ALTERNATE FUELS FOR AUTOMOBILES BY M A QADEER

M A QADEER SIDDIQUI ALTERNATE FUELS FOR AUTOMOBILES

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BY

MD ABDUL QADEER SIDDIQUI [Bhaskar Engineering College, JNTU Hyderabad]


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ALTERNATE FUELS FOR AUTOMOBILES

Md Abdul Qadeer Siddiqui B-Tech (Automobile Engineering)

Bhaskar Engineering College (JNTU Hyderabad)


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Preface This book Alternate fuels for automobiles caters the need of JNTU-H specially. Each topic is explained in simple way to make student understand and comprehend the subject.

Alternate fuel for automobiles is the study of various different fuels being used for

automobiles. Various types of fuels other than petrol and diesel which are used in

automobiles are discussed with their properties, advantages and limitations in details.

Chapter 1 deals with the introduction to alternate fuels. The different types of fuels being

used for automobiles, what are the benefits using these fuels are discussed.

Chapter 2 deals with the CNG fuel in vehicles with its composition and properties and effect

on vehicles.

Chapter 3 is on LNG fuel in vehicles with its composition, properties and preparation.

Chapter 4 deals with the LPG fuel in vehicles with its composition and properties and effect

on vehicles.

Chapter 5 deals with Liquefied hydrogen fuel. How it is produce, store and its efficiency with

vehicle is discussed in brief.

.

Chapter 6 and chapter 7 focus on Bio fuels and electric vehicles. How the vehicle

performance emissions differ with these fuels are discussed in these chapters.

Chapter 8 gives a brief introduction to fuel cell power vehicles. The benefits of this fuel with

different types of fuel cells are discussed here. The corrections, suggestions and feedbacks from the readers are always appreciated and duly acknowledged. You can reach the author at [email protected]


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Contents

1) OVERVIEW ..4 2) CNG(Compressed Natural Gas)..21

3) LNG(liquefied Natural Gas)47

4) LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas).60

5) LIQUIFIED HYDROGEN.82

6) BIO FUEL98

7) ELECTRIC VEHICLES..126

8) FUEL CELL VEHICLES.157


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CHAPTER 1

OVERVIEW

INTRODUCTION

Alternative fuels are derived from resources other than petroleum. Some are produced domestically,

reducing our dependence on imported oil, and some are derived from renewable sources. Often, they

produce less pollution than gasoline or diesel.

CLASSIFICATION OF ALTERNATE FUELS

Natural Gas

Natural Gas for use in automobiles is very popular in America because more than

80% of the natural gas used in U.S.A is produced in the country making it a lot

cheaper than conventional petroleum. It is used either as Compressed Natural Gas

(CNG) or Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) when running motor vehicles. Moreover, it

promises a reduction in smog of between 60 & 90% and a reduction of carbon

emissions of between 30 & 40%. However, certain modifications need to be made on

the cars and their tanks in order to use the fuel.

Ethanol

Ethanol is a biofuel used to run engines that originally used petrol. There are a few

modifications done to the vehicle so that it can run efficiently on Ethanol. A vehicle

with these modifications is classified as an FFV or a Flexible Fuel Vehicle. Brazil is

one of the countries that have embraced this technology into their system becoming

the second largest producer of ethanol in the world by producing sugarcane based

ethanol .Through these developments, Brazil has been able to thrive in the Flex Fuel

Vehicle market enabling them to manufacture cars like the Brazilian Fiat 147 [7], the

first modern automobile that could run on pure-unblended ethanol followed by

Volkswagens, Chevrolets, Toyotas and Nissans just to name a few .


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Biodiesel

Like ethanol, biodiesel is a renewable alternative fuel for cars. This is because it is

made from plants.

Biodiesel does not require fermentation like ethanol; it is made by a process called

trans-esterfication which converts vegetable fat into an oil that can be used to run

ordinary diesel engines without any modifications necessary.

Some vehicle manufacturers are wary of warranting their vehicles against the use of

high blends of biodiesel above 5% [9] because there are concerns of the fuels

impact on the engine.

Biofuel from Watermelon & Plant Waste

To counter the claims of environmentalists who are against the use of food crops for

biofuel production and the use of arable land to grow energy crops rather than food

crops , researchers have developed a biofuel from plant waste .

It is estimated that about 20% of the watermelons produced in a farm cannot be sold

for human consumption and go to waste; these can be converted into a biofuel

because watermelon juice contains a considerable percentage of amino acids and

directly fermentable sugars, which are essential for the production of bio-ethanol.

Biofuel generated from plant wastes was used to power the limousines that

transported certain heads of state to the Copenhagen Climate Summit in 2009.

Alternative Fuel for Cars from Waste Chocolate

A lot of research has gone into the improvement of biofuel production and

application. One such study has led a firm in Preston called Ecotec to produce a

biofuel from the waste collected during the processing of chocolate. The waste

chocolate is turned into bio-ethanol then mixed with vegetable oil to run a special car

they have branded the Bio-Truck.


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Propane/ Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

LPG is made up of a mixture of hydrocarbon gases of which propane is in the largest

percentage thus the fuel is often called Propane .LPG is produced from the

processing of natural gas and the refining of petroleum. It can also be used

domestically for cooking and boiling water. The propane is gaseous at room

temperature but is liquefied when compressed to about 200 psi for storage in a

special gas cylinder. The use of LPG to run automobiles is more popular in Europe

that the US and makes up more than 10% of the motor fuel used in Netherlands.

Hydrogen

Hydrogen, as an alternative fuel for cars, is deployed either for use in Fuel Cell

Vehicles (FCVs) or Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs).

Hydrogen is considered the clean energy of the future burning in an internal

combustion engine to produce heat and water vapor as well as other oxides of

nitrogen which are also carbon neutral. In Fuel Cell Vehicles, Hydrogen is used in a

totally different way; Hydrogen is stored on board and mixed with oxygen in the air to

generate electricity via the fuel cell stack to power an electric motor that drives the

vehicle. There are however, several challenges to overcome before hydrogen for

automobiles can be used commercially. The Fuel Cell Vehicles as well as the

Hydrogen Fuel is currently very expensive to produce and the technology of

production is not widespread thus ordinary consumers cannot afford to use them.

Furthermore, hydrogen contains less energy per unit volume compared to

conventional automobile fuel; therefore, filling stations need to be established at high

frequencies in the country of use before the technology can be commercially viable.

Electricity

Last but not least we have electricity. Electricity is the modern mans fire and every

technology is inclined to maximize the use of this energy source.

The use of electricity as an alternative fuel has birthed vehicles of all shapes and

sizes, from SUVs to Sports cars .The use of electricity has also led to the

development of hybrid cars that run on fossil fuels and electricity alternatively


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depending on the vehicles settings such as the Toyota Prius and Honda Insight.

However, like all mobile electric appliances, these vehicles contain batteries that

need to be recharged. They have an advantage over hydrogen cars because they do

not need several filling stations because electricity sources are widespread, but it is

still a tedious time consuming process. The tesla motor company, which has

specialized in the electric car production, has one of its best cars running for only

160 miles per charge .Electric cars are still not very popular because the automobile

industry has not embraced the technology fully thus the cars are still rare. They do

have several advantages over gasoline cars in that they do not produce any tail pipe

emissions and cost about 2 US cents per mile compared to gasolines 12 US cents.

Furthermore they do not require any of the services that a gasoline car needs such

as oil changes and emission checks.

SCENERIO OF CONVECTIONAL FUELS

The set of scenarios presented in this report describes a number of external

developments, policy measures and manufacturer strategies that might influence the

penetration of the various technological options.

