Alternative Fuel 10

8/3/2019 Alternative Fuel 10

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Alternative Fuel Sources to Gasoline in Personal

Transportation Vehicles

Team 5 Section A03

Date of Submission: April 1st / 2010

Team Coordinator: Kevin Henderson _______________________

Team Administrator: Shaun Michaleski _______________________

Technical Coordinator: Cam Verwey _______________________

Graphics Coordinator: Jason Haydaman _______________________

Document Coordinator: Cody Bjornsson _______________________


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Project Assistant: Michael Clendenan _______________________

Box 4 Grp 238 RR#2

Winnipeg, Mb

R3C 2E6

Dr. A Parker

Department of Design Engineering

Faculty of Engineering

University of Manitoba

Winnipeg Manitoba

R3T 2N2

Dear Dr. Parker,

Enclosed is our paper Alternative Fuel Sources to Gasoline in Personal TransportationVehicles. This was done by Team 5, whose members are Kevin Henderson, Shaun Michaleski, CamVerwey, Jason Haydaman, Cody Bjornsson, Michael Clendenan.

The purpose of this report is to evaluate three alternative energy sources for implementation inpersonal vehicles. The scope of the report is spread across three topics; supercapacitors, hybrid electrictechnology, and fuel cells. The teams interest in this subject arose from the fact that we all are orwill be driving vehicles, and as students, we see the direct result of hefty gas prices and environmentalimpact in our daily lives.

Regarding content of the report, there are six sections to each energy source which include thebackground, safety, compatibility, environmental impact and performance. Kevin and Jason discusssupercapacitors, Shaun and Michael report on hybrid electric vehicles. Finally Cody and Cam discusshydrogen fuel cells.

We would like to acknowledge team four for assisting our group in the review process. Theyprovided helpful feedback towards our section drafts. If you have any issues or questions the teamwould be more than willing to consult with you on your schedule.Sincerely,Cody Bjornsson


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Team 5 Section A03

Table of Contents

Page #

List of Illustrations(Cam)IV

List of Terms(Cam)..V

Abstract(Jason).VI

1. Introduction(Kevin)

2. Purpose1

3. Problem........................................................................................................1

4. Scope2

5. Criteria.2-3

6. Supercapacitors

7. Background(Jason).4-5

8. Performance(Jason)6-8

9. Cost(Jason).8-9

10. Environmental Impact(Kevin)..9-10

11. Safety(Kevin)..10

12. Compatibility(Kevin)11-12

13.Hybrid Electric Vehicles

14. Background(Michael)13-14

15. Compatibility(Michael).15-16

16. Safety(Michael)16-1717. Environmental Effects(Shaun)17-19

18. Cost(Shaun).19-22

19. Performance(Shaun).22-23

20.Hydrogen Fuel Cells

21. Background(Cody)24-25

22. Performance(Cody)...25-27

23. Cost(Cody)...27-29

24. Safety(Cam).30-32

25. Environmental Impact(Cam).32-35

26. Compatibility(Cam)..35-37

27.Conclusion(Shaun)38

28. References39-52


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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURES:

29.CAPACITOR CONSTRUCTION.. 5

30.PLOT OF ENERGY VS. POWER DENSITY FOR DIFFERENT

ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES7

31.A SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC OF ENERGY CONTROL FOR A HEV.11

32.DEFINITION OF A HYBRID...14

33.VEHICLE COST VS. RANGE..20

34.FUEL CELL25

35.FUEL CELL STACK..26

36.HYDROGEN RELEASED UPWARDS31


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37.HYDROGEN RELEASED DOWNWARDS.31

38.PREDICTED DELIVERY OF HYDROGEN POWER.34

TABLES:

39. HYBRID BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS.16

40. EMISSION RATES FOR FOSSIL FUELS.18

41. TYPES OF BATTERIES WITH CORRELATING VOLTAGES,

ENERGY DENSITIES AND COST PER KWH20

42. CHARGING TIME AND RATE OF BATTERY TEMPERATURE

WITH SET AMBIENT TEMPERATURES.22

43. GAS PRICES PER LITRE29

LIST OF TERMS

ACRONYMS:

EDLC Electric Double-Layer Capacitor

HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicle

ISG Integrated Starter Generator

LVS Low Voltage Storage System

PEM Polymer Electrolyte Membrane

PHEV Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle

DEFINITIONS:

Biomass Any form of renewable organic material that can be used as a


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source of energy.

Coal gasifying A process which coverts carbon into carbon monoxide and

hydrogen by introducing oxygen and steam.

Gas reforming A process which reacts steam at high temperatures with

natural gas to liberate hydrogen molecules.

