees or shrubs. Plantalong field borders, fence rows,or other idle land areas. This isalso appropriate for open areasin urban settings.

• Provide brush piles whereadditional cover is needed. Inurban areas this practice may notbe compatible with thelandowners landscaping goals.

Water: Obtain necessarywater from diet.

Eastern Gray SquirrelGeneral Habitat Preference:

Deciduous woodlands in stages 5and 6 of plant succession.


Food: Spend much time for-aging on the ground. Feed on avariety of nuts, grains, acorns,seeds, mushrooms, and buds.

• Leave some grain unhar-vested (corn preferred) and/oreliminate fall tillage of croplandsadjacent to stage 5 and 6 vegeta-tion.

• Selective-cut timber man-agement in large expanses ofstage 5 and 6 woodlands. Leave

three to four den trees and sev-eral other mature trees per acre.

• Plant mast-producing treesalong fence rows, adjacent tostreams, or in other idle landareas. When possible, locateplantings adjacent to existingcroplands.

• Livestock grazing shouldbe managed to maintain ade-quate forage on forest floor.Maintain deciduous tree corri-dors along streams.

• Plant trees and shrubs inravines, along field borders, andin other idle land areas.

Cover: Nest in cavities intrees or build nests out of twigsand leaves. Usually place nest inthe crotch of a tree over 30 feetabove the ground. In areaswhere den sites are scarce, willuse nest boxes.

• Need three to four dentrees or suitable nest boxes peracre. Nest boxes are most bene-ficial in stage 5 woodlands.

Water: In warm seasons re-quire water daily.

White-tailed DeerGeneral Habitat Pref-

erence: Stages 3, 4, and 5 ofplant succession all interspersedtogether.


Food: A variety of shrubs,forbs, grasses, and waste grain.Acorns and nuts are favorite foods.

• Clear-cut small areas (40acres maximum, 10 to 20 acrespreferred) in large expanses ofstage 5 and 6 woodlands.

• Selective-cut timber man-agement of stage 5 and 6 wood-lands.

• Plant several 1-acre peren-nial food plots of grass andclover in large expanses of stage5 and 6 woodland.

• Plant annual food plots tograin.

• Plant mast trees.

• Leave small areas of crop-land adjacent to woodlands un-harvested.

• Eliminate fall tillage ofgrain crop residue adjacent towoodlands.

• Plant fields of grasses andlegumes in large expanses ofstage 4, 5, and 6 vegetation.

Controlled burn at three-year intervals in stage 5 pinewoodlands or periodically instage 3 and 4 vegetation.

• Brush chop small areas tomaintain stage 3 and 4 vegetation.

• Manage livestock grazingto leave some forbs, grasses,shrubs, and trees available forfood and cover. May include thedevelopment of livestock water-ing facilities in upland areas todiscourage congregation of live-stock and overuse in riparianareas.


Cover: Use woodlands andtall shrubs for hiding and travelcover.

• Plant trees and shrubs inravines, along field borders, andin other idle land areas.

Water: Drink water when itis available, but can go for longperiods without it.

ButterfliesGeneral Habitat Pref-

erence: In urban areas arefound in gardens, yards, andparks planted with shrubs andflowers that attract butterflies.Often lay eggs on a specific kindof plant.


Food: Usually drink sweet liq-uids such as nectar from flowers.

• Plant and maintain bushesand flowers that attract butterflies.Some examples are aster, verbe-na, zinnia, marigold, lilac, bushcinquefolia, and butterfly plant.


• Plant and maintain specifictypes of plants for butterflies tolay eggs on. Some examples arechokecherry and cottonwood fortiger swallowtails; dill, parsley,and carrot for black swallowtail;hollyhock and sunflower forpainted lady; and clover forclouded sulfur butterflies.

Cover: Need shelter fromwind. Plant the above areas shel-tered from the wind.

Water: Some butterflies canbe seen collecting water onmoist sand or mud around waterpuddles.

• Provide an area with waterpuddles to attract groups ofthese butterflies.

FrogsGeneral Habitat Pref-

erence: Weeds and aquatic veg-etation on the edges of ponds,lakes, and slow-moving streams.Mud bottoms are needed sofrogs can bury themselves for hi-bernation during the winter.


Food: Insects.Cover: Thick herbaceous

vegetation on bank or shore ad-jacent to water. Also hide amongfloating vegetation in the waternext to shore.

• Construct ponds and wet-lands. Both shallow water, to en-courage emergent aquatic vege-tation, and deep water, forhibernation, are desired. Smallbackyard pools are often ade-quate.

• Control water levels withwater control devices to insureadequate water depth for hiber-nation. Also useful for encourag-ing emergent aquatic vegetation.

