Alternative Energy and Livelihood Potential - Draft 2 - JulyAug 2013

Alternative energy and livelihood assessment in South Sudan

THE LIVELIHOOD SERIES No 2

Alternative Energy and Livelihood Potential in South Sudan

An Assessment

By Plan South Sudan

1 | P a g e P r e p a r e d b y P l a n S o u t h S u d a n


CONTENTS

Forward

Acknowledgement

Introduction…………………………………………….1

Background and objectives…………………………………2

Existing livelihood options………………………………..4

Challenges of livelihood……………………………………5

Challenges in agriculture…………………………………………6 Environmental challenges……………………………………….7

Protection challenges……………………………………………9 Health and nutrition challenges……………………………….10

Challenges in access to sustainable energy…………………...11

Coping mechanisms / alternative livelihood options…..14



Who does what? …………………………………………….16

Conclusion……………………………………………………18

Recommendations ……………………….20

Alternative livelihood options……………………………………….20 Production and dissemination of fuel efficient stoves…….21 Production, dissemination of solar cookers ………………27 Small household solar systems / Distribution of Pico-solar kits …27

Micro-solar Irrigation Scheme……………………………….28

Environmental protection……………………………………………..28Establishment of tree nurseries ………………………………….29Area closure and valuable tree planting………………………29Gum Arabica / Africa and Lulu collection………………………29

Policy advocacy and raising awareness ………………………….30 Policy analysis and influencing………………………………30

Raising awareness about sustainable community-based environmental management…………………………………30

References ……………………………………………………..31

FORWARD

Plan International is a child-focused organisation that is active in 75 countries of the world. Plan was registered in South Sudan in 2006, and became a full country office in 2011, when the country achieved independence. Since then Plan South Sudan has since worked in close partnership with the government, community-based organisations and other groups to address the many pressing needs of the new country.

Livelihoods approach

One of the areas in which Plan has placed a special emphasis is livelihoods development. By assisting families to engage in positive income-generating activities, Plan believes it can reach and benefit the many children and youth who are now living in poverty across the county.

South Sudan has one of the youngest populations in the world with 72 per cent of its people aged less than 30 years. Plan believes that providing alternative livelihood opportunities for the youth is the best way to engage them in nation building and discourage their involvement in antisocial activities such as cattle raiding, sex work, forced labour, anti-government militia groups, urban crime and banditry.



Evidence -based programming

Plan is convinced that the livelihood approach is a valid way of achieving development in a country that is emerging from years of protracted conflict. To this end Plan also is obliged to design and carry out programmes that offer the best value for money, as seen through measurable results and clear benefits to children, youth and the community.

It is for this reason that Plan has been carrying out assessments of livelihood opportunities in the areas where it work. The information and analysis adduced has been very important in program design as well as in advocating for more support from government and development partners. In 2012 and 2013, Plan commissioned three studies to assess the potential available in agriculture and livestock development, apiculture (bee-keeping) and alternative energy. Each of these studies addresses a critical need and one identified as a priority in Plan’s Country Strategic Plan (CSP) as well as in government, national, and sector development plans. These studies are being published under a “Livelihoods Series” label that the organization hopes to keep adding to. The assessments mainly focused on the region located along the Nimule, Kapoeita and Yei – Juba – Bor transport corridors, and the environs. This is the area where Plan has made the greatest program investments since 2006 and believes that, due to markets proximity, relative stability and strategic location, holds the greatest potential to generate livelihood opportunities on the large scale that the country needs.

National dialogue

These reports will contribute to the growing store of knowledge on South Sudan, as well as the ongoing debate on what the best approaches to development are. Plan South Sudan does not see itself as holding the final word, or even the answers to any of these important questions. However, it is our hope that other development actors will finds these reports useful for their own work and perhaps stimulate the need for more research and discussion.

Thank you.

Gyan AdhikariiCountry DirectorPlan International South Sudan July 2013, Juba, South Sudan



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The research and publication of this report on could not have been possible without the funding provided by Plan Canada. Plan wishes to thank Safo Visha and Ivan Zenar of Plan Canada for their support and commitment to South Sudan.

Plan also wishes to thank Fasil Tsegaye of Plan Ethiopia who led the research, and the Emergency Response Department of Plan South Sudan, led by Resom Habtegabriel, who made this possible. Thanks to Eric Amadra, the Livelihoods Advisor for Plan South Sudan for technical support. Thanks also to Roselyne Omondi for editorial support and for the good work she has done to help knit the livelihood series together.

Finally we wish to acknowledge the support and encouragement of the World Food Programme (South Sudan) with whom we have worked very closely in our emergency response work. It is our hope that this research will lead to the strengthening of our partnership and the expansion of the work we do together.



INTRODUCTION

“The conventional way of framing the dialogue on climate change strategies is based on the concept of multiple-wins solutions that attempt to solve problems of growth, poverty, mitigation and adaptation simultaneously. However, such a concept might be misleading and suggests there is a fundamental difference between solving problems related to rising affluence (energy infrastructure and mitigation), and problems related to persistent poverty (energy access and adaptation), with important consequences for energy aid. The dialogue on climate compatible development strategies should be reframed in terms of finding double-wins solutions in two separate spheres of intervention and policy: green growth dealing with the problem of rising affluence, and energy access dealing with problems of poverty. Replacing the traditional divide between economic development and climate change with a new divide between green growth and energy access may offer a better starting point to address the geopolitical and economic realities facing developing countries today.” - Bruggink, J. ‘Energy Aid in Times of Climate Change: Designing Climate Change Compatible Development Strategies’. March, 2012.

The failure to address the issue of climate change especially in post-conflict areas in developing countries has received little attention in the humanitarian setting. Climate change due to global warming at the international level, which is further exacerbated by the depletion of the natural environment due to lack of access to energy in local contexts, has become a real threat to the very existence of people in the developing 6 | P a g e P r e p a r e d b y P l a n S o u t h S u d a n

user, 08/11/13,

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countries in general, and sub-Saharan African countries in particular. The situation is even worse in the context of post-independence South Sudan where environmental degradation caused by decades of conflict, mismanagement of the natural resources and lack of alternative energy sources has jeopardized the growth and development of the country. Sustainable energy should be developed to drive growth and development and made accessible to the people in order to foster productivity and reduce the severe poverty that affects the country.