Polymer electrolyte membrane A clear membrane that conducts protons while not letting gases

through.

ABSTRACT

This report evaluates the ability to replace a conventional gasoline vehicle with batteries,

fuel cells, or supercapacitors. An alternative energy source is required to help counteract climate

change and to eliminate our dependence on a singular source of energy to prepare us for the

inevitable depletion of oil reserves. In our research we found supercapacitors and fuel cells to be

very promising technologies, but not currently developed enough to be considered a universal

alternative. In addition, deployment of fuel cells would require massive infrastructure changes to

adapt gas stations to dispensing hydrogen. Therefore, our report recommends battery technology,

as it is well developed, and vehicles that use the technology are already in production

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to identify a viable alternative to fossil fuels for vehicle

transportation. We selected 3 possible technologies to research in depth; supercapacitors, fuel cells and


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batteries. All three will be reviewed under a predefined set of criteria in order to determine which

alternative best suits the task at hand.

1.2 Problem

The current technology that is widely used for conventional vehicles is that which converts

energy from the combustion of fossil fuels and subsequently converts this into mechanical energy. This

can be coupled with batteries or fuel cells which can be seen in HEV's but this has not been widely

introduced until lately. There has been much research towards suitable alternatives to fossil fuels due

to their many disadvantages. There is only so much fuel on the planet; it is inevitable that it will

eventually run out. Aside from this, the gaseous products produced from the combustion have been

found to be extremely harmful to the environment. There are also some safety factors, as these same

products are also harmful when inhaled by humans. Gasoline is also highly flammable, and can be

very dangerous if not stored and transported correctly. The price of gasoline is prone to fluctuation, so

the cost of operating and maintaining a vehicle can often is higher than originally predicted.

1.3 Scope

We have limited the scope of the paper to include only technologies that currently exist. We

are only interested in what is feasible today as the need for a change regarding energy sources for

vehicles can be thought of as long overdue. By restricting the timeframe, we are able to disregard old,

as well as hypothesized future technologies.


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1.4 Criteria

We will be basing our recommendation on five criteria which are performance, cost,

environmental impact, safety and compatibility.

1.4.1 Performance

The alternative must be able to fulfill the requirements necessary to power a full-fledged

personal vehicle. The more able it is to do so, the better performance rating it will score.

1.4.2 Cost

We must base our decision partly on the cost of the technologies. This aspect cannot be

avoided as an unreasonably expensive alternative would kill the possibility of deployment.

1.4.3 Environmental impact

Environmental impact is one of the large reasons that we want to abandon the current system

that is dependent upon fossil fuels. The public will not likely accept an alternative that is just as bad, or

worse, for the environment than gasoline.


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1.4.4 Safety

Part of our recommendation must be based on the safety of the proposed technology. It must be

safe to use in conventional vehicles before it could be considered a viable alternative.

1.4.5 Compatibility

Compatibility is how the technology can be used with current technology. It is also how the

technology holds up in the worlds climate.

2. SUPERCAPACITORS

This section of the report describes the background, performance, cost, safety, environmental

impact, and compatibility of supercapacitors. It looks at the pros of the technology, and compares and

contrasts it to existing technologies such as gasoline. We evaluate supercapacitors on their ability to

compete with gasoline, and their general usefulness when used with other technologies.

2.1 Supercapacitor Background

A conventional capacitor is constructed by having two conductors separated by a dielectric, a

material that does not permit current to flow through it. When a voltage is applied to the capacitor,

electrons are forced into one of the two conductors and forced out of the other, creating an electric field


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between the conductors, which is what stores energy. The amount of energy stored within a capacitor

is proportional to its capacitance, an intrinsic property of the capacitor, and the voltage that the charge

is being stored at, squared. The maximum voltage that a capacitor can handle is set by the dielectric

used in its construction. When the voltage exceeds the dielectric breakdown point the dielectric will

breakdown. When this happens, the molecules ionize and charge then flows. The capacitance of

a capacitor is proportional to the surface area of the conductors, and inversely proportional to the

distance between them. Thus, to store the greatest amount of energy within a capacitor, the capacitance

and voltage must be maximized. Figure 1 shows the differences in the internal construction of

a classical capacitor (electrostatic), a modern-day capacitor (electrolytic), and a supercapacitor

(electrochemical double-layer).

Figure 1. Capacitor construction [1].