Water: Need water to hide.Many kinds of frogs will dry upand die if their skin is not keptmoist.

Largemouth Bass/BluegillGeneral Habitat Pref-

erence: Ponds, lakes, and slow-moving rivers.


Food: Young bass eat insectsand other invertebrates (worms,crayfish, and zooplankton).These invertebrates depend onphytoplankton for food. Adultbass eat other small fish such asbluegill and a variety of min-nows, tadpoles, and crayfish.Bluegill eat a variety of insects,zooplankton (microscopic ani-mal life), tadpoles, small min-nows, and crayfish.

• Construct ponds. Maintaina green color in pond water(green enough that a white diskcannot be seen 24 inches deep).The color is caused by phyto-plankton (microscopic plantlife—algae).

• In clear water, fertilizermay be added to increase phyto-plankton. A bass-to-bluegill ratioof 3 to 6 pounds of bluegill to 1pound of bass is considered agood fish population balance.

• Determine pond balanceusing a minnow seine.

• Harvest more or fewerbluegill depending on seinesample results.

• Harvest more or fewer bass.• Remove existing fish and

restock pond.• Prevent or clear up muddy

water (brown or gray color).Muddy water blocks sunlightneeded in producing phyto-plankton.

• Manage livestock grazingto maintain thick herbaceousvegetation surrounding pondand in watershed that drains intopond. Develop livestock water-ing facilities away from pond orallow access to only a small areaof pond.

• Reseed watershed.

Cover: Are often found nearsubmerged rocks, shrubs, andnear aquatic vegetation wheresmall fish (used for food) hide.

• Artificial reefs constructedof rock piles, sections of plasticor cement pipe (a minimum of 6inches in diameter and 18 incheslong), and brush piles and tires(sunk with weight) can be usedfor additional cover. These prac-tices are recommended forponds larger than 10 surfaceacres in size.

• Aquatic vegetation can be-come too abundant (more than30 percent of water surface cov-ered). Deepening the pondedges to 2 feet deep or morediscourages rooted aquatic vege-tation growth.

Water: Require an adequatequantity and quality of water.Basic requirements are (1) dis-solved oxygen—minimum of 5parts per million (ppm), (2) car-bon dioxide—should not exceed20 ppm, (3) pH should rangebetween 7.0 and 9.0, and (4)water temperature should reachat least 70 degrees Fahrenheitsometime during the summer (1foot below surface in shade).

• Test the water to see if itmeets requirements.

• Aerate pond to increaseoxygen and decrease carbondioxide.

• Stop pond leaks if andwhen they occur.

• Repair spillway if needed.• Diversion ditches can be

used to ensure an adequatewater supply.

• Remove trees from dike ordam portion of pond.

• Lime ponds (agriculturallimestone) to increase pH ifbelow 7.0.

• Install water control struc-tures to allow manipulation ofwater level.


Wildlife Management Practices (WMPs) And Their Effects On Habitat

Effect On Habitat:

• Helps keep vegetative suc-cession in stage 2.

• Helps keep vegetative suc-cession in stage 3.

• Sometimes reverts succes-sion from stage 4 to stage 3.Helps remove competition withsome kinds of shrubs allowinggrasses and forbs to grow better.

• Sometimes helps keepvegetative succession in stage 4.Maintains low shrub growth withsome kinds of shrubs by encour-aging resprouting.

• In stages 2, 3, and 4, helpsrejuvenate grasses, forbs, andshrubs which improves qualityof future nesting sites.

• In stages 5 and 6, main-tains dense low understory inproperly thinned woodlands.

• In grass-clover plots, helpskeep vegetation low enough foruse by some wildlife speciessuch as doves and turkeys.

• In wetlands can be used toincrease interspersion by reduc-ing vegetative cover.

3. Brush PilesGeneral Description: Brush

piles can be made from saplingsor tree branches available fromland clearing, timber harvest op-erations, tree pruning, etc. Forbest results, piles should be 3 to5 feet high 15 feet in diameterand very loose. This will allowgrass and forbs to grow in them,creating more food and cover forwildlife. Brush piles can be usedin ponds to provide hidingplaces for small fish, and to givestructure on which fish concen-trate.

Effect On Habitat:

• Particularly useful for rab-bits and quail in areas with littlecover, especially in areas withplenty of food and little coversuch as corn, soybean, grainsorghum, and small grain fields.

• Useful at the edge be-tween fields and woodlands.

4. Controlled (Prescribed)

BurningGeneral Description:

Burning should be done undercool, moist, low-wind conditions,when danger of wildfire is low.Burn as early in the spring (be-fore April 1 if possible) as condi-tions permit, so ground nestingwildlife are not disturbed. Doonly under close supervision ofwildlife, forestry, and/or rangeprofessionals that have experi-ence with controlled burns.