According to a baseline assessment carried out by World Food Programme (WFP) in January-February 2012, more than 96 per cent of the population in Southern Sudan depends on biomass for cooking, heating, and lighting. Such massive dependence on biomass impacts the natural environment negatively, and makes it increasingly difficult for the people to collect firewood on a daily basis. The distance of travelled to collect firewood and produce charcoal has become longer posing diverse challenges to the people. The challenges are worse for women who may become victims of rape and killings. Men are not spared either and some are killed in the process of collecting firewood and cutting trees to produce charcoal.

The loss of the natural forest resource and the biodiversity due to the ever increasing demand for charcoal, brick making, firewood and pole production significantly contributes to changing local climate. The traditional practice of shifting cultivation, which has been used for ages, also leads to the loss of the natural forest cover and biodiversity, significantly reduces greenhouse gases absorption and annual precipitation. In the long run the rapid deforestation in the country will make most parts of the country vulnerable to natural disasters, particularly drought and floods.

In addition to exposure to dangers like rape and violence, charcoal making and charcoal burning affect the health of women and children negatively. The WFP baseline assessment* indicates that the use of three-stone fires for cooking exposes women to open fires, toxic smoke and particulates that are known to cause serious respiratory and eye illnesses.

According to the report, the unsustainable exploitation of the environment for firewood and charcoal making compromises the envisaged long-term food security efforts of the Government of the Republic of South Sudan. Firewood collection and charcoal making now form the primary means of livelihood for majority of the people in the country. These have become sources of conflict as different communities compete for the rapidly depleting forest resources.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Plan South Sudan (PSS) working in partnership with Plan Canada National Office (CNO) requested technical support to assess the alternative energy situation in the

* WFP Safe Access to Firewood and Alternative Energy, 2012 7 | P a g e P r e p a r e d b y P l a n S o u t h S u d a n


Republic of South Sudan (hereafter South Sudan), and develop a project concept on the livelihood options available in this area. This initiative taken in recognition of the challenges posed to the most vulnerable children and sections of the communities in areas where PSS works with regards to the collection of firewood and charcoal making. PSS has also embarked on programmes to address widespread poverty by supporting women and young people to secure opportunities for income generation and is keen to explore what opportunities can be exploited simultaneously with climate mitigation efforts. PSS further initiated this effort initiated this effort in collaboration with WFP in order to build on the effort in the Safe Access to Firewood and Alternative Energy through enhanced livelihood mechanisms in South Sudan.

The results of the assessment are envisaged to lead Plan International and WFP developing joint projects and related activities to address the challenges and build on the strengths and opportunities identified in the assessment. This will further expand the collaboration which PSS and WFP working with the support of Plan Canada and Plan Australia have established in order to deliver life-saving support to thousands of people affected by disaster in South Sudan. Successful initiatives in alternative energy and livelihoods development among communities affected by humanitarian crisis would have stabilizing effort contribution to possible recovery and resilience and support of the implementation of the Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) strategy of PSS.

REPUBLIC OF SOUTH SUDAN

South Sudan emerged as the newest country in the world on 9 th July 2011 after the devastating decades-long post-independence civil war ended when the region voted to break away from Sudan. However, majority of the estimated 8.2 million people there still live in abject poverty and suffer intricate social, economic and political problems (WFP SAFE report, 2012).

The country’s national revenue is largely derived from the extraction of oil which accounts for 98 per cent of the government budget. Despite starting life with some of the worst social indicators in the world, South Sudan holds great potential especially in the agricultural sector, in both crop cultivation and livestock production. With good soils, plenty of water and large expanses of arable land, the country has the potential to become the breadbasket of the entire region in the near future. However, the development of the agricultural sector is impeded by persistent inter-ethnic conflicts often caused by a clash between pastoralist and sedentary ways of life as well as negative attitudes by the youth who dislike the idea of earning a living through working on land. Addressing these challenges is a priority but will take many years as the new country has established only a few of the relevant institutions and these have limited resources and capacity.

Inter-ethnic conflicts, seasonal floods and drought (partly due to climate change) cause instability and affect sustainable development and food security in the country negatively. The mounting pressure on the livelihoods of millions of vulnerable people in 8 | P a g e P r e p a r e d b y P l a n S o u t h S u d a n


South Sudan cannot be relieved through unsustainable use of natural resources. The protracted socio-economic and political challenges and problems in the country often frustrate the process of sustainable land use, forest management, and promotion of alternative livelihoods to reduce extreme poverty and the stress on the natural environment. For instance, rampant poverty has had a significant impact on the depletion of forest cover in areas near urban centres as people resort to charcoal burning, selling firewood and fencing poles as the only means of earning a living. A similar problem occurs in rural areas where the communities practice slash-and-burn land management. Recent droughts have resulted in pastoralist communities burning pasture to generate animal food, which often lead to forest fires. In rural areas

The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) and German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ) have tried to find livelihood options that help the most affected communities, and prevent further devastation of the natural environment. However, it will take a while longer and more concerted long-term efforts of many other agencies and stakeholders to achieve the desired impact.

This assessment builds directly on the WFP Safe Access to Firewood and Livelihoods assessment which is meant to form the baseline for a global programme that will address the challenge of alternative energy in areas where WFP and its partners work. The objectives of SAFE are to:

i. assess the existing livelihood options of the communities in selected sites in South Sudan and the impacts on the natural environment

ii. assess the risks attached to the existing livelihood options iii. assess the environmental impacts of the livelihood options iv. identify environmentally friendly livelihood options v. assess relevant options to promote SAFE and alternative energy options to

improve the livelihood options of the communities and positively impact the natural environment.