The baseline scenario is used as the reference case. It corresponds to the outlook

for each technology if the current trends in demand are sustained, if fuel and vehicle

prices and fuel economy follow the path predicted by current surveys of trends in

vehicle technologies, and if no significant policy measure is implemented. According

to the baseline scenario, no clear winner among the non-conventional technologies

is identified. Fuel cells are expected to become an option only at the end of the

2010s, while electric vehicles seem capable of securing a niche. Hybrids may play

an interim role in the transition between ICEs to fuel cells. Total demand in the

passenger car sector (expressed in total number of vehicle kms) is expected to rise

(though slower than GDP growth). CO2 emissions from passenger cars are

expected to show a slight increase by 2010 (3%) and a reduction of 13% by 2020.

This is the combined result of the improvement of conventional technologies, the

gradual removal of older cars from the fleet, and the introduction of alternative

technologies.


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In the high oil scenario an increase of the price of oil is assumed. The increase is

applied to the fuel prices predicted by the POLES model during the whole period of

the simulation. As a reference, the price increase is considered to be equal to 28%

(that would correspond to an increase from 25 to 32 US$ per barrel). Such an

increase would have a minimal impact in the medium term (up to 2010), since the

alternative technologies would not be mature enough (i.e. have competing costs) by

then to benefit and increase their share. In the longer term, an increase in the price

of oil would benefit the alternative technologies, since their difference from the

conventional technologies in terms of variable cost would become smaller. As

regards the conventional technologies, higher oil prices would reinforce the shift from

gasoline to diesel, as fuel economy becomes a decisive factor. A higher oil price

would also slow down growth in transport demand. The slower growth in demand,

combined with the shift towards alternatives and more efficient vehicles, would also

lead to further reductions in CO2 emissions. The high oil scenario is also equivalent

to a fuel tax scenario, i.e. the same results would appear if fuel taxes were raised by

28%.

The low oil scenario corresponds to the opposite case of the high oil scenario. A

decrease of the price of oil by 28% is assumed (e.g. from 25 to 18 US$ per barrel).

The results have in general the opposite direction of those for high oil: the

introduction of alternative technologies is delayed and gasoline remains the most

attractive option. Transport demand would increase, though still slower than GDP

growth (saturation levels are reached). CO2 emissions would increase significantly

by 2010 and in the long term brought down to the levels of 2000 as a result of

improved technology.

In the carbon tax 50 scenario, a carbon content related tax equivalent to 50 euros

per ton of CO2 is imposed. The difference from the high oil price scenario (that also

corresponds to imposing a fuel tax) is that it affects gasoline and diesel in a different

manner. Diesel has a higher carbon content and is cheaper than gasoline. So while

this carbon tax would mean an increase of gasoline prices by 12%, it would mean

double the increase for diesel prices. As a result, although the results have the same

direction as the results in the high oil scenario as regards the penetration of

alternative technologies, they strongly favour gasoline as compared to diesel.

Trends in Vehicle and Fuel Technologies Scenarios for Future Trends


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European Commission JRC-IPTS 12 the ESTO Network

The carbon tax 100 scenario assumes a carbon content tax equivalent to 100 euros

per ton of CO2. At that level of carbon tax the results would be comparable to that of

the high oil price scenario, with the exception that gasoline has an advantage over

both diesel and fuel cells.

The other two alternative options, electric and mainly hybrid- would also benefit.

The three scenarios on subsidy for electric, hybrid and fuel cells correspond to a

decrease of the purchase cost of each alternative technology by 2000 euros. This

would decrease the price differential of these technologies compared to conventional

technologies and accelerate their introduction. For electric, although its share is

increased, this is not enough for the difference in costs to be covered. For hybrid and

fuel cells, penetration is accelerated and each of the two can become an important

technology by 2020. Subsidies would not have any significant impact on total

transport demand, but would further marginally reduce CO2 emissions (except

in the case of fuel cells).

The zero emissions scenario assumes the prohibition of conventional technologies in

urban areas. This would favour hybrid vehicles in the medium term and all alternative

technologies, in a proportional way, in the longer term. The main losers would be the

light gasoline (and in the longer term, the light diesel) cars, since their predominantly

urban role would be played by alternative technologies. This scenario also leads to a

reduction in CO2 emissions, though lower than in the case of high oil or carbon tax

100, where restrictions are applied to the whole fleet.

In order to test the case of industry selecting winning technologies and concentrating

solely on them, a number of scenarios where one or more of the alternative

technologies is abandoned were investigated. The rationale behind those scenarios

is that manufacturers will not be willing to concentrate on all five paths (2

conventional and 3 alternatives) but will instead concentrate only on a limited

number (2 to 4). In all cases of concentrating in only 4 paths, the projected share of

the technology that is abandoned is expected to be divided proportionally between

the 4 paths. That is to say, none of the alternatives is in fact blocking the


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development of the other alternatives or the demand for them, although abandoning

one of them could help establish the critical mass for either or both of them. In no

electric, no significant impacts on the penetration of the other alternatives, since the

projected share of electric was too small to make a difference. In no hybrid,

conventional technologies would still monopolise the market in 2010, since no

alternative options would be sufficiently attractive. By 2020, the lost projected share

of hybrid would again be divided proportionally among the remaining options. No fuel

cells, would have no impact until the end of the 2010s.

If fuel cells are the only alternative technology to be developed, the market will again

be monopolised by conventional technologies until fuel cells improve significantly.

But fuel cells will have then an important share of new registrations, higher than in

baseline but still lower than in the high oil or subsidy fuel cells scenarios. But the

situation in terms of CO2 emissions would be worse, since the hybrids that they

would replace would emit less.

The case of none of the alternative technologies being attractive enough (or

manufacturers deciding to abandon all of them and concentrate on conventional

technologies) is tested in no new scenario. Gasoline and diesel would share the

market between them, and the main impact would be the worsening of the CO2

emissions outlook. Instead of being significantly reduced, emission levels would

remain at year 2000 levels. The 2 variants of no new, are a combination with the oil

price scenarios. If oil prices are high (no new, high oil), demand slows down and

emissions demonstrate a small improvement. But in the case of low oil prices

(no new, low oil), both transport demand and CO2 emissions increase dramatically.


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OIL RESERVES OF THE WORLD

List of Top 10 Oil Reserves Countries in the World

Rank Country Oil Reserves (Billion Barrels) % of World Total

1 Venezuela 297.6 18.2

2 Saudi Arabia 265.4 16.2

3 Canada 173.1 10.6

4 Iran 154.6 9.4

5 Iraq 141.4 8.6

6 Kuwait 101.5 6.2

7 UAE 97.8 6

8 Russia 80 4.9

9 Libya 48 2.9

10 Nigeria 37.2 2.3


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FUEL QUALITY ASPECTS RELATED TO EMISSION

The automobile industry has to address the following issues at all the stages of

vehicle manufacture:

Environmental Imperatives

Safety Requirements

Competitive Pressures and

Customer Expectations

There is a strong interlinking amongst all these forces of change, influencing the

automobile industry. These have to be addressed consistently and strategically

to ensure competitiveness.

Since pollution is caused by various sources, it requires an integrated,

multidisciplinary approach. The different sources of pollution have to be

addressed simultaneously in order to stall widespread damage.

THE PARAMETERS DETERMINING EMISSION FROM VEHICLES

Vehicular Technology

Fuel Quality

Inspection & Maintenance of In-Use Vehicles

Road and Traffic Management

While each one of the four factors mentioned above have direct environmental

implications, the vehicle and fuel systems have to be addressed as a whole and

jointly optimised in order to achieve significant reduction in emission.

VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY

In India, the vehicle population is growing at rate of over 5% per annum and

today the vehicle population is approximately 40 million. The vehicle mix is also

unique to India in that there is a very high proportion of two wheelers (76%).


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History of Emission Norms in India

The significant environmental implications of vehicles cannot be denied. The

need to reduce vehicular pollution has led to emission control through

regulations in conjunction with increasingly environment-friendly technologies.

It was only in 1991 that the first stage emission norms came into force for petrol

vehicles and in 1992 for diesel vehicles.