Results vary with the type ofvegetation being burned, burn-ing conditions, and the frequen-cy of burning.

Some general effects of fireare:

• Some understory shrubssprout.

• Some shrubs are reducedwhich improves the vigor andquality of forbs and grasses.

• Releases nutrients in soil.• Reduces excessive dead

vegetation (leaves, old grass,etc.) so seed can reach mineralsoil.

• Scarifies (breaks downoutside coating) some seeds sothey can germinate.

• Rejuvenates grass andherbaceous vegetation makingarea more productive.

Effect On Habitat:

Annual Burning:• Stage 2 helps keep vegeta-

tive succession in stage 2.• Stage 3 helps keep vegeta-

tive succession in stage 3.

In this section, various prac-tices used to manage habitat aredescribed in further detail. Thedescriptions are brief and gener-al and are not meant to be com-prehensive. Additional reading,research, and guidance fromwildlife management profession-als is suggested.

Some of the practices mayseem contradictory. For exam-ple, deepening edges of pondsdiscourages the growth of emer-gent aquatic vegetation whileproviding shallow water encour-ages growth. Landowner objec-tives will determine which prac-tices you recommend.

At times the best habitatmanagement is maintaining anarea in its current condition. Thiscan include protecting the areafrom development and applyingvarious management practiceswhich will help maintain thearea in the desired condition.

1. Artificial FeedersGeneral Description: Used

primarily to feed wildlife inurban areas. A wide variety offeeder designs, methods, anddifferent foods exist. Sunflowerseeds and white proso millet areuniversal favorites. Some speciesprefer to eat fat rather thanseeds. Some prefer to eat on theground rather than in a tree oron a balcony.

2. Brush Chopping(Mowing)

General Description: In-volves mowing dense vegetation(including fairly large shrubs)with a large rotary mowermounted behind a tractor.


• Stage 4 causes successionto revert to stage 3.

• Stage 5, in pines, keepsunderstory shrubs thinned outand stimulates grassy-weedy un-dergrowth if stands are properlythinned.

• Stage 6 is the same asstage 5.

3- to 5-Year IntervalBurning:

• Stage 2 allows successionto progress, but more slowlythan if left alone.

• Stage 3 usually keeps veg-etative succession in stage 3.

• Rejuvenates grass andgrass-like vegetation in stage 3and 4 wetlands.

• Periodic burning of vege-tation-choked wetlands can im-prove the water and cover inter-spersion.

• Stage 4 makes shrubgrowth more dense due to abun-dant sprouting of shrubs.

• Stage 5, in pines, stimu-lates thicker understory shrubs ifstands are properly thinned.

• Stage 6 is the same asstage 5.

5. DiskingGeneral Description: Areas

in successional stages 2, 3, and 4can be disked to promote thegrowth of annual and perennialforbs and grasses.

Effect On Habitat:

• Keeps vegetative succes-sion in stage 2.

• Promotes the growth ofannual forbs that some wildlifeprefer for food and cover.

• In stage 3, causes succes-sion to revert to stage 2.

• In stage 4, causes succes-sion to revert to stages 2 or 3.

• Can be used to decreasevegetative cover and increase in-terspersion in wetlands (duringdry periods).

6. Grain, LeaveUnharvested

General Description: Stripsor blocks of grain crops (1⁄8 to 1⁄4acre is usually sufficient) can beleft unharvested. Especially valu-able if left adjacent to herba-ceous, shrub, or tree cover.

Effect On Habitat:

• Provides a food source formany species of wildlife.

7. Harvest LessBass: Needed when seine

samples and fishing records ofpond reveal these situations:

• No recent bluegill hatch.• Many medium-sized

bluegill in poor condition.• Bass few, large, and in

good condition.Bluegill: Needed when

seine sample and fishing recordsof pond reveal these situations:

• Many recently hatchedbluegill.

• Very few medium-sizedbluegill.

• Bass less than one poundin poor condition.

• No young bass.

Game Birds And Mammals:

• Needed when there is ahigh proportion of young ani-mals in the bag and hunting suc-cess is low.

8. Harvest MoreBass: Needed when seine

sample and fishing records ofpond reveal these situations.

• Many recently hatchedbluegill.

• Very few medium-sizedbluegill.

• Bass less than one poundin poor condition.

• No young bass.

• Increase bass harvest cau-tiously. Spread the harvest overthe entire summer.