EXISTING LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS

According the WFP assessment report the main livelihoods for majority of the people in South Sudan are based on crop cultivation and cattle herding. However, both sectors are at their lowest productivity level due to decades of civil war with the Sudan. Crop cultivation practices are usually affected by the variability in amount and distribution of rainfall, and displacement of people due to conflicts. The farming sector relies heavily on traditional practices due to lack of improved agricultural inputs and diversification of technology. Irrigation both at the micro and macro levels has not yet developed to the level where it could contribute to securing food sufficiency in the country. The communities’ dependence on the natural environment for their livelihood leads to the depletion of the natural resources. The collection of firewood for cooking and the 9 | P a g e P r e p a r e d b y P l a n S o u t h S u d a n


production of charcoal have become alternative sources of income for significant proportion of the communities in both rural and urban settings. Households tend to depend on the sale of firewood and charcoal to earn income and sustain livelihoods. This has created increased pressure on the natural forest, contributing to climate change at local level. According to a food security survey conducted in March 2012 by WFP, more than 69 per cent of the population relies on the sale of charcoal and firewood for income.

Most rural communities do not consider farming to be a sustainable livelihood option because of several reasons, including:

i. the demanding nature of non-mechanised farming ii. erratic rainfall, which leads to crop failure iii. limited access to markets for produce.

All these are considered as disincentives for the farmers to cultivate more and bring the surplus to the market to enhance their earnings. The problem is worsened by the low level of literacy (estimated at less than 20 per cent in rural areas), which impedes the adaptive capacity of the rural population to take up improved agricultural inputs, practices and other alternative sources of energy such as solar and biogas (that have huge potential to improve production and productivity thereby improving quality of life in the rural setting.

In order to enhance their income, rural communities - and in some cases urban communities - engage in firewood collection and charcoal production for the market. However, these activities are risky because the depletion of the natural resources in settlement areas forces the people to travel longer distances to access forest resources. The longer the distances the business owners travel, the more vulnerable they become to violence, rape and abductions and other incidents inflicted by cattle riders, bandits and other armed groups. The business of firewood collection and charcoal making has also created competition for the same resources by neighboring communities which sometimes leads to violence and conflicts. Competition between communities for the increasingly scarce forest resources will eventually lead to the complete devastation of the biodiversity and deforestation, which will accelerate climate change and the occurrence of related natural disasters such as floods and famine, if the cycle continues unabated. The protracted conflict in some parts of the country before and in the aftermath of the independence in South Sudan hinders the government and other development actors from developing policies and programmes for the sustainable use of the natural resources in the country to enhance livelihood options.

Livestock production is also practiced in traditional ways exposing certain tribes to cattle raiding which can escalate into major inter-ethnic wars. The livestock and agricultural extension services are not yet developed to provide veterinary services among the 10 | P a g e P r e p a r e d b y P l a n S o u t h S u d a n


cattle herding communities. The livestock production sector is not linked to the markets despite the huge potential the sector has to enhance not only the income of herding communities but also the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of South Sudan. Cattle herders consider their cattle population as a symbol of their social status, and are very resistant to ideas of monetising them even in seasons of drought when many animals die. In any case the complete lack of infrastructure makes market access very difficult. In some parts of Jonglei and Upper Nile States, for instance, access is limited to the short dry season. Nevertheless the role of the livestock sector in enhancing income at community and national levels is insignificant if the potential is exploited.

Subsistence farmers who participated in the focus group discussion in Juba Country, Rokon Payam and Rokon Boma stated that migratory cattle practice is one of the factors for the environmental degradation due to open grazing and destruction of crops. Quite often open grazing results in deadly conflicts between cattle herders and sedentary agriculturalist communities. The conflict between subsistence crop cultivators and cattle herders due to the completion for farm lands and grazing land, representing the respective dominant economic groups, often results in discouragement on the part of the cultivators. They view the destruction of crops by cattle as a deliberate act by livestock keeping communities who tend to look down on (crop) farmers. This makes it difficult for the cultivators to pursue their agricultural practices forcing them to revert to other sources of income such as charcoal making, firewood collection and fencing poles production, which accelerates the deforestation and environmental degradation further.

CHALLENGES OF LIVELIHOOD As a country emerging from protracted civil war South Sudan faces intricate socio-economic and political challenges. The economic sector is at its lowest by all economic indicators†. As indicated earlier, the agriculture sector is the least developed sector despite the fact that the livelihood of the majority of the population is dependent on it. Although both farming and livestock production sectors are critical for food security and livelihoods in the country both are highly vulnerable due to the protracted conflict and instability which continue in the post-independence period. These problems are exacerbated by the slow institution building process meant to enhance production and productivity in the sector.

Challenges in agriculture

A community discussion held in the Rjaf Village, Juba County, revealed that farmers are facing severe problems in their livelihoods due to environmental, social and economic setbacks. The community members said food production is unrewarding due to the following reasons:

† The Political Economy of South Sudan: A Scoping Analytical Study; The African Development Bank, 2011

Country Strategic Plan (CSP): Plan South Sudan Program FY 2011-FY2016; PP. 5-6 11 | P a g e P r e p a r e d b y P l a n S o u t h S u d a n


i. Rainfall irregularities cause crop failure every season. Under normal circumstances the rain season starts in April. Currently the rain season starts in July or September.

ii. Pests destroy the crops as there are no pesticides to prevent crop loss. iii. The cultivation practice is so backward and labor intensive, which discourages

most people from intensifying their crop production.iv. Lack of access to markets to sell some of the agricultural produce impedes

cultivation, and the incomes of the cultivators remain very low.v. Range cattle keeping practices, the herds are numbered in thousands, cause

destruction farm crops and the forest.

The livestock production in much of South Sudan is rudimentary. Cattle are considered valuable assets more for the social purposes like paying bride price than for their economic values. According to community members, cattle herders use the size of their cattle herds as a measure of a man’s prestige and power rather than economic wealth. This cultural value attached to the livestock production leads to the notorious cattle raiding which is a major cause of inter-ethnic conflicts. These conflicts are not always limited to herding communities. In Jonglei State, for instance, cyclic conflict between the Lour Nuer and the Mulre communities affect neighboring sedentary tribes as far afield as Torit and Juba Counties in Eastern and Central Equatoria States. In some cases conflict around cattle ownership or resource access takes place among groups of the same ethnic communities as often seen among the Lotuko people in Eastern Equatoria State.