From April 1995 mandatory fitment of catalytic converters in new petrol

passenger cars sold in the four metros of Delhi, Calcutta, Mumbai and Chennai

along with supply of Unleaded Petrol (ULP) was affected. Availability of ULP was

further extended to 42 major cities and now it is available throughout the

country.

The emission reduction achieved from pre-89 levels is over 85% for petrol driven

and 61% for diesel vehicles from 1991 levels.

In the year 2000 passenger cars and commercial vehicles will be meeting Euro I

equivalent India 2000 norms, while two wheelers will be meeting one of the

tightest emission norms in the world.

Euro II equivalent Bharat Stage II norms are in force from 2001 in 4 metros of

Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.

Since India embarked on a formal emission control regime only in 1991, there is

a gap in comparison with technologies available in the USA or Europe.

Currently, we are behind Euro norms by few years, however, a beginning has

been made, and emission norms are being aligned with Euro standards and

vehicular technology is being accordingly upgraded. Vehicle manufactures are

also working towards bridging the gap between Euro standards and Indian

emission norms.

FUEL TECHNOLOGY

In India we are yet to address the vehicle and fuel system as a whole. It was in


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1996 that the Ministry of Environment and Forests formally notified fuel

specifications. Maximum limits for critical ingredients like Benzene level in petrol

have been specified only recently and a limit of 5% m/m and 3% m/m has been

set for petrol in the country and metroes respectively.

In place of phase-wise upgradation of fuel specifications there appears to be a

region-wise introduction of fuels of particular specifications. The high levels of

pollution have necessitated eliminating leaded petrol, through out the country.

To address the high pollution in 4 metro cities 0.05% sulphur petrol & diesel has

been introduced since 2000-2001. The benzene content has been further

reduced to 1% in Delhi and Mumbai.

There is a need for a holistic approach so that upgradation in engine technology

can be optimised for maximum environmental benefits.

Other factors influencing emission from vehicles.

INSPECTION & MAINTENANCE (I&M) OF IN-USE VEHICLES

It has been estimated that at any point of time, new vehicle comprise only 8% of

the total vehicle population. In India currently only transport vehicles, that is,

vehicles used for hire or reward are required to undergo periodic fitness

certification. The large population of personalised vehicles are not yet covered

by any such mandatory requirement.

In most countries that have been able to control vehicular pollution to a

substantial extent, Inspection & Maintenance of all categories of vehicles have

been one of the chief tools used. Developing countries in the South East Asian

region, which till a few years back had severe air pollution problem have

introduced an I&M system and also effective traffic management.

ROAD & TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

Inadequate and poor quality of road surface leads to increased Vehicle

Operation Costs and also increased pollution. It has been estimated that


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improvements in roads will result in savings of about 15% of Vehicle Operation

Costs.

CONCLUSION

The need for an integrated, holistic approach for controlling vehicular emission

cannot be over-emphasised. More importantly, it is time now for the auto and oil

industry to come together under the guidance of the Government in evolving fuel

quality standards and vehicular technology to meet air quality targets.

Petrol Vehicles

Three - Wheelers

(g/km)

Year CO HC HC+Nox

1991 12 - 30 8 - 12 - -

1996 6.75 - 5.40 -

2000 4.00 - 2.00 -

2005(BS II) 2.25 - 2.00 (DF =1.2)

Two - Wheelers

(g/km)

Year CO HC HC+Nox

1991 12 - 30 8 - 12 - -

1996 4.50 - 3.60 -

2000 2.00 - 2.00 -

2005(BS II) 1.50 - 1.50 (DF =1.2)

Car

(g/km)

Year CO HC Nox HC+Nox

1991 14.3 - 27.1 2.0-2.9

1996 8.68 - 12.4 3.00 - 4.36

1998* 4.34 - 6.20 1.50 - 2.18

2000 2.78 0.97

B.S II 2.2

0.5

B.S II 2.2 - 5.0

0.5 - 0.7


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B.S III 2.30 0.2 0.15

B.S III 2.3 - 5.22 0.20 - 0.29 0.15 - 0.21

* For Catalytic Converter Fitted vehicles

upto 6 seaters(A) & GVW upto 2.5 tons More than 6 seaters(B) & GVW upto 3.5

tons(A)(B)

Diesel Vehicles

Diesel Vehicles (GVM Upto 3.5 Tons)

(g/km) Engine Dynamometer

Year CO HC Nox HC+Nox PM

1992 14.0 3.5 18

1996 11.20 2.40 14.4

2000 4.5 1.1 8.0

0.36/

0.61 #

B.S II 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15

For Four

Wheelers

only

Or

(g/km) Chassis Dynamometer

Year CO HC Nox HC+Nox PM

1992 17.3 -

32.6 2.7 - 3.7

Light Duty

Vehicles

1996 5.0 - 9.0 2.0 - 4.0

2000 2.72 -

6.90

0.97 -

1.70

0.14 -

0.25

B.S II 1.0 - 1.5 0.7 - 1.2 0.08 -

0.17

For Four

Wheelers

only

B.S II(2005) 1.00 0.85 0.10

For 2 & 3

Wheelers,

Appropriate

DF


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B.S III 0.64 -

0.95

0.50 -

0.78

0.56 -

0.86

0.05 -

0.10

Cars

(g/km) Chassis Dynamometer

B.S II 1.0 0.7 0.8 (A)

B.S II 1.0 - 1.5 0.7 - 1.2 0.8 -

0.17 (B)

B.S III 0.64 0.50 0.56 0.05 (A)

B.S III 0.64 -

0.95

0.50 -

0.78

0.56 -

0.86

0.05 -

0.10 (B)

Diesel Vehicles (GVM > 3.5 Tons)

(g/kwh)

Year CO HC Nox HC+Nox PM$ Smoke

(m-1) $

1992 14.0 3.5 18

1996 11.20 2.40 14.4

2000 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36/

0.36 #

B.S II 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15

B.S III 2.1 0.7 5.0 0.10/0.13 0.8

NEED FOR ALTERTNATIVE FUEL

1. Fossil fuels are in limited supply.

2. Global consumption of fossil fuels is increasing, and much of that increase is from

the transportation sector.

3. While automobile fuel efficiency has improved over the last 30 years,

improvements have been fairly level since the mid 1980s. Efforts to improve fuel

efficiency are limited by the increased use of heavy vehicles such as sport utility

vehicles and light trucks for personal use.

4. Fossil fuel combustion releases large amounts of greenhouse gases, the most

significant being carbon dioxide.

5. Greenhouse gases trap heat in the earths atmosphere.


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6. In a greenhouse, visible sunlight easily penetrates glass or plastic walls, but heat

(in the form of infrared radiation) does not escape.

7. Most scientists concur that the average temperature of the Earth is increasing,

and if human activity is the principal cause.

8. Increased concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere contribute to global

warming, which is receiving world-wide attention as a significant environmental

problem.

9. Individuals can have a positive impact on the environment by making appropriate

choices in our daily lives mostly with respect to transportation, home energy use,

and waste disposal.

Also Gasoline and diesel have been our primary fuels used in automotive, farm and

recreational vehicles for decades. Our dependence on other countries to provide us

with gasoline has gone into a downward spiral with the economy doing so poorly and

the poor mileage rated cars that are being produced. Without having a certain level

of efficiency in our vehicles, we are only pushing ourselves closer to the point of

necessitating an alternate fuel source. Oil production is expected to diminish to a

near halt as near as forty years from now. Its time to start really digging in and

getting other renewable energy sources into mainstream use.

Many automakers pride themselves in their high performance vehicles, and the world

has been brain washed into thing that bigger and faster is almost always better. We

need to start thinking smarter before its too late.

REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR CNG/LPG VEHICLES IN INDIA

1. Petrol/CNG/LPG Driven Vehicles

Measured at idling:

Vehicle Type CO

(%)

*HC

(ppm)

2&3 wheelers (2/4 stroke) (vehicles manufactured 4.5 9,000


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before 31/3/2000)

2&3 wheelers (2- stroke) (vehicles manufactured after

31/3/2000) 3.5 6,000

2&3 wheelers (4 stroke) (vehicles manufactured after

31/3/2000) 3.5 4,500

Bharat Stage -II compliant 4 wheelers 0.5 750

Four wheelers other than Bharat Stage -II compliant 3.0 1,500

* For CNG & LPG vehicles the measured Hydrocarbon

value shall be converted using the following formula

and then compared with the limits

For CNG Vehicles- Non Methane Hydrocarbon,

NMHC = 0.3 X HC

For LPG Vehicles- Reactive Hydrocarbon, RHC = 0.5

X HC

2. Diesel Vehicles

Free Acceleration Smoke Test

Method of Test Maximum Smoke Density

Light Absorption

Coefficient (1/m)

Hartidge Units

Free Acceleration Test for Turbo

Charged engine and Naturally

aspirated engine

2.45 65

Notes:

1. Test should be done at Authorised Pollution Check Centers

2. Test should be done every six months or as per State Government's direction

3. No vehicle shall ply in the country without a valid pollution under control

certificate


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Looking Into the Future

With the continually rising cost of gasoline it has never been more important to

explore alternatives in getting us from one place to another. We have some really

great options available to us today that have shortcomings that should be simple to

overcome. For instance, if each filling station would install one single EV charging

station or any of the other above listed methods, they would all become viable

solutions.

My personal favorite at the moment is electric, because the conversion is so simple

and emmission free at the vehicle level. Once we can create clean electricity via

wind farms, water turbines, solar farms etc... I think that this option with really take

off.

My second favorite in this list is Biodeisel. While I'm not a huge fan of deisel engines,

I do quite fancy the idea of being able to run my vehicle on recycled fryer grease.

No matter how you look at it or which option is your personal favorite, it's good to

keep an open mind, because someday, gasoline may no longer be a viable option.


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CHAPTER 2

COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS (CNG)

Safe for transportation?

Yes, natural gas vehicles or NGVs, must meet the strictest of safety standards. The

vehicles, fuel systems, conversion companies, and tank manufacturers must each

meet separate government regulated guidelines and codes to sell in the market

place.

Compared to gasoline

The fuel itself is safer than traditional gasoline in many ways. 1) Natural gas is lighter

than air. This means, in the case of accident and gas is released, natural gas will

disperse into the atmosphere, where gasoline will collect and spread on the ground.

2) Natural gas has a higher ignition temperature than gasoline, which means it takes

higher temperatures to start a flame. 3) Last the tanks must withstand extreme tests

against dynamite, gunfire, bonfires and others that would destroy a normal gasoline

tank.

More Safety

To learn more specifically about regulations and safety guides, visit Department of

Transportation or check out our links pages for others sources.

Availability

Natural gas is drilled from wells or extracted from crude oil production. This fuel

powers about one quarter of the United States energy usage, of that less than one

percent goes toward transportation. America has also set up a vast natural gas

distribution system that stretches coast to coast and boarder to boarder. This system

delivers gas economically and quickly to almost all 48 states in the continental US.

Sources have indicated that America owns roughly 2,074 Tcf (trillion cubic feet) of

natural gas, which is more than a 100 year supply.

There are about 12,000 fueling stations across global roads, but only about 1,100 on

U.S. roadways. However many initiatives are in place to expand infrastructure, such


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as the Triangle, Atlanta and the existing infrastructure established in the West,

demonstrates that infrastructure is on the rise and so is demand.

American

Eighty to ninety percent of the natural gas used in the U.S. is found here in America.

This helps promote Americas energy independence from the reliance on foreign

fuels. Only 3 percent of US natural gas consumption comes from sources other than

America, compared to oil imports. The US imports more than 50 percent of its oil

from foreign oil, greatly hindering Americas energy independence.

Affordable

CNG is much cheaper than gasoline or diesel, in most cases half as much, in others

as much as 80 percent less, depending on the station and state. Natural gas costs

range from 20-40 percent less than crude oil on an energy-equivalent basis. Fleet

owners will experience the greatest savings. A May 2012 Wall Street Journal article

stated that Waste Management will convert trucks over the next five years to natural

gas at a cost of $30,000 per truck. These vehicles will save $27,000 each year in

fuel costs compared to diesel.

Greener

Natural gas produces far less emissions than engines running on petroleum based

fuels. NGVs emits 25 percent less CO2 than vehicles that run on traditional gasoline

or diesel. Natural gas is also available in renewable forms such as methane from

landfills, stranded gas wells, agricultural operations, and new emerging methods that

can be converted to clean natural gas. NGVs also make it much easier to meet

stringent EPA standards.

Other benefits

Easy fill-up- Just as fast and easy as gasoline or diesel

Government support- Federal & state incentives

Extended vehicle life by up to 50,000 miles

Reduced maintenance


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HISTORY OF CNG

Natural gas was first used as a transportation fuel in Italy in the 1930s after

World War II. There are more than 14.8 million vehicles on global roads today. Most

located internationally in countries such as Iran, Pakistan and Argentina; these three

countries make up the largest users of natural gas vehicles (NGVs). The U.S. has

been slow to join the alternative fuel vehicle (AFV) market. Unfortunately, less than

120,000 vehicles are running on natural gas in the U.S. The average global growth

rate is about 30 percent since 2000; however Americas NGV growth rate is only

about 3.7 percent per year.

Over the past forty years, natural gas has increased in pressure four times, from

2,000 pounds per square inch (psi) to 2,400; 3,000; and most recently 3,600 psi.

These increases of pressure, have advanced tanks to hold more and more fuel in

smaller and smaller spaces. These advanced pressures were accomplished by new

technologies in tank designs.

Todays tanks have advanced into four main categories:

How is CNG produced?


24

Once a potential natural gas deposit has been located by a team of exploration

geologists and geophysicists, it is up to a team of drilling experts to dig down to

where the natural gas is thought to exist. Although the process of digging deep into

the Earths crust to find deposits of natural gas that may or may not actually exist

seems daunting, the industry has developed a number of innovations and techniques

that both decrease the cost and increase the efficiency of drilling for natural gas.

Advancements in technology have contributed greatly to the increased efficiency and

success rate for drilling natural gas wells. Within the last decade new technology in

horizontal drilling has enabled experts to access deeper shale plays of natural gas

as well as to drill horizontally in all directions to enable one well to reach a much

larger reserve of natural gas than traditional shallow wells were are able to do.

Determining whether to drill a well depends on a variety of factors, including the

economic potential of the hoped-for natural gas reservoir. It costs a great deal of

money for exploration and production companies to search and drill for natural gas,

and there is always the inherent risk that no natural gas will be found.

The exact placement of the drill site depends on many factors, including the nature

of the potential formation to be drilled, the characteristics of the subsurface geology,

and the depth and size of the target deposit. After the geophysical team identifies the

optimal location for a well, it is necessary for the drilling company to ensure that it

completes all the necessary steps so that it can legally drill in that area. This usually

involves securing permits for the drilling operations, establishment of a legal

arrangement to allow the natural gas company to extract and sell the resources

under a given area of land, and a design for gathering lines that will connect the well

to the pipeline.

If the new well, once drilled, does in fact come in contact with natural gas deposits, it

is developed to allow for the extraction of this natural gas, and is termed a

development or productive well. At this point, with the well drilled and

hydrocarbons present, the well may be completed to facilitate its production of

natural gas. However, if the exploration team was incorrect in its estimation of the


25

existence of a marketable quantity of natural gas at a wellsite, the well is termed a

dry well, and production does not proceed.

Onshore and offshore drilling present unique drilling environments, requiring special

techniques and equipment. The first diagram depicts both the horizontal drilling and

traditional shallow drilling techniques to access the deeper shale plays and the

shallow sandstone plays, respectively. The second diagram depicts various types of

offshore drilling setups.