Bluegill: Needed whenseine sample and fishing recordsof pond reveal these situations:

• No recent bluegill hatch.• Many medium-sized

bluegill in poor condition.• Bass few, large, and in

good condition.Game Birds And

Mammals: Needed when ani-mals show signs of overpopula-tion such as:

• Disease.• Destruction of habitat by

crowded animals.• Poor body condition.• Excessive fighting.• Few young animals in bag.• Higher percentage of older

animals than young in fall popu-lation (indicates poor reproduc-tion due to inadequate nutrition;thinning population will leavemore food to go around).

9. Lime Ponds And FieldsGeneral Description: When

water quality tests show the pHis below 7.0 it should be adjust-ed to 7 and 8 by using agricul-tural lime. Lime can also beadded to food plots when soiltests recommend.

10. Livestock GrazingManagement

General Description: Apractice for managing the use ofvegetation by livestock. Can beused to manipulate successionalstages to benefit wildlife (i.e.maintain open areas in wood-lands). This practice also in-cludes livestock exclusion whennecessary.

General Principles:

Proper Grazing Use: Onnative rangelands and riparianareas, do not graze more than 50


percent of the yearly growth ofvegetation preferred by live-stock.

Timing: Avoid grazing areasduring periods when wildlifeand/or vegetation is vulnerableto damage. Examples—Grazingriparian areas in the summer candamage young shrubs and trees;grazing in spring can reducecover needed by ground-nestingwildlife.

Intensity: Relates to howmany livestock are on a givenarea at any one time. Many live-stock on an area is high intensi-ty, few livestock is low intensity.

High intensity grazing shouldbe for shorter periods of time orall the vegetation will be used.

High intensity grazing in-creases the chance that groundnests will be trampled, andshould not be used in importantnesting areas during the nestingseason.

Rotation: Livestock shouldbe moved from an area beforevegetation is over-used. The veg-etation is allowed to recuperate(rest) before it is grazed again.

Tools: Fencing, water devel-opments, salting, and herdingare the most common methodsused to control livestock grazing.Whenever livestock grazingmanagement is recommended, itis implied that the necessarytools will be available. Some in-formation on these tools follows.

Fencing: Useful to protectfood plots, ponds, woodlands,or other natural vegetation areasfrom livestock. Often necessaryfor managing livestock grazing(such as rotating areas beinggrazed, controlling access towater, etc.)

Fences interfere with move-ment of wildlife, especially largeanimals such as deer. Theyshould be recommended onlywhen necessary and designed toallow movement of wildlife.

The top wire should be amaximum of 42 inches abovethe ground (allows some wildlifeto jump over) and the bottomwire should be smooth and aminimum of 16 inches above theground (allows some wildlife togo under).

Water Developments: Canbe used to distribute livestockgrazing in semi-arid and arid re-gions of the United States. Themore watering places available,the less likely livestock will con-centrate in one area, and themore flexibility one has in man-aging livestock. Alternative watersources are often essential whendeveloping grazing systems thatpermit occasional rest of impor-tant areas (i.e. riparian areas)during critical growing seasons.Catchment ponds, dugouts,windmills, and spring develop-ments are also used to developwater for livestock.

Salting: Locating saltingareas away from watering placesand occasionally moving loca-tions can be used to encourageuniform distribution of livestock.

Herding: Using horsebackor other means to move animalsis useful for achieving properdistribution of grazing animals.Used to discourage congregationof animals in attractive areas forlong periods of time.

Effect On Habitat:

• Used to insure livestockgrazing does not over-utilizevegetation which is also used bywildlife.

• If properly managed, live-stock grazing is usually notharmful to wildlife habitat and insome instances, is used to im-prove wildlife habitat.

• Changes in grazing man-agement are recommended onlywhen it is evident that livestockuse is damaging wildlife habitator is needed to improve thehabitat for selected wildlifespecies.

• Periodic grazing of vegeta-tion (cattail) choked wetlandscan improve water and vegeta-tion interspersion.

11. Nesting Boxes/Structures/Platforms

General Description: Theparticular design and placementof nesting structures and boxesoften determines which wildlifespecies will use the structure.

Boxes: Some specificspecies have to nest in cavitiesthat they don’t excavate them-selves. If natural cavities are notavailable, artificial cavities (nestboxes) can be used.

Each species needs a certainkind of cavity (diameter of hole,depth, area, etc.) in a certain lo-cation (field, woods, water, etc.)and at a certain height (4 feet to20 feet high).

Platform: Species such asthe red-tailed hawk build nestsin large trees or other structuresabove the ground. If nestingsites are scarce, artificial plat-forms placed on poles above theground may be used.

Structures: In wetlandsdominated by open water andlacking islands or peninsulas,floating nest structures are oftenused by Canada geese and mal-lards.