Environmental challenges

The community dialogue held in Rejaf Village revealed that community members are aware of the climate change impact caused by human activities. They articulated the phenomenon of the changing climate in relation to the continuing civil war between the Sudan and the liberation fighters in Southern Sudan. Most members of the community who participated in the dialogue‡ associated the causes of the changing climate to the extinction of their shaman’s ancestors who used to perform rituals to bring rain at the right time. These shamans knew the techniques of mediating between the community and the creator and bring the benevolence of the gods upon the people. The discussants therefore lamented that all their shamans died during the civil war and now none of them can perform the same rituals. For this reason the rain season has become unpredictable and the rainfall erratic, making cultivation of crops almost an uncertain task which is often unrewarding. According to them the loss of the shamans has also led to the moral degradation and the loosening of social bonds.

Although community members explained the unpredictability rainy seasons and variability in the coverage and amount of rainfall as the result of the disappearance of

‡ Torit and Central Equatoria FGD with villagers 12 | P a g e P r e p a r e d b y P l a n S o u t h S u d a n


the shamans, they are also aware of other factors that can be attributed directly to their own actions. They identified the following factors as contributors to rainfall failure:

i. The slash-and-burn (shifting cultivation) practice, which is common agricultural method used for generations, causes deforestation.

ii. Cattle that are grazed openly destroy of the natural forest and natural vegetation. iii. Firewood collection and charcoal making. This leads to uncontrolled cutting of

trees, which causes variability in the amount and distribution of rainfall.

Charcoal making, pole production destroy the natural environment.

Protection challenges

In addition to the environmental risks and livelihood challenges South Sudan is susceptible to many human rights violations. Many people are vulnerable to one or another form of violence due to inter-ethnic conflict and cattle raiding that partly emanates from the competition for scarce resources in the environment. This sometimes causes large-scale population displacement further increasing the risk of trafficking, forced labour, abductions and other types of human rights violations. In some States such as Jonglei and Upper Nile these inert ethnic conflicts have evolved into armed anti-government militia groups, which have resulted in even greater violation of human rights. Vulnerable communities are often caught between the armed rebel groups and government forces. The most vulnerable in such situations are children and women.

Protection mechanisms in the country are weak as institutions lack the resources and capacity to carry out their mandates. The austerity measures introduced in 2012, which followed the decision by the government to shut off the flow of oil through the North, have affected these institutions and government departments usually leaving these without the means to function.



In most cases conflicts among different communities or tribes occur due to competition for scarce resources such as grazing land and forests (for firewood, charcoal making, water resources, and pole production. According to the Chief Administrator of Rokon Payam in Juba County, the local government administration exacts revenue from taxation imposed on charcoal and fencing poles sales to discourage uncontrolled resource exploitation that leads to further environmental degradation. The government policy on the forest resource management states that five trees have to be planted by users to replace every tree that they cut down. According to the administrator this law is not enforced due to government’s limited law enforcement capacity. Many indigenous trees will be destroyed in a few years in places where there are settlements if this trend continues unabated.

Violence not only occurs because of competition for natural resources among communities, but also from political instability in South Sudan. The tense relationship with Sudan (the North) remains a major security risk in the country. The frequent border tensions cause large population displacement and has often led to humanitarian catastrophes. Following such tensions in 2012, and a decision by the North to declare all Southerners on their territory illegal such a humanitarian crisis occurred, leaving thousands of people stuck on the border between the two countries. This forced movement of large population groups leads to conflict with the host communities resulting in the loss of life and the deterioration of relationships between refugees and/or internally displaced persons (IDPs) and their hosts. The other social groups that are prone to conflict situation among settler communities are the voluntary returnees from the Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia and other countries, many of whom chose to return to their country after its independence. These groups also use the natural environment as a survival and coping mechanism as they often lack alternative ways to earn a living. This not only accelerates environmental degradation but also increases competition for the same resources with other groups, leading to conflicts.

Problems in relation to protection are not only limited to the major issues already discussed. Women are particularly affected by the risky task of collecting firewood for cooking and sale. This is worsened by the abject poverty that engulfs the country exposing women and children to violence. Firewood collection and sale is entirely a woman’s task in most of South Sudan. The violence committed against women usually goes unreported for fear of divorce or inciting further conflict in the community. In addition to sexual violence, the productivity of the women is affected by the ever increasing distance that they have to travel to collect firewood. Children, who also engage in firewood collection and related tasks, are at risk of similar incidents including abduction.

Although women and children are considered the most vulnerable to violence in the process of firewood collection and sale, men also face some dangers in the process of charcoal making and poles production for sale. This is mainly the case when they are unable to find valuable big trees nearby and encroach into the areas occupied by neighboring communities. They are beaten and sometimes killed by the neighboring 14 | P a g e P r e p a r e d b y P l a n S o u t h S u d a n


communities who also depend on the forest resources for pursuit of the same livelihood. Sometimes they are killed by cattle raiders.

Finally as a consequence of many years of civil war, many places especially Eastern and Central Equatoria, Jonglei and Lakes States are littered with landmines and other unexploded ordinances which put people at risk. Many cases of snake bite deaths have also been reported as people exploit forest resources.

Health and nutrition challenges

The production and productivity of the subsistence farming by households in the two States covered by the assessment, Central and Eastern Equatoria, is greatly impeded by the civil war that lasted for decades, and the inter-ethnic conflicts that have continued and now affect economic stability which is a prerequisite for social development and productivity negatively. In addition to the conflict and instability that characterise the post-independence South Sudan, subsistence agriculture in the two States is both labour-intensive, and lacks capital and institutional support. The state government of Eastern Equatoria regularly declares “cultivation days” – working days set aside each rainy season for all people to work on the land. However, without suitable equipment the task of preparing virgin land for food production is difficult and very few people are willing to engage in it. All these constraints are further exacerbated by the frequent variability in the amount and distribution of the seasonal rainfall causing crop failure from time to time. The low level of institutional support in the agricultural sector also contributes to poor subsistence production making it difficult to ensure food security and poverty alleviation in South Sudan. These factors lead to inadequate availability of food throughout the year causing enormous malnutrition and mortality. A significant proportion of the population in both States is therefore forced to rely on the food aid. The resultant dependency has pushed the attainment of the goal of food security even further into the future.