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CNG Properties

CNG in general

CNG is a natural product. It evolved from organics matters over 600 Million years

ago. Today it is drawn from domestically drilled gas wells or in conjunction with crude

oil production. CNG is used in its primary gasiform state. Since it does not have to be

transformed into any secondary energy such as fuel oil or electricity, the user can

utilize it right away and in addition no environmental pollution through any complex

transformation occurs. Stocking, ordering or delivery dates are not necessary in

connection with CNG.

Chemical Composition

Natural gas consists of about 90% methane. In its natural form natural gas does not

smell. Therefore, the gas is odorized prior to distribution in order to detect possible

leakage. Gas can therefore be smelled already at a concentration of 0.3%. As CNG

requires a concentration of about 5% to 15% to combust, 0.3% is far below the

dangerous combustion level.

Physical attributes of CNG

If the cylinder is depleted and refilled with CNG, the cylinder will get warm. This is

nothing to be concerned about. If a gas is put under pressure, the density of the

molecules will increase, and therefore the temperature will rise. After a while it will

adopt the temperature of its environment again.

Contrariwise the cylinder cools down while driving. When gas expands the density of

the molecules decreases and the temperature drops; a nice side-effect in a warm

climate like Singapore.

These physical attributes also have an effect on the total storage capacity of the

cylinder when refueling. If the temperature increases, the pressure in the cylinder

increases as well. The dispensers at the filling stations automatically stop dispensing

CNG, once a pressure of 200 bar is reached. If a cylinder can theoretically

accommodate 18 kg CNG under standard conditions (200 bar pressure, 15

Celsius), the cylinder will carry a bit less than 18 kg. Practically this means that the


27

cooler the cylinder and the temperature around the cylinder is the more kg of CNG

can be pumped into the cylinder.

A CNG car can be left in the sun without concerns, as this heat is never sufficient

enough to heat up the cylinder to a critical point. The cylinders are tested and can

sustain a pressure of up to 500 bar - a pressure dimension, which is usually never

reached in our daily environment.

CNG measured in Kg

CNG is measured in the mass unit kg and not in liters or m, both measures for

volume. One cubic meter of CNG under 10 bar pressure has just a fraction of the

energy value than one cubic meter of CNG under 200 bar pressure. However, one

kilogram of CNG has always the same calorific value, no matter whether it has a

volume of 500 liters, or just a volume of 60 liters - under 200 bar pressure.

1 kg CNG = 1.51 liters of Petrol

How is CNG Stored?

As mentioned, natural gas is highly pressurized as it travels through an interstate

pipeline. To ensure that the natural gas flowing through any one pipeline remains

pressurized, compression of this natural gas is required periodically along the pipe.

This is accomplished by compressor stations, usually placed at 40 to 100 mile

intervals along the pipeline. The natural gas enters the compressor station, where it

is compressed by either a turbine, motor, or engine. Turbine compressors gain their

energy by using up a small proportion of the natural gas that they compress. The

turbine itself serves to operate a centrifugal compressor, which contains a type of fan

that compresses and pumps the natural gas through the pipeline. Some compressor

stations are operated by using an electric motor to turn the same type of centrifugal

compressor. This type of compression does not require the use of any of the natural

gas from the pipe; however it does require a reliable source of electricity nearby.

Reciprocating natural gas engines are also used to power some compressor

stations. These engines resemble a very large automobile engine, and are powered


28

by natural gas from the pipeline. The combustion of the natural gas powers pistons

on the outside of the engine, which serves to compress the natural gas.

In addition to compressing natural gas, compressor stations also usually contain

some type of liquid separator, much like the ones used to dehydrate natural gas

during its processing. Usually, these separators consist of scrubbers and filters that

capture any liquids or other unwanted particles from the natural gas in the pipeline.

Although natural gas in pipelines is considered dry gas, it is not uncommon for a

certain amount of water and hydrocarbons to condense out of the gas stream while

in transit. The liquid separators at compressor stations ensure that the natural gas in

the pipeline is as pure as possible, and usually filter the gas prior to compression.

Natural gas, like most other commodities, can be stored for an indefinite period of

time. The exploration, production, and transportation of natural gas takes time, and

the natural gas that reaches its destination is not always needed right away, so it is

injected into underground storage facilities. These storage facilities can be located

near market centers that do not have a ready supply of locally produced natural gas.

Traditionally, natural gas has been a seasonal fuel. That is, demand for natural gas

is usually higher during the winter, partly because it is used for heat in residential

and commercial settings. Stored natural gas plays a vital role in ensuring that any

excess supply delivered during the summer months is available to meet the

increased demand of the winter months. However, with the recent trend towards

natural gas fired electric generation, demand for natural gas during the summer

months is now increasing (due to the demand for electricity to power air conditioners

and the like). Natural gas in storage also serves as insurance against any

unforeseen accidents, natural disasters, or other occurrences that may affect the

production or delivery of natural gas.

Natural gas storage plays a vital role in maintaining the reliability of supply needed to

meet the demands of consumers.


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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CNG

ADVANTAGES OF CNG:

a) Affordable Price

One of the biggest advantages CNG it that it provides is an affordable energy

source. As the world continues to experience high costs of gasoline, the low price of

CNG offers a glimmer of hope. A classic example, would be in the case of where a

consumer uses natural gas vehicle (NGV) that is powered by CNG for about 50 km

daily in the west of America. This car owner is actually able to save more than

$600 per year by taking advantage of the 85 gallon per gasoline equivalent

compared to his counterparts who use gasoline for $4.33. CNG is typically, at least,

30% cheaper than gasoline.

b)*Fuel*economy

Not only is CNG cheaper, it also gives consumers fuel efficiency. Considering the

price of gasoline in India, which costs 50 Rs/liter (even though being largely

government subsidized), in comparison to CNG that sells for only 22 Rs. While

expensive petrol gives a standard car owner about 15 km per liter, the low-cost CNG

offers close to 20 km . A CNG full cylinder promises more than 300 km of driving

range.

Many fueling stations sell both CNG and gasoline available for purchase, and the

choice is therefore placed in the hands of automobile owners. As far as fuel saving is

concerned, it is clear that CNG is giving consumers the upper hand.

c)*Reduced*up*keeping*cost!

Besides, CNG becoming a vehicle owners best friend as it offers the potential of

preserving the well being of the vehicle, which translates into reduced up keeping

cost. CNG is non-corrosive in nature, and is free from lead-like substances that are

widely used as additives in gasoline. This makes it possible to prevent spark plugs

from lead poisoning. In addition to that, it must be noted that CNG fuel system is

designed to keep the gas lock in, thus eliminating its probabilities of dispersing into

the air, or spilling. CNG is also known to preserve the life of oils and lubricating oils

and has been known to last longer due to the non-contaminating quality of natural

gas. CNG, which scores low on flammability, contrasted by a high auto ignition

temperature, it is not likely to cause a fire, considering that it is lighter than air.


30

d)*Environmentally*Friendly!

Apart from that, the clean attributes of CNG gives it reasons to be applauded by

nature conservationists for being environmentally friendly. As a concerted effort is

being taken across the globe to save the earth, CNG is way better that petrol, as it

emits less harmful gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,

nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides into the air releases less carbon dioxide by almost

6000 grams, compared to a gasoline-powered engine. Its colorless and odorless

traits make it a clear burning fuel that prevents black fumes when burnt. The use of

CNG is definitely a forward move; lessening the emission of greenhouse gases that

pose the risk of global warming.

e) Abundant*Supply!