Effect On Habitat:

• In wooded areas: Boxesare especially useful in wood-lands in stage 5 succession, orwhere trees are not old enoughto provide cavities.

• In Open Areas (Stages 2,3, and 4): Always useful unlessan abundance of nesting cavitiesor locations already exist, suchas hollow fence posts, isolatedden or nesting trees, etc.

• In Wetlands: Provides se-cure nesting sites in areas lack-ing islands, peninsulas, or tall,dense vegetation.


12. Plant Food Plots(1⁄8 to 2 Acres)

General Description: Stripscan be long and narrow (300 to400 feet long and 15 to 20 feetwide) or square blocks andpreferably located at the edge be-tween two or more kinds of habi-tat (such as between woodlandand hayfield). Best if located nextto natural cover such as shrubs,etc. Should be planted prior toJune 1 (except for grass-clovermixture) to ensure maturity.

Where possible plots shouldbe square (1 acre minimum) lo-cated near cover on the down-wind side. Plots should be locat-ed such that nearby shrub andtree cover does not encouragesnow to drift into them. Must beprotected from livestock.

Effect On Habitat:

• Annual Food Plots -Usually Grains: Useful in areasof natural plant successionwhere row-cropping (corn, soy-beans, grain sorghum, smallgrains, etc.) is scarce. One small(1⁄8 to 1⁄4) acre plot per 15 acresor large (1 to 2 acres) plot per60 acres.

• Provides food for manyspecies of wildlife.

• Perennials—usuallyGrasses and Clover or OtherForbs—useful in areas of row-crop farming (corn, soybeans,grain sorghum, small grains, etc.)especially where shrub field bor-ders are scarce. Useful in mostareas with absence of stage suc-cession.

• Provides both food andcover for many species ofwildlife.

13. Plant Grass AndLegumes

General Description: Plantlarge fields of grasses andlegumes. Field size between 2and 40 acres.

Effect On Habitat:

• Smaller fields are usefulfor wildlife in wooded areaswith little acreage in stages 2and 3.

• Larger fields are useful inareas with little acreage in hay-fields, pastures, or small grainsthat are used by some wildlifespecies for winter survival, nest-ing, or roosting cover.

• These fields will be usedfor food as well as cover bymany species.

• To increase the value forwildlife, these plantings shouldbe grazed, burned, or mowedoccasionally (once every 3 to 5years) to prevent deterioration ofthe vegetation.

14. Plant Mast TreesGeneral Description: Mast

means seed or fruit which pro-vides food for wildlife. For thepurpose of this handbook, masttrees are defined as those treeswhich produce an annual cropof acorns or other nuts. Masttrees such as sawtooth oak pro-duce an abundance of mast andthey may be a desirable supple-ment to plant for wildlife. Plantmast trees in early spring whenthey are still dormant.

Effect On Habitat:

• Especially useful for deer,squirrels, turkeys, and woodducks in areas with little avail-able mast, such as large expans-es of farmland, pine woodland,field borders, urban areas, etc.

15. Plant Trees Or ShrubsGeneral Description: When

properly located, shrubs andtrees can benefit many speciesof wildlife.

Fruiting shrubs and smallevergreen trees are especiallygood food for urban areas,fencerows, hedgerows, odd-areas, property boundary mark-

ers, and other idle land planti-ngs. It may also be desirable toplant large trees and willows insome areas.

In dry regions, irrigation orwater harvesting is often neededto grow shrubs and trees.

In large open areas, multi-row plantings of at least 15 rowsof trees and shrubs are benefi-cial, especially if planted adja-cent to tall herbaceous cover ora good food source. It is best toplant shrubs and trees in theearly spring when they are stilldormant.

Effect On Habitat:

• Useful along fences inareas where field borders (suchas fencerows) are scarce.

• They are especially usefulto make travel lanes for wildlifeto move safely across openfields between two areas ofcover.

• Also useful along theedges between fields and wood-lands, around farm homesteads,and urban areas.

• Can be a valuable practiceused to restore and improve ri-parian areas.

16. Ponds/Lakes—Artificial Reefs

General Description: Largerocks can be piled together;brush (used Christmas trees aregood) or tires, weighted downand submerged can providecover for fish.

This practice is recommend-ed for ponds or lakes that arelarger than 10 acres. In smallerbodies of water artificial reefsmay allow prey fish (bluegill,etc.) to be overly successful atavoiding predators. This can leadto an overabundance of prey fishthat are in poor condition.


17. Ponds—Clear MuddyWater

General Description: Youcan clear muddy water in any ofthese ways:

Broadcast agricultural lime-stone on the pond surface at therate of 500 to 1,000 pounds persurface acre.