Low productivity in the subsistence agriculture means that the food is insufficient and cannot sustain the communities throughout the year. Malnutrition of children in the two States is very high causing high child mortality. Although the major crops produced by farmers such as sorghum, millet, groundnut, sesame, sweet potato and others have the potential for marketing and significantly reducing malnutrition, the production is very low in terms of quality and quantity and cannot sustain the farmers and their families sufficiently. According to FAO assessments nine out of the 10 States of South Sudan are chronically food insecure. The very low infrastructural development in South Sudan in general, and the two States in particular, also discourages the subsistence farmers from taking some of their produces to the market and buy food items to complement their nutritional status.

Challenges in accessing sustainable energy

Sustainable economic growth and social development greatly depend on the availability 15 | P a g e P r e p a r e d b y P l a n S o u t h S u d a n


and access to sustainable energy. The history of man’s economic and technological advancement shows that human creativity can be used to identify the most reliable and sustainable sources of energy are critical to ensure the continuity of man’s aspiration to growth and development. However, not many of the energy sources that man has invented are sustainable and free from their devastating impact on the natural environment.

Neither economic nor social development can be achieved without the production of sufficient quantities of energy and ensuring their accessibility to economic actors. Unfortunately, energy, especially electricity, is a scarce commodity in many developing countries. That in turn makes it too expensive for the poor and simply inaccessible especially in rural areas. As a result, the economic development of millions of people in developing countries in general, and in South Sudan in particular, is hampered.

Development experts agree that many African countries including South Sudan will not achieve all Millennium Development Goals that relate to food security, supply of potable water, quality education and health services by 2015, because energy is required to realise these targets. A growing number of experts and scientists also recommend that developing countries avoid reliance on fossil fuels owing largely to the contribution of global warming and climate change. However, governments of rapidly developing economies such as China, India, Brazil, Indonesia and Mexico invest heavily in fossil fuels like oil and coal, so it is not easy ( for other developing nations) to adopt this recommendation.

The development models of these countries also demonstrate that rapid economic development comes at the price of serious environmental pollution and a widening gap between rich and the poor. In addition the continued environmental pollution due to the ever increasing greenhouse gas emissions by developed and fast-growing countries has made poor countries across the globe more vulnerable to disasters caused by global warming as they lack of resilience and capacity to overcome the disasters.

This reality calls for an immediate and collective response of all actors at global level to nurture the resilience capacity of poor nations to environmental disasters and exert all the necessary pressure on the developed and fast-growing nations to reduce and gradually stop the pollution of the atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions.

The contribution of the developing countries to environmental devastation is also massive. Quite often the economies of developing countries in general (and South Sudan is a good example), relies heavily on the natural environment for subsistence agriculture, cattle herding, fishery, mining and other industries. Most sectors also rely on the biomass and fossil fuel to meet their energy requirements. This heavy reliance on the natural environment leads to massive degradation of the natural environment contributing to climate change at the local level.



In the two States, Central and Eastern Equatoria, where the assessment was conducted, the main sources of energy are biomass and fossil fuels. Firewood and charcoal are the main sources of energy for majority of the population. The collection of firewood and charcoal making has led to the rapid depletion of the natural forest and the evidence is quite visible as one travels along the Yei-Juba-Torit highway which links the two States. Firewood and charcoal are also the main sources of energy for the urban and semi-urban areas and the main sources of alternative income for the rural communities, serving as a coping mechanism in the context of the unreliable or simply unavailable livelihood alternatives.

A government official in the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Eastern Equatoria State in charge of Torit Payam explained that the business of charcoal making attracts not only indigenous communities in the State but also immigrants from the neighboring countries such as Kenya and Uganda. Tonnes of charcoal are produced and supplied to the market in urban areas mainly Juba, South Sudan’s capital, where the consumption of charcoal is very high, and charcoal selling is a lucrative business. However charcoal making destroys valuable indigenous trees and accentuates the process of desertification. Furthermore, the heavy dependence on firewood and charcoal for cooking, lighting and heating destroys natural forests rapidly, a situation which is worsened by lack of availability and access to alternative energy sources.

Electric power for the capital, and for use in other urban and semi-urban areas across the nation, is generated entirely by fuel generators. Hydroelectric power generation is not envisaged as a near future endeavour because of the limited potential, and the limited institutional and financial capacities. The use of fossil fuel generators contributes not only to global warming due to greenhouse gas emissions, but also results in the loss of capital due to the high running costs of the generators such as fuel, oil, and maintenance.

Cooking is a risky task in most households in both rural and urban areas because the traditional three-stone fires used expose women and children to the open flames that cause burns and emit toxic smoke. There is always a risk of fires destroying property and causing death.

The use of energy for lighting in most rural areas in the two States covered by the assessment is very low. Hot weather during the dry seasons forces rural communities to spend the nights outdoors. Grass torches, small hand-held battery torches, and open fires are used for lighting during the rainy season. The absence of electricity service or alternative sources of energy for lighting in rural areas has a negative bearing on the socialisation of family members and especially children’s ability to study during the night. Lack of availability and access to sustainable energy means low productivity in the economy at national and community levels. In order to have a vibrant economy and robust productivity in the agricultural sector, ensuring access to sustainable and clean 17 | P a g e P r e p a r e d b y P l a n S o u t h S u d a n


energy should be a priority for South Sudan. However, there are few initiatives to improve the sector by development actors such as the government, the private sector and the NGO sector. The energy sector has been given little attention, and improvements in the quality of the energy service provision are minimal. Although there are some initiatives to improve the communities’ use of energy and cooking technologies at local level in order to ensure energy use efficiency, these initiatives have not yet created significant change. The implication of lack of improved technologies for cooking and lighting is devastation of the natural environment as has been explained. Lack of improved cooking stoves means firewood consumption remains very high and charcoal production intensifies. More and more forests are therefore being destroyed to meet the ever increasing demand for firewood and charcoal.

COPING MECHANISMS AND/OR ALTERNATIVE LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS

Subsistence cultivation is a labour-intensive and often unrewarding endeavour for the sedentary rural farmers, leads most of them to resort to other livelihood options directly related to the environment to generate income and sustain their lives. However, most of these options destroy the natural environment. The lack of employment opportunities due to the absence of a vibrant market economy in post-independent South Sudan, exacerbated by poor and limited education opportunities, means majority of the people in both rural and urban areas are self employed.