Another big plus point about CNG is in abundant supply as it is widely available

throughout the world. According to official energy statistics from the U.S government,

Middle East accounts for the largest increase in regional natural gas production from

2006 to 2030, and is projected to contribute to more than one-fifth of the total

increment in world natural gas production. Following this Europe and Eurasia will

produce the second highest amount of CNG. Nigeria also shows great potential for

natural gas productions. As of now, Russia holds the worlds largest reserve of

natural gas, followed by Iran. North

America also produces CNG in enormous volumes, storing up reserves that are

enough for the next hundred and twenty years, according to a study by Navigant

Consulting, Inc. The daily production of natural gas from shale formation in 1998 was

a bare billion cubic feet per day. Now, the number has increased tremendously to 5

billion cubic feet per day, creating a compounding yearly growth rate of more than

20%. This is more than 30 times the rate for that period of time. Asia is also not left

behind, with China exhibiting the highest CNG production.

f) Lower*Dependency*on*Foreign*Fuel*Imports!

As observed, natural gas production is increasing in different countries across the

globe. This brings about another advantage for countries to experience lower

dependency on foreign fuel imports. Over the years, the Middle East has been

monopolizing the supply of petroleum and oil prices predicted to continue to soar.

This had made countries like the United States fuel dependent, which led the former


31

President, President Bush to say that the U.S was addicted to oil. President Obama

is aiming towards zero oil imports into the United States. The world is turning

towards natural gas as a substitute. According to the

International Energy Outlook 2009 by the Energy Information Administration of USA,

an average of 1.6 percent of yearly increase is expected for the total consumption of

natural gas, globally. This means that in 2030, 153 trillion cubic feet of natural gas

consumption is projected, from a total of 104 trillion cubic feet in 2006. Considering

this, the US has reason to be pleased that North America is a self-contained market

of natural gas, and the continuous increase of its supply will ultimately help make the

country independent on fuel imports.

Given the benefits of CNG, natural gas offers significant development and progress

on the countries economy besides, being kinder to consumers and also the

environment. Needless to say, CNG is much more promising than petroleum based

fuel. Considering its advantages, further research and studies are being conducted

to bring natural gas to greater heights and make it accessible for greater use as the

alternative energy of the future.

DISADVANTAGES OF CNG

a) The*Lack*of*Fueling*Stations*Within*Regions*

There are close to 120,000 natural gas vehicles in the United States and around

150,000 NGVs being used on the road; the most of them consisting of trucks.

Altogether, there are about 10 million natural gas powered vehicles in the world. To

cater for this need, it is estimated that there are only about 1,500 natural gas fueling

stations on a national scale in the US. Only about half of these stations are open to

the public. In contrast, there are more than 190,000 gasoline stations in the US.

Many vehicle owners are reluctant to switch to CNG because of the difficulty they

face refueling. For example, they might drive to locations that are not equipped with

CNG stations. Car users find it more convenient to utilize petrol as their source of

fuel as it is easily accessible everywhere. This shortfall in fueling infrastructures has

led to many consumers to turn down CNG as their main fuel for their vehicles. If the

use of CNG increases, it is still questionable whether the infrastructure can be

developed at a matching pace worldwide, considering the cost to be incurred.


32

b) Vehicle*Owners*Attitude*

Besides the fact that fuel stations are rather limited, vehicle owners have doubts

about the usage of CNG for their vehicles. This is because CNG vehicles presently

own a lesser range compared to gasoline powered vehicles. An energy gallon

equivalent of natural gas, whether compressed natural gas or liquid natural gas,

contains less energy, if measured up against a volumetric gallon of petrol or diesel

fuel. It is said that compressed natural gas needs to be keep at an extremely high

pressure, close to 4,000 pounds per square inch, to attain satisfactory driving range.

Attempts have been made by liquefied natural gas to rectify this problem but it

requires special storage equipment. This is very problematic and will also bring

about additional costs. Considering this, vehicles running on natural gas are not as

good traveling long distances. The lesser driving range offered by CNG powered

vehicles once again cause consumers to prefer cars using gasoline.

c) Additional*Equipment*Have*to*be*installed*

It must also be noted that vehicles operating on CNG cost more than vehicles

running on gasoline.

This is because natural gas vehicles have to be installed with additional components

for the storage of fuel, which are more costly than gasoline tanks. For example, the

Honda Civic Sedan that consumes gasoline costs around $22,255 in the United

States.

CNG DISPESING SYSTEMS

CNG Dispensers Fueling the Greens

Maximize your fueling options; minimize your costs. Gilbarcos Encore CNG

dispenser makes it easy to bring Compressed Natural Gas to your forecourt.

Integration into your existing POS and the familiar Encore user interface increase

throughput and enhance your customers experience. Seamless integration. The

familiar Encore frame and door construction allows integration into your forecourt

with trusted Encore dispensers. The Encore CNG dispenser also ties to your existing


33

forecourt controller, minimizing impact to your site payment network and saving you

the cost of a separate POS system.

Familiar user interface

The intuitive Encore user interface enhances the customer experience while

shortening their wait time. Encore S and Encore 700 S models provide consistent

options and payment features.

Fast, safe and efficient fill. The new Sequence Control increases fill rate, improving

throughput. External and manual shut off valves allow for continuous flow of gas to

the vehicle until stopped by the electronic flow control system or stopped manually.

And with the carbon sensor in lieu of a cabinet purge system, you minimize your

operational cost while maintaining a safe fueling environment.

Flexibility at the pump

Now you can have one dispenser for hi and standard flow applications, giving you

the flexibility to fill cars or busses from the same dispenser.


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Compressed natural gas (CNG) is a highly pressurized fossil fuel that acts as an

alternative to gasoline, diesel and LPG. Popularly known as the green fuel because

of its environment friendly characteristics and being extremely cost effective in

comparison to gasoline and diesel, CNG is quickly turning into the most preferred

alternative fuel around the world.

And in line with Gilbarcos commitment to offer its customers superior and future-

ready equipment, the Encore series is a one-of-its kind unit that offers the broadest

set of flexible fuel options. The re-designed Encore retains all its primary features

and comes with added environment friendly alternatives.

Fully equipped to dispense up to six different fuel types namely unleaded gasoline,

diesel, CNG, biodiesel, E85, and LPG, the Encore dispenser line helps dispense a

variety of environment friendly fuels from a single fueling position. Additionally, the

single fuel position also helps keep the number of tanks needed to a minimum

thereby optimizing the sites efficiency.

The Encore series is well known in the industry for its low-maintenance and high-

return-on-investment proposition and the added capability to dispense environment

friendly fuel is the ideal way for you to associate your enterprise with the green

initiative and maximize your branding and sales opportunities. And all this comes to

you with the unmatched durability and reliability you have come to expect from the

industry leader in flexible fuel.

CNG Transportation

The efficient and effective movement of natural gas from producing regions to

consumption regions requires an extensive and elaborate transportation system. In

many instances, natural gas produced from a particular well will have to travel a

great distance to reach its point of use. The transportation system for natural gas

consists of a complex network of pipelines, designed to quickly and efficiently

transport natural gas from its origin, to areas of high natural gas demand.

Transportation of natural gas is closely linked to its storage: should the natural gas

being transported not be immediately required, it can be put into storage facilities for

when it is needed.


35

There are three major types of pipelines along the transportation route: the gathering

system, the interstate pipeline system, and the distribution system. The gathering

system consists of low pressure, small diameter pipelines that transport raw natural

gas from the wellhead to the processing plant. The United States has an extensive

transportation and storage system in place, as we have been using natural gas as a

heating and electrical source of energy for quite some time. The good news is that

these same pipelines can be utilized to help the United States achieve transportation

energy independence by transporting natural gas to be used as vehicular fuel as

well.

CNG FUEL KIT

1) CNG is fed into the high pressure cylinders through the natural gas receptacle

2) When the engine needs natural gas, CNG leaves the storage cylinders and

passes through the master manual shut-off valve.

3) CNG enters the engine chamber via the stainless steel high pressure line.


36

4) The regulator accepts the CNG and reduces its pressure from 3,000 psi to

approximate atmospheric pressure.

5) The natural gas solenoid valve lets the natural gas flow from the regulator into

the gas mixer or fuel injectors. This same solenoid valve also shuts off the

natural gas when the engine is stopped.