Dissolve aluminum potassi-um sulfate (commercial alumcrystals) in water and spread onthe entire surface at the rate of 5to 15 pounds per acre-foot ofwater.

Broadcast cottonseed mealon the pond surface at the rateof 100 pounds per acre.

Broadcast agricultural gyp-sum on the pond surface at therate of 12 to 25 pounds per 1000cubic feet of water (500 to 1,000pounds per acre-foot of water).

Effect On Habitat:

• Removes/settles silt in thewater, allowing sunlight to pro-duce phytoplankton.

• This activates the first stepin the pond food chain.

• At the same time, any ero-sion of the watershed (whichmay have caused the muddywater) must be stopped.

• Common carp may also bethe cause of muddy water.Poisoning or drainage may benecessary for pond rehabilita-tion.

18. Pond ConstructionGeneral Description: This

practice should be recommend-ed for creating new ponds andwetlands with permanent water.

Dams and dikes or leveescan be used in natural drainagesto create ponds and wetlandswith permanent water for use byfish and wildlife.

The design varies, depend-ing on the purpose for construct-ing the pond and the region it is

constructed. For example, steepsloping sides benefit fish andgentle sloping banks benefit wa-terfowl.

19. Small Dikes ForTemporary Flooding

General Description: Onlyrecommend this practice in exist-ing wetlands or potential water-fowl feeding and nesting areaswhen appropriate.

Small dikes are used to tem-porarily flood (usually in the fall)feeding and nesting areas forwaterfowl. Grain fields, Japanesemillet fields, and stage 5 and 6hardwood woodlands are exam-ples of feeding areas flooded toattract waterfowl. When thispractice is recommended it isimplied that adequate water con-trol structures will be includedand should not be an additionalrecommendation.

20. Ponds—Deepen EdgesGeneral Description:

Usually used to improve pondsfor fish. To deepen pond edges,draw the water down, let banksdry out, and use a tractor withblade.

Edges should be deepenedto a minimum of 2 to 3 feet withsteep side slopes.

Soil removed from the edgecan be piled around the bankand then smoothed out andplanted to grass and legumes.

Effect On Habitat:

• Needed to reduce rootedaquatic vegetation around theedge of a pond.

21. Ponds—DetermineBalance

General Description: Popu-lation balance is first establishedin a farm fish pond by stockingthe correct numbers of fish. Afterthe first year, check fish pond

balance during the summermonths by using a 1⁄8-inch meshminnow seine 15 feet long and 3feet deep. Seine at intervalsaround the pond by anchoringone end at the bank. pulling theseine straight from the bank toits full length, and then sweep-ing in an arc back to the bank.Four to five sweeps in an aver-age pond is usually enough.

Balance is determined bycomparing age groups, condi-tion, and numbers of bass andbluegill caught in the seine.Recent reproduction of bothbass and bluegill in the seine in-dicate that the fish population isbalanced.

Unwanted species (bull-heads, crappie, etc.) May also becaught in the seign indicatedthat the pond needs to be poi-soned or drained.

22. Ponds—DiversionDitches

General Description: Di-version ditches should be con-structed so that a small amountof water enters the pond andexits the spillway. The bulk ofwater is diverted around thepond through the diversionditch. In extremely dry regions,diversion ditches can be used tobring extra water to the pondduring rains.

Effect On Habitat:

• Needed for ponds with toomuch water flowing throughthem. Too much water dilutesand wastes fertilizer, and re-quires expensive water controlstructures for managing thewater flow.

• Used to protect pondsfrom flood waters.

• In dry regions these areused to fill ponds that have inad-equate watersheds.


23. Ponds—FertilizeGeneral Description: Well-

fertilized ponds can produce upto three times as many poundsof fish as unfertilized ponds.Ponds should NOT be fertilizedif they have an aquatic weedprogram.

Start fertilizing fish ponds inthe spring when the water tem-perature is above 60 degreesFahrenheit. Apply at the rate of40 pounds of 20-20-5 (or itsequivalent) granular, one gallonof 10-36-0 liquid fertilizer peracre, or eight pounds of watersoluble powder per acre at two-week intervals, or until a goodgreen color (phytoplanktonbloom) develops in the pond.Place the granular fertilizer in anunderwater platform in waterless than 2 feet deep. Make addi-tional applications of fertilizer (atthe same rate per surface acre)every 3 to 4 weeks, or when thewater clears (become less green)so that you can see deeper than24 inches into the water.Continue this program untilwater temperatures drop below60 degrees Fahrenheit in the fall.

If a pond does not develop agreen bloom after several fertil-izations, then it probably is acidicand needs to be limed. Limebased on soil tests on pond mud.