The relative peace and stability in the post-independence period, especially in the two States covered and the rapid growth of urban centres such as Yei, Juba and Torit contributes to the rise of demand for charcoal and firewood for cooking and poles for construction purposes. The demand also raises prices, and is an incentive for the charcoal. Consequently more forest resources - including indigenous trees - are being rapidly depleted.

Truckloads of charcoal destined for Juba



Although the price of charcoal varies greatly from place to place the assessment results show that on average one sack of charcoal retails at SSP 40 SSP (US$ 12) near the place of production, and for SSP 90 SSP (US$ 25 USD) in urban areas, especially Juba. This price is indicative, and can rise anytime depending on the demand and supply factors that are driven by the rapid growth of urban centers. The same applies to poles used for construction of houses and fences. A construction pole retails at SSP 4 (US$ 1.2) at the production site, and SSP 15 (US$ 4.5) in urban areas such as Juba. The production of charcoal and poles is seen a lucrative and sustainable source of income for the self-employed rural communities who are affected by the unpredictable and labour-intensive subsistence cultivation or uncertain livestock keeping. The sale of firewood is also another means of livelihood for the rural communities. Since more than 96 per cent of the people in South Sudan rely on biomass for energy, there is significant market demand for firewood and venders tend t do very well. A bundle of fire would sales around SSP 10 (3 US$). In addition to firewood sale, a significant number of the rural communities in the States, most of whom are self-employed, see the sale of charcoal and poles as a lucrative venture and sustainable source of income. Other means of livelihood in urban areas are grass cutting (for roof thatching) and stone crushing for the booming construction industry.

WHO DOES WHAT?

Many development actors are involved in the reconstruction of South Sudan including UN agencies, governmental and non-governmental organisations and private sector actors. However, due to the priority given to the emergency response and conflict management in the still very unstable post-independence South Sudan, little attention is being given to environmental and natural resources management. Food security can only be achieved through a robust policy that ensures the sustainable use and management of the country’s natural resources.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Forest Management of South Sudan is focusing on ensuring sustainable food security and proper management of forest resources. Unfortunately, the appropriate institutional structures have not yet been created to enforce practices or create the policies that will ensure achievement of the vision. This low capacity to carry out the Ministry’s mandate impedes the proper use and management of natural resources in the States leading to the rapid degradation of the natural resources.

The rural development and livelihood programmes are mainly restricted to the provision of improved seeds, agricultural inputs, and capacity building (training). Most of these programmes are also not based on value chain principles and are more or less hit-and-run type of interventions.



Fuel-saving stoves designed by GIZ at a demonstration site, Magwi County, Eastern Equatoria State

CONCLUSION

The alternative livelihood assessment conducted in the two States (Central and Eastern Equatoria) shows that the majority of the people rely heavily on the natural environment for economic and social reasons. The two main sectors of the economy which sustain more than 90 per cent of the population, subsistence crop cultivation and cattle herding, are underdeveloped with limited economic benefits to the national GDP. Both sectors are characterised by traditional agricultural practices and traditional farm implements which impede production and productivity. The heavy dependence on seasonal rainfall for cultivation and cattle herding makes the sectors vulnerable to environmental factors that are related to climate change.

Decades-long civil war for independence and the continued inter-ethnic conflicts that affect the country today interfere with the strengthening of institutions for the transformation of the economic sectors of the country. Limited infrastructural development also makes it difficult for people to diversify their livelihood options and access markets. The low level of development in the industrial and service sectors limit opportunities for employment in urban areas. The majority of people therefore struggle with subsistence crop farming and cattle herding to the extent possible although these occupations demand hours of back-breaking work or the risk of attacks by cattle raiders and are vulnerable to variability in the amount and distribution of rainfall. To cope, a considerable number of people in rural communities turn to livelihood options that include charcoal making, firewood, grass thatch and pole production. This in turn



contributes to environmental degradation causing erosion, and severely affecting ground water sources.

The negative implication of this on the national agenda for sustainable food security in South Sudan is evident; in 2012 all States except Western Equatoria were considered by FAO to be food insecure. The occurrence of drought, seasonal rainfall failure and floods as natural disasters are not very severe compared to other sub-Saharan countries because South Sudan has large natural forest cover. However the increased occurrence of natural disasters cannot be discounted.

The achievement of full independence for South Sudan has created relative peace which bolsters economic activities. Stable economic activity increases the demand for energy sources which are met through the readily available resources in the environment. The potential source of energy for the underdeveloped country is biomass, which is now being threatened by unmanaged exploitation. Unfortunately, the country’s early phase of development and the continued instability and conflict mainly along the borders with the Sudan, do not allow the people to manage natural resources (forests, biodiversity) sustainably. Natural disasters such as famines and floods will become prevalent in the coming years unless this cycle is disrupted through urgent and appropriate measures are taken by the government and other development stakeholders to preserve the environment.

The best way of tackling the problem is therefore to identify alternative sources of livelihood options for the majority of the people, and create a conducive environment where people can access and exploit these and thus secure diversified sources of income. PSS in partnership with organisations such as WFP, FAO and International Labour Organisation can spearhead this process through demonstrable and scalable livelihood projects designed to address some of the critical challenges identified in the States which were assessed. These projects can form the basis for large-scale interventions involving communities and private sector actors, the kind that will be needed to create meaningful change for the millions of people living in poverty who need alternatives to encourage them to look beyond their unsustainable biomass-based livelihood activities.

RECOMMENDATIONS

In order for South Sudan to realise sustainable development, all development actors must work together to create favourable and environmentally friendly strategies to address the issue of access to sustainable energy sources and livelihoods. The role of development partners such as the bilateral and multilateral agencies and NGOs is to give the necessary support through capacity building, raising awareness, and advocacy. However, the processes should be spearheaded by the government of South Sudan. Sustainable livelihood and food security can be achieved through the creation of opportunities for the most disadvantaged social groups in the country to enhance their 21 | P a g e P r e p a r e d b y P l a n S o u t h S u d a n


quality of life through increased income. Diversification of the means of livelihood for the communities must take environmental issues and natural resources management into consideration, for sustainability.