6) CNG mixes with air and flows down through the carburettor or fuel injection

system and enters the engines combustion chambers.

Layout of CNG kit in a vehicle

MATERIAL COMPATIBILITY FOR CNG

Stainless steel

Aluminium

Copper

Elastomers


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Chapter 3

LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas)

INTRODUCTION

Natural gas is a major source of energy, but many towns and cities that need the

energy are located far from the gas fields. Transporting gas by pipeline can be costly

and impractical. We create LNG by cooling the gas to a liquid to -160C, which we

can then ship out, safely and efficiently.

LNG is a clear, colourless, non-toxic liquid that can be transported and stored more

easily than natural gas because it occupies up to 600 times less space.

When LNG reaches its destination, it is returned to a gas at regasification facilities. It

is then piped to homes, businesses and industries.

Shell helped pioneer the LNG sector, providing the technology for the world's first

commercial liquefaction plant at Arzew, Algeria, in 1964. Since then, we have

continued to improve the technology behind LNG.

HISTORY OF LNG

Natural gas liquefaction dates back to the 19th century when British chemist and

physicist Michael Faraday experimented with liquefying different types of gases,

including natural gas. German engineer Karl Von Linde built the first practical

compressor refrigeration machine in Munich in 1873. The first LNG plant was built in

West Virginia in 1912 and began operation in 1917. The first commercial liquefaction

plant was built in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1941.17 The LNG was stored in tanks at

atmospheric pressure. The liquefaction of natural gas raised the possibility of its

transportation to distant destinations. In January 1959, the world's first LNG tanker,

The Methane Pioneer, a converted World War ll liberty freighter containing five,

7,000 barrel equivalent aluminum prismatic tanks with balsa wood supports and

insulation of plywood and urethane, carried an LNG cargo from Lake Charles,

Louisiana to Canvey Island, United Kingdom. This event demonstrated that large

quantities of liquefied natural gas could be transported safely across the ocean.


48

Figure 3. British Gas Canvey Island LNG Terminal, A World First

Over the next 14 months, seven additional cargoes were delivered with only minor

problems. Following the successful performance of The Methane Pioneer, the British

Gas Council proceeded with plans to implement a commercial project to import LNG

from Venezuela to Canvey Island. However, before the commercial agreements

could be finalized, large quantities of natural gas were discovered in Libya and in the

gigantic Hassi R' Mel field in Algeria, which are only half the distance to England as

Venezuela. With the start-up of the 260 million cubic feet per day (MMcfd) Arzew

GL4Z or Camel plant in 1964, the United Kingdom became the world's first LNG

importer and Algeria the first LNG exporter. Algeria has since become a major world

supplier of natural gas as LNG.

After the concept was shown to work in the United Kingdom, additional liquefaction

plants and import terminals were constructed in both the Atlantic and Pacific regions.

Four marine terminals were built in the United States between 1971 and 1980. They

are in Lake Charles (operated by CMS Energy), Everett, Massachusetts (operated

by SUEZ through their Distrigas subsidiary), Elba Island, Georgia (operated by El

Paso Energy), and Cove Point, Maryland (operated by Dominion Energy). After

reaching a peak receipt volume of 253 BCF (billion cubic feet) in 1979, which

represented 1.3 percent of U.S. gas demand, LNG imports declined because a gas

surplus developed in North America and price disputes occurred with Algeria, the

sole LNG provider to the U.S. at that time. The Elba Island and Cove Point receiving


49

terminals were subsequently mothballed in 1980 and the Lake Charles and the

Everett terminals suffered from very low utilization.

The first exports of LNG from the U.S. to Asia occurred in 1969 when Alaskan LNG

was sent to Japan. Alaskan LNG is derived from natural gas that is produced by

ConocoPhillips and Marathon from fields in Cook Inlet in the southern portion of the

state of Alaska, liquefied at the Kenai Peninsula LNG plant (one of the oldest,

continuously operated LNG plants in the world) and shipped to Japan. The LNG

market in both Europe and Asia continued to grow rapidly from that point on. The

figure below shows worldwide growth in LNG since 1970.

PROPERTIES OF LNG

Liquified Natural Gas (Liquid Methane) is made by cooling natural gas to a

temperature of -260F. At that temperature, natural gas becomes a liquid and its

volume is reduced 615 times. (A car reduced 615 times would fit on your

thumbnail.) Liquified natural gas is easier to store than the gaseous form since it

takes up much less space. LNG is also easier to transport. People can put LNG in

special tanks and transport it on trucks or ships. Today more than 100 LNG storage

facilities are operating in the United States.

Methane is a colorless, odorless gas with a wide distribution in nature. It is the

principal component of natural gas, a mixture containing about 75% CH4, 15%

ethane (C2H6), and 5% other hydrocarbons, such as propane (C3H8) and butane

(C4H10). The "firedamp" of coal mines is chiefly methane. Anaerobic bacterial

decomposition of plant and animal matter, such as occurs under water, produces

marsh gas, which is also methane.

At room temperature, methane is a gas less dense than air. It melts at -183C and

boils at -164C. It is not very soluble in water. Methane is combustible, and

mixtures of about 5 to 15 percent in air are explosive. Methane is not toxic when

inhaled, but it can produce suffocation by reducing the concentration of oxygen

inhaled. A trace amount of smelly organic sulfur compounds (tertiary-butyl

mercaptan, (CH3)3CSH and dimethyl sulfide, (CH3)2S) is added to give commercial


50

natural gas a detectable odor. This is done to make gas leaks readily detectible. An

undetected gas leak could result in an explosion or asphyxiation.

Methane is synthesized commercially by the distillation of bituminous coal and by

heating a mixture of carbon and hydrogen. It can be produced in the laboratory by

heating sodium acetate (CH3COONa) with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and by the

reaction of aluminum carbide (Al4C3) with water.

In the chemical industry, methane is a raw material for the manufacture of methanol

(CH3OH), formaldehyde (CH2O), nitromethane (CH3NO2), chloroform (CH3Cl),

carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), and some freons (compounds containing carbon and

fluorine, and perhaps chlorine and hydrogen). The reactions of methane with

chlorine and fluorine are triggered by light. When exposed to bright visible light,

mixtures of methane with chlorine or fluorine react explosively.

The principal use of methane is as a fuel.

Property Value

Symbol LNG

Melting Point 54.36 K

Boiling Point 111.6 K

Heat of Vaporization (@101.325 kPa) 212.9 kj/kg K

Specific Heat (Cp, 0C @ 101.325 kPa) 1.70 kj/kg K

Viscosity 188.0 kg/m-s X 106

Thermal Conductivity (k) 151.4 mW/m-k

Critical Temperature 154.576 K

Critical Pressure 5.04 MPa

Temperature at Triple Point 54.35 K @ 151

Mpa

Saturated Liquid Density (p) @ 0C, 101.325

kPa 442.6 kg/m

3

Phase at Room Temperature (20C) Gas


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THE ADVANTAGES OF LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS

Liquefied natural gas (LNG) boasts a number of advantages, which are driving its

growth. It combines the clean combustion and calorific value of natural gas with the

transportation flexibility of liquid hydrocarbons.

Gas, a Clean, Efficient, Energy Option

The issue of monetizing gas resources is becoming increasingly crucial for producing

nations and oil and gas operators alike. Natural gas owes its growing appeal to its

numerous advantages:

It is a clean-burning fuel whose combustion generates no unburned residues,

particulates or soot, and releases less greenhouse gas than the other fossil fuels.

Its high calorific value allows latest-generation power plants to achieve high energy

efficiency using cogeneration or combined cycle configurations, limiting both energy

consumption and atmospheric emissions. On the strength of these advantages, the

share of natural gas in power generation is projected to rise from 20% in 2004 to

nearly 25% in 2030.