If a pond has been properlyfertilized for the past 5 years andif there is no concentration ofweeds, future fertilizations canbe done using phosphate only.The rate is 10 pounds of super-phosphate per acre per applica-tion. Make the first 3 applica-tions 2 weeks apart, and at 3 to4 week intervals thereafter.Granular fertilizer must be dis-tributed from a fertilizer plat-form. Liquid fertilizer should bemixed with pond water andbroadcast from a boat for largeponds or from the bank of smallponds. Water soluble powderedfertilizers can be broadcast froma boat or from the bank.

Effect On Habitat:

• Needed in fish ponds withwater clear enough so that awhite object can be seen at 24inches deep.

• Fertilizer in ponds stimu-lates phytoplankton production,which is the first step in the foodchain of a balanced fish pond.

24. Ponds—Remove TreesNear Dam

General Description: Rootsof trees growing on the dam willloosen the compacted soil andcause leaks. This practice isneeded anytime trees occur onthe dam or when trees occuraround more than one-third ofthe remaining pond bank. It alsoimproves the pond’s capabilityto hold water, and cleans pondbanks for use by doves.

Effect On Habitat:

• Trees growing around thepond will reduce the water level.

• Some species (such asdoves) prefer clean banks forwatering.

• Some nearby trees are de-sirable for many wildlife species,but need not occupy more thanone-third of the pond bank.

25. Ponds—Repair SpillwayGeneral Description:

Needed if spillway in existingdam or dike is eroding or other-wise damaged, keeping the pondwater level too low and increas-ing the chance of the dam wash-ing away during heavy rains.

26. Ponds—ReseedWatershed/Filter Strips

Effect On Habitat:

• One method of reducingerosion in the watershed.

• Reduces silt entering thepond water and allows sunlightto promote phytoplankton.

• Improves water qualityand provides nesting, broodingand winter cover for somewildlife.

27. Ponds—RestockGeneral Description:

Restock only after all fish inpond are removed, either bydraining pond or applyingrotenone.

Rotenone kills fish by inter-fering with the fish’s ability touse oxygen in the water. It is ap-plied as a liquid or powder dur-ing early fall. Bluegill fingerlingsare then stocked in the late fall,and bass fingerlings are stockedthe following June. Presentstocking rates are 1000 bluegilland 100 bass per surface acre ifthe pond is to be fertilized, or500 bluegill and 50 bass per acreif the pond will not be fertilized.As many as 50 channel catfishfingerlings per acre may also bestocked at the same time as thebluegill.

Effect On Habitat:

• The techniques of drainingor rotenoning ponds allow un-balanced fish populations to beremoved and new ones startedwith an balanced ratio of bass tobluegill.

• Needed in ponds with: ex-tremely unbalanced fish popula-tions, an overabundance ofsmall, stunted bluegill, few ofusable size, presence of wild fishsuch as carp, shad, goldfish,suckers, crappie, green sunfish,or bullhead catfish.

28. Ponds—Stop LeaksGeneral Description: Leaks

in existing ponds may bestopped with:

Bentonite at 100 pounds per100 square feet.

Tetrasodium pyrophosphateat 2 tons per acre.

Soda ash at 5 tons per acre.


In severe cases, plastic linersmay be used (expensive).

Effect On Habitat:• Necessary in leaking

ponds with limited water supply.

29. Ponds/Wetlands—Provide Shallow Water/Islands/Peninsulas

General Description: Toincrease emergent aquatic vege-tation and/or provide islandsand peninsulas for wildlife. Thispractice can only be recom-mended for existing ponds andwetlands. Not recommended forareas with moving water such asrivers and streams.

Draw the water down, letthe area dry out, and use a trac-tor with a blade and front endloader. Soil can be gatheredfrom nearby sources orpond/wetland bottom used tobuild islands, peninsulas, andthe shallow water areas (lessthan 2 feet deep). Areas abovethe water line that are disturbedby this activity should besmoothed and planted to grassand legumes.

Effect On Habitat:

• Needed to increase nestingareas and emergent aquatic veg-etation.

30. Tillage—Eliminate InFall

General Description: Whentillage is necessary, inversiontillage (soil is turned over andcovers up crop residue) such asmold board or disc plowingshould be avoided. Tillage im-plements, such as chisel plowsand the rod weeders, can beused to do tillage operationswithout turning the soil over.

Effect On Habitat:

• Provides waste grain as afood source used by manyspecies of wildlife.

31. Timber Harvest—Clear-cut

General Description: Atype of timber managementwhere all trees are harvested atthe same time on a track of land.Different tracts are cut each yearand rotated over an area like acheckerboard.