The livelihood assessment conducted in the three States, Central and Eastern Equatoria and Jonglei, shows that the majority of the people depend on the natural environment in general, and the forest resources in particular, to sustain their livelihoods. The environmental impact of such dependence is a major factor that causes persistent food insecurity in the country.

To solve the most critical problems in the livelihoods of the communities and create favourable conditions to protect the natural environment for sustainable development and food security, based on the qualitative findings of the assessment, the following actions are recommended for intervention by PSS working with other partners in South Sudan:

ALTERNATIVE LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS

Production and dissemination of fuel-efficient stoves

The people in the three States depend on biomass or forest resources for alternative income, particularly firewood sale, charcoal making and pole production.

One of the best ways of minimising the loss of forest cover is to use Fuel-Saving Stoves (FSS), which can be produced and sold by many different groups. The benefits of this initiative are two-fold:

i. It will help the communities to change their livelihood option from one that depends on the forest resources to the production sector (which requires some level of technical capacity and skills). It also helps them to generate income through the production and sale of the Fuel-Efficient Stoves (FESs) to the market.

ii. The production and dissemination of these stoves will significantly reduce the amount of biomass used for energy and therefore minimise the depletion of forest resources by the large population that depend on the same.

There is need for PSS and WFP to launch a programme to promote the use of FSSs in selected sites in the three States where the assessment was conducted, and other areas where the two organisations are already working together with other partners.§

FSS for household use

§ Refer to annex 1 to see some improved technological option on efficient stoves that can be adapted to the context of South Sudan. 22 | P a g e P r e p a r e d b y P l a n S o u t h S u d a n


Brick production, a major livelihood activity in the three States, requires tonnes of firewood (used to burn the bricks). Considering that biomass is one of the renewable energy sources brick producers could be organised into groups and trained on the proper use, regeneration and protection of natural environment and forest resources. This will also help to ensure their active role in tree planting and proper use of the forest resources.

The brick producers can also be trained to produce FSS for the market. This will help them to diversify their products and increase their income while disseminating the use of this technology to others in their communities. The brick producers can also be provided with training of trainer (TOT) on the production of FSS and encouraged to train women in the rural areas to make their own stoves. PSS could contract the brick producers who have received the TOT to train women and children in other areas where the organization has a developmental footprint, thus widely expanding the benefit to communities and creating markets for the products.

PSS must seek the technical support of other neighbouring countries with considerable experience in promoting the FSS such as Uganda, Ethiopia, and Kenya. Collaborating with other actors in the sector like GIZ and Plan Ethiopia will also have added values to draw lessons and skills transfer. These types of improved Fuel-Saving Stove Technologies can be promoted in communities and at national level by using media as well as social marketing strategies that have been tested successfully in neighbouring countries.

Institutional rocket stoves for school feeding programmes

PSS runs school feeding programmes in the areas where it has established emergency response programmes. The programmes, which involve cooking food for students, require a considerable amount of firewood. A lot of the energy generated by burning firewood is lost in the process. The introduction of improved stoves, especially the institutional rocket stove, will resolve both problems.

The institutional rocket stoves can be produced by youth groups who will be organised, trained and given the necessary materials by PSS. While promoting the improved cooking stoves, the youth groups can have a sustainable means of income that will allow them to scale up the production and dissemination of improved FSS for the urban and peri-urban communities where the consumption of firewood and charcoal is very high.

The following table shows different types of FSS that could be considered, and indicates their potential value against popular three-stone cooking stoves commonly used in most of South Sudan.





# Stove Test Type and Performance Measure

Results % difference against

baseline stove**

Reference RemarkHigh

power, cold start

High power,

hot start

Low power

1 Tikikl Stove (double skirt)

WBT

Time to boil (min.)

23.9 16.8 - -3%, -23% Water Boiling TestResults of Various

Types of Householdand InstitutionalWood Stoves for

Non-Injera Cooking(Draft), Ethio

Resource GroupPLC. (for GTZSUN:

E), December2009

Thermal efficiency (%)

28 29 28 154%, 190%,211%

Specific fuel consumption

(g/liter)

77.8 69.5 106.1 -58%, -65%, -71%

2 Tikikil stove (Delux Tikikil)

WBT Time to boil (min.)

41 28.1 - 67%, 28%


34 30 30 209%, 200%,233%


(g/liter)

68.1 62 55.1 -63%, -69%, -85%

3 Three stones/Open fire


24.6 21.9 - Baselinestove (for

comparisonagainst

note the differencein the resultsagainst similar


11 10 9

** Percent difference against baseline stove is calculated by subtracting the value of a stove performance measure from the corresponding value of the baseline stove, dividing the difference by the latter and finally multiplying the result by 100. Furthermore, positive percentage for thermal efficiency difference means that the stove is better than the baseline stove. On the other hand, percentage differences of positives for specific fuel consumption, time to boil/bake and IAP concentration means that the stove is worse than the baseline stove.



stoves in #10and 11)

stovein #9.


(g/liter)

184.3 197.6 368.5

4 Institutional rocket stove

(10 liter)


34.7 21.7 - Water Boiling andField Test Results ofInstitutional RocketStove (Draft), EthioResource Group-

ERG (for GTZ SUN EProject), Hilawe

Lakew, September

2008


26.9 31 26


(g/liter)

86.6 73.9 114


(20 liter)


42.1 27.5 -


35 41 34


(g/liter)

60 48.9 52.6


(30 liter)


42.5 28.2 -


30 40 28


(g/liter)

59,2 52.5 56.7


(100 liter)


54.1 41.2 -


42 48 27


48.7 42.6 42.7



(g/liter)



Small household solar systems, Pico-solar kits distribution

Firewood is used for cooking, heating, and lighting in most households in the rural areas. Families usually gather around open fires to discuss and socialise. Most communities in both rural and urban areas of South Sudan have no electricity. The distribution of solar home systems with 5 Watts or less power will replace the use of firewood for lighting, which will improve the quality of life. Apart from the light generated by solar lighting systems, the communities will use the electric power to charge mobile phones and power radios. This will improve communications and access to information.