Liquefaction, Unlocking New Opportunities

One of the main reasons for the emergence of the LNG industry is that it

makes transporting natural gas over long distances both technically and

economically feasible. This spells opportunity for both gas-producing and gas-

consuming countries:

Exporting LNG by carrier means that huge reserves of gas located far from major

consumer regions can be tapped. Liquefaction creates new market opportunities,

generating revenues that stimulate the economies of producing nations. In

addition, liquefaction often contributes to the reduction of gas flaring associated with

crude oil production, thus limiting greenhouse gas emissions.

The LNG value chain not only promotes the use of an energy source with a smaller

environmental footprint than other fossil resources, it also addresses the concerns

of consumer nations regarding their diversity of supply while reducing their energy

dependence on countries that supply natural gas via pipeline.


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Unlike piped natural gas, a cargo of LNG can be diverted en route. This promotes

the flexibility that consumer nations need to manage their supply, and enables

producing nations to optimize the monetization of their assets. This flexibility has

been spurred by the increase in short-term LNG trading tied to market deregulation.

That same flexibility is proving an advantage for some countries such as Brazil,

which are counting on the forthcoming growth of this sector in an offshore context.

Shipping the gas by LNG carrier on a regional (as opposed to a transoceanic) scale

offers an alternative to the challenging and costly development of pipeline systems.

LNG in Four Steps

Presence across the Value Chain, Including Marketing

Most LNG is sold under long-term sale and purchase agreements between

liquefaction plants and gas marketers and/or power generators. Signing these

contracts is a vital prerequisite to building liquefaction facilities, because they

determine the economic viability of the plant an investment of several billion

dollars. LNG trading also takes advantage of the spot and short-term markets, which


53

emerged about a decade ago in conjunction with natural gas market deregulation in

Europe and expansion in LNG production and shipping capacity. These fast-growing

trading opportunities provide an increasing degree of flexibility to market players.

DISADVANTAGES OF LNG

LNG operations are capital intensive. Upfront costs are large for construction of

liquefaction facilities, purchasing specially designed LNG ships, and building re-

gasification facilities.

Methane, a primary component of LNG, is considered a greenhouse gas because it

increases carbon levels in the atmosphere when released.

TRANSPORTATION OF LNG

LNG is transported in specially designed ships with double hulls protecting the cargo

systems from damage or leaks. There are several special leak test methods

available to test the integrity of an LNG vessel's membrane cargo tanks.

The tankers cost around USD 200 million each.

Transportation and supply is an important aspect of the gas business, since natural

gas reserves are normally quite distant from consumer markets. Natural gas has far

more volume than oil to transport, and most gas is transported by pipelines. There is

a natural gas pipeline network in the former Soviet Union, Europe and North

America. Natural gas is less dense, even at higher pressures. Natural gas will travel

much faster than oil through a high-pressure pipeline, but can transmit only about a

fifth of the amount of energy per day due to the lower density. Natural gas is usually

liquefied to LNG at the end of the pipeline, prior to shipping.

Short LNG pipelines for use in moving product from LNG vessels to onshore storage

are available. Longer pipelines, which allow vessels to offload LNG at a greater

distance from port facilities, are under development. This requires pipe in pipe

technology due to requirements for keeping the LNG cold.

LNG is transported using both tanker truck, railway tanker, and purpose built ships

known as LNG carriers. LNG will be sometimes taken to cryogenic temperatures to

increase the tanker capacity. The first commercial ship-to-ship transfer (STS)


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transfers were undertaken in February 2007 at the Flotta facility in Scapa Flow with

132,000 m3 of LNG being passed between the vessels Excalibur and Excelsior.

Transfers have also been carried out by Exmar Ship management, the Belgian gas

tanker owner in the Gulf of Mexico, which involved the transfer of LNG from a

conventional LNG carrier to an LNG regasification vessel (LNGRV). Prior to this

commercial exercise LNG had only ever been transferred between ships on a

handful of occasions as a necessity following an incident.

PIPING FOR LNG

The performance and economic advantages of vacuum insulation piping have been

realized in many industries and applications for decades. Extensive and

unnecessary boil-off gas, pipeline insulation maintenance and repair, and running

and maintaining large compressors and/or reliquefiers no longer need to be common

burdens and expenses for LNG plant and terminal operation.

ADVANTAGES

The double wall design acts as an added safety feature as a secondary barrier for

the Liquefied Natural Gas carrier pipe.

VIP (Vacuum Insulated Pipe) can be installed underground and under water whilst

MIP cannot.

Option for internal expansion bellows and loops (for thermal expansion and

contraction) for underground and under water installations.

Pipe diameters up to 60 are possible with an inner pipe constructed from stainless

steel (typically ASTM Type 304/304L), whilst the outer jacket can be constructed

from stainless or carbon steel depending on site conditions and specific

requirements of the facility owners.

The vacuum level greatly reduces the conductive and convective heat transfer from

the ambient surroundings into the cold LNG carrier pipe.

The annular space between the carrier and jacket pipes is fitted with a multiple layer

radiation shielding system, which further reduces the heat transferred into the LNG

piping


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LNG Dispenser

Design

The Cryogenic Fuels LNG dispenser unit is designed to perform a two-line vent fill

with the vent gas being metered and recovered to the facility main bulk storage tank.

The dispenser unit includes a density compensation metering subsystem, the

pneumatically operated, fuel delivery shutoff valves, a 40 micron filter, two direct

mass metering, flow meters, for liquid/vapor totalizing, and a back-pressure regulator

that may be preset to provide operating pressures of 50 to 110 psi in the vehicle

tank. The dispenser unit also includes an explosion-proof box that contains the

start/stop switches, a methane gas detector, hazardous warning lights and the

emergency stop button.

Computer Controller

The programmable system controller (PLC) for the dispenser is located in a non-

hazardous area that must be located at least 70 ft. from the fuel storage and fuel

dispensing area. This subsystem consists of the system electronic circuits that

transmit the signals from various control components including the pump prime and

pump start/stop commands and the signals from the liquid sensors. The station liquid

sensors control the plumbing cool-down and the start of the pump motor. Liquid

sensors are also installed in the dispenser and the fueling hose disconnect to control

re-circulation flow and automatic fuel shut-off when the vehicle tanks are 100 % full.

Fueling Disconnects

The Model C-1000-2 dispenser is also equipped with multiple fueling disconnects of

different types to accommodate a variety of fuel tank receptacles. The vehicle fill

process is initiated by depressing the "fueling start" button on the front of the

console. A liquid sensor installed in the dispenser provides the signal to

automatically terminate the fueling process when the fuel tank is filled to 90% of its

maximum allowable volume. The fill process may also be terminated at any time by

depressing an "emergency stop" switch, is also on the front of the dispenser console.


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CHAPTER 4

LIQUIFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)

INTRODUCTION

Autogas is the common name for liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) when it is used as a

fuel in internal combustion engines in vehicles as well as in stationary applications

such as generators. It is a mixture of propane and butane.

Autogas is widely used as a "green" fuel, as it decreases exhaust emissions. In

particular, it reduces CO2 emissions by around 25% compared to petrol. One litre of

petrol produces 2.3 kg of CO2 when burnt, whereas the equivalent amount of

autogas (1.33 litre due to lower density of autogas) produces only 1.5 * 1.33 = 2 kg

of CO2 when burnt. It has an octane rating (MON/RON) that is between 90 and 110

and an energy content (higher heating valueHHV) that is between 25.5 mega

joules per litre (for pure propane) and 28.7 mega joules per litre (for pure butane)

depending upon the actual fuel composition.

HISTORY OF LPG

LPG was first identified as a significant component of petroleum in 1910.

The story goes that a Ford Model T owner asked Dr. Walter O. Snelling, a chemist

and explosives expert with the U.S. Bureau of Mines, why the gasoline he had

purchased was half gone by the time he got home. The car owner thought the

governmen

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ALTERNATE FUELS FOR AUTOMOBILES BY M A QADEER