In general, tracts should notbe over 40 acres in size, andoften tracts as small as 10 to 20acres are preferred. They shouldbe long and narrow with irregu-lar shapes. The increased sprout-ing of shrubs, grasses, and forbsthat result from sunlight reachingthe forest floor benefits severalwildlife species. Many wildlifespecies also prefer the edge be-tween forest and openings creat-ed by such cuts.

This practice can be harmfulto wildlife species that needwoodlands to supply all of theirwelfare requirements such asgray squirrels, woodpeckers, etc.But again, if harvested tracts arenot too large and there are suffi-cient amounts of surroundingforest, these species should re-main.

Effect On Habitat:

• Useful in large forestedareas with very little acreage instages 2, 3, and 4, of succession.Reverts stages 5 and 6 to 2, 3,and 4, with more emphasis onstage 4.

• At least 3 to 4 den and/orlarge mature trees per acreshould be left in areas protectedfrom wind which could toppletrees.

32. Timber Harvest—Selective Cut

General Description: Alsocalled “all-aged management.”Only selected trees are cut, afew at a time. Stands managedthis way have trees of all ages.

This benefits many differentspecies of wildlife. Animals pre-ferring stages 2, 3, and 4 of suc-cession benefit from the sprout-ing of shrubs, grasses and forbswhere individual trees were cut,yet mature trees are also presentfor species which prefer stages 5and 6.

Effect On Habitat:

• Stimulates shrub, grass,and forb understory productionin woodlands due to removal oflarge tree crowns which wouldotherwise cause shading.

• Also stimulates growth ofmast-producing and other sur-rounding trees.

• At least 3 to 4 den, oldmature, and large dead (snags)trees per acre should be main-tained.

33. Water ControlStructures

General Description:Various structures made out ofconcrete, pipe, wood, etc., areuseful to control the water levelin wetlands and ponds.

They usually are combinedwith dams and shallow dikes forwater control.

Recommend only when in-adequate structures are presenton an existing dam or dike.

Effect On Habitat:

• Allows management ofwater levels to increase or de-crease the amount of aquaticvegetation. Useful for creating adesirable mix (interspersion) ofopen water and aquatic vegeta-tion.

• Can be used to managethe quality of water in the pondsor wetlands and for control ofunwanted fish.

Jim Armstrong, Extension Wildlife Scientist, Associate Professor, Zoology andWildlife Science, Auburn University; Marisa Lee Sasser, former County ExtensionAgent, Escambia County; Michael P. Masser, former Extension Fisheries Specialist

For more information, call your county Extension office. Look in your tele-phone directory under your county’s name to find the number.Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work in agriculture and home economics, Acts of May 8 and June30, 1914, and other related acts, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The AlabamaCooperative Extension System (Alabama A&M University and Auburn University) offers educational programs,materials, and equal opportunity employment to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, religion,sex, age, veteran status, or disability. 5M, Reprinted Sept 2004, YANR-197

© 2004 by the Alabama Cooperative Extension System. All rights reserved.YANR-197

34. Water DevelopmentsFor Wildlife

General Description: Youcan provide drinking water forwildlife and livestock in theseways:

Guzzlers: Build by coveringan area with an apron of fiber-glass or some other material thatsheds rain. The water is collect-ed in a storage tank and slowlyreleased into a trough fromwhich wildlife can drink.

Dugouts: Large, earthencatchment basins (built withbulldozers, backhoes, ordraglines) are designed to collectwater for use by livestock andwildlife for drinking. They cancollect run-off water from pre-cipitation, or in areas with a highwater table, can be filled by

ground water. Side slopesshould be gentle to provide easyaccess to the water for wildlife.Are also often used by waterfowlfor resting and brood habitat.

Catchment Ponds: Earthendikes are constructed to retainwater (usually run-off waterfrom precipitation) in naturaldrainage areas. Placement of thedike is critical to avoid damageby floods, and also have theability to collect sufficient water.Also used by waterfowl for rest-ing and brood habitat.

Windmills: A well is drilledin the ground and the windmillis used to pump water out of theground and into a wateringtrough. The trough should bedesigned so wildlife can use itwithout danger of drowning.

Spring Developments:Water seeping out of the groundor near the ground surface iscollected in perforated pipe andput in a watering trough. Thispractice is feasible only in areasthat have springs.

Birdbaths and BackyardPonds: Small ponds can be con-structed in backyards and otherurban areas to provide water fora variety of wildlife. Birdbathsare also useful for providingwater in urban settings.


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ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES WildLife · WildLife YANR-197 ALABAMA A&M AND AUBURN UNIVERSITIES Management inAlabama ... Plant Succession Vegetation and water are the ... need