As with the FSS production and dissemination strategy, the small household solar systems or Pico-solar kits must be distributed through market principles probably at cost or with a subsidised price in the initial stage. Such cost recovery mechanisms will help sustain the intervention after the project is phased out by boosting communities’ confidence in the ownership of their investment. On the other hand the strategy will have considerable benefit in reducing communities’ dependence on aid. The ultimate goal of cost recovery mechanisms through market principle is to create favourable conditions for the private sector to invest widely bolstered by the market opportunity created through the increased confidence of communities to invest on such types of alternative technologies to enhance their livelihood.

The solar-powered products can be used for income generation activities as well. Youth groups (both girls and boys) can be organised in urban and peri-urban areas where PSS has active projects to use solar kits to charge mobile cell phones and give maintenance services for the institutional PV systems after receiving adequate training.

Solar systems for service delivery facilities

Access to basic services such as education, health and safe water supply in the rural areas of South Sudan is impeded by socio-political factors and lack of access to sustainable energy. As noted earlier, there is no hydroelectricity and the entire country depends on thermal-generated electricity which in turn depends on diesel generators and is only available in a few urban centres like Juba, Yei and Kapoieta. This is expensive, unreliable and unavailable to the large majority of the country’s population. Provision of reliable and affordable electric services to the rural community may not be achievable in the foreseeable future. PSS working with WFP and other partners should launch the use of solar-based power systems for primary schools, rural health centers and water schemes to enhance the quality of the services and increase their accessibility.



Micro-solar irrigation scheme

Micro-irrigation projects can be implemented to minimise the risks of rain failure attached to subsistence crop cultivation. Such projects could be scaled-up to the national level. Farmer associations and women groups could be organised to manage the irrigation units; many households can benefit from continuous production of cash crops. Since there are few perennial rivers, PSS should launch a pilot micro-irrigation scheme with solar pumping in Torit County of Eastern Equatoria State or Yei County, Central Equatoria, where there are perennial rivers. The use of solar energy to pump water for the irrigable plots of land will also enhance the communities’ awareness about environmental management through the adoption and use of alternative technologies. The irrigation scheme will help subsistence farmers to enhance their income through the increased production and productivity. Ultimately, the pilot solar irrigation schemes will be a learning centre for other development actors in South Sudan to expand the effort to other states through learning and sharing.

Environmental protection

The economy is not yet strong enough to provide employment opportunities for the majority of citizens in the working age, or opportunities for diversified livelihood options. This leads the majority of the workforce to depend wholly on the natural environment as their only means of livelihood. Mitigation strategies should be used to ensure sustainable food security and protect the environment. To kick start the process PSS should launch some potentially scalable activities at micro level on natural environment protection and management. Good lessons and practices can be drawn from the successful accomplishments of the activities by other development actors in the country. Here are some suggested activities:

Tree nursery establishment

Tree nurseries should be established to preserve indigenous species of valuable trees. The nurseries should be managed by the communities with the capacity-building support from PSS and the Ministry of Agriculture and Forest Resource Management. The nurseries will also be used to provide the tree seedlings for community tree planting, targeting institutions and households.

Area closure and valuable tree planting

Demonstration centres should be established to raise awareness on environmental management. Along with the tree nursery centres and the micro-solar irrigation site, it will become necessary to close off some land and limit free



access to the community. In the process fruits could be produced for sale at the local market. Different actors would organise environmental management trainings at the demonstration sites.

Gum Arabica / Africa and Lulu collection

The interview held in Bor town with the officers of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Jonglei State revealed that there is abundant Gum Arabic (now known as Gum Africa) and Lulu in the State. As a protection mechanism and livelihood option, youth groups can be organised and trained to produce, collect, and market this abundant natural resource. PSS provide training support on the production of Gum Arabic and Lulu to organised youth groups. PSS should also take responsibility to create linkages and market access for the youth groups to ensure the sustainability of the intervention which potentially can be adopted and scaled-up in the other States of South Sudan. According to experts interviewed at the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, there is a good practice in the Upper Nile State of Renk County in the production and commercialisation of Gum Africa by community groups which can be adapted in Jonglei State and elsewhere.

Policy advocacy and raising awareness

i) Policy analysis and influencing

South Sudan is undergoing reconstruction in all spheres of social strata, and the process of building and strengthening institutions is underway in the country. This provides an opportunity for policy makers to establish policy advocacy, and raise awareness regarding environmental management issues. Dialogue with relevant government bodies on these policies will enhance production and productivity in the country, and help to realise the national goal of achieving sustainable food security.

ii) Raising awareness about sustainable community-based environmental management

Raising awareness about environmental issues at community level, and the government structures at all levels, is critical to achieving concrete results in the proper management and use of natural resources. Continuous and planned community dialogues on natural environment management should be encouraged along with the other development projects to be launched by Plan and her partners. All interventions of Plan also need to consider environmental issues as cross-cutting issues and mainstream these in all programmes.

The awareness-raising effort on natural environment management for the government bodies will strengthen policy enforcements at all levels. Regular



forums to discuss issues of environmental concerns and prevention of natural disasters should be organised at state and county levels, and in schools to bring all development actors together to discuss issues of environmental concerns and prevention of natural disasters from occurring due to the rapid degradation of the natural resources through human activities.



REFERENCES

D The African Development Bank. The Political Economy of South Sudan: A Scoping Analytical Study. 2011.

Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries, Directorate of Fisheries and Aquaculture Development (2012) - Fisheries Policy for South Sudan 2012-2017.

Southern Sudan Centre for Census -Statistics and Evaluation (2010).

Plan International South Sudan - Country Strategic Plan (CSP) 2011-2016.

The National Bureau of Statistics - Statistical Year Book for South Sudan (2011)

World Food Programme (2012) - Safe Access to Firewood and Alternative Energy.

GOVERNMENT OFFICES, NGOS

Juba County Administration

Torit County Administration

Bore County Administration

Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Central Equatoria State

Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Eastern Equatoria State

Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Jonglei State

Ministry of Education in Jonglei State

United Nations High Commission for Refugees

World Food Programme

German Agency for International Cooperation

COMMUNITY DIALOGUE

Rejaf villagers (women, men), Juba County, Central Equatoria State

Ofong villagers (men), Torit County, Eastern Equatoria State


Documents

Alternative Energy and Livelihood Potential - Draft 2 - JulyAug 2013