A supercapacitor, or ultracapacitor, differs from a conventional capacitor in how it is

constructed. A supercapacitor does not use a conventional dielectric but instead it makes use of the

electrical double layer (EDL) effect, where a substance immersed into a liquid has two layers of ions

forming on its surface, effectively screening the surface from outside charge [2]. Small and rough

particles, usually made of carbon, are placed between the plates and separated by a thin layer. The

large cumulative surface area of these particles is what gives a supercapacitor the huge amount of

capacitance that it has [3]. This effect, however, is not as durable as a conventional dielectric, and only

supports low voltages. Supercapacitors get around this limitation by placing many plates in series,

each voltage adding to the previous one. The EDL effect is incredibly thin (on the order of nanometers,

or one ten thousandth of the width of a human hair), and many plates can be placed in series with each

other, leading to an overall voltage which is quite high. The combination of the high capacitance and


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the ability to string together many plates in series, allowing the capacitor to handle large voltages, is

what gives the supercapacitor the ability to store much more energy than conventional capacitors.

2.2 Supercapacitor Performance

In evaluating the performance of supercapacitors, we looked at the energy and power density,

charge time, and longevity. The energy density looks at how much usable energy is stored within the

material. The power density looks at how quickly that stored energy can be used. Charge time looks at

whether the charge time for supercapacitors will be an issue, and longevity looks at how long they last.

These properties taken together determine whether or not supercapacitors perform acceptably for use in

vehicles.

2.2.1 Energy Density

Energy density is defined as the amount of energy that can be stored per unit mass. Despite the

large amount of energy that can be stored by a supercapacitor, it is still less than other technologies.

Supercapacitors with energy densities larger than 30 Wh/kg have been demonstrated [4]. This is

almost 100 times less usable energy from gasoline, rated at 2400 Wh/kg assuming 20% efficiency [3].

The effect of this is that a bank of supercapacitors that stores as much energy as a tank of gasoline

would weigh over one hundred times as much as the tank of gasoline.


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2.2.2 Power Density

Power density is defined as the amount of power that can be stored per unit mass. Power

density differs from energy density in that power density also takes into consideration how quickly

the energy stored can be used. A device with too low of a power density will not be able to be used to

power a motor no matter how large the energy density. Despite a low energy density, supercapacitors

(here referred to as ultracapacitors) have a tremendous power density, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Plot of Energy vs Power density for different energy storage devices [5].

As seen here, conventional capacitors have a high power density, like supercapacitors.

However their energy density is too low to make any use of that power. While a conventional

capacitor could provide the power required to drive a motor, they store too little charge and quickly

drain all of their energy. Conventional batteries and fuel cells have a much higher energy density, but

they cannot always deliver the power required when the motor is undergoing high acceleration. Thus,

supercapacitors excel when combined with batteries or fuel cells, as demonstrated by [6].

2.2.3 Charge Time

Supercapacitors, like conventional capacitors, can be charged practically as fast as current can

be supplied to them. Thus they can make maximum use of whatever source is charging them, be it a

conventional battery, fuel cell, mains power, or a specialized high-current charging station. This means


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that the charging time varies from minutes to hours, depending on the charging source. However, if the

supercapacitor is used to supplement the power density requirements of vehicles and is driven by fuel

cells, then the charging time becomes irrelevant from the perspective of the consumer.

2.2.4 Longevity

Supercapacitors also have excellent longevity; they are capable of hundreds of thousands of

charge-discharge cycles before wearing out [4]. This is a property not shared by other sources such as

lithium ion batteries, which typically can only undergo a few hundreds of cycles before their capacity

begins to drastically decrease. The reason that supercapacitors have a longevity that exceeds batteries

is due to supercapacitors only dealing with the movement of electrons, whereas batteries use other ions

as charge carriers, which can chemically react with the electrodes, increasing the internal resistance of

the battery and decreasing its effectiveness.

2.3 Supercapacitor Cost

As of 2006, the price of supercapacitors is $2.85/kJ, or roughly $10/Wh [7]. On a direct cost

comparison to gasoline, 1 kg of gasoline is 1.37 L, assuming a price of 99.8 cents per liter that is $1.37.

Since 1 kg of gasoline nets 2400 Wh, gasoline comes at a cost of 1752 Wh/$. Supercapacitors come

at a cost of 0.1 Wh/$, making them 4 orders of magnitude more expensive than gasoline. However,

gasoline offers one charge, once it is burned it cannot be re-used. Since supercapacitors can be re-

used hundreds of thousands of times, the cost per usage of supercapacitors is an order of magnitude less

than that of gasoline. Essentially, the longer a supercapacitor is used the cheaper it becomes, relative to

gasoline. Note that these numbers are constantly changing, however small changes in gas prices do not


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lead to significant differences in the overall cost.

2.4 Environmental Impact

When EDLC's are in use, they produce no emissions of any sort. Any environmental impact

would have to come from the production and disposal of the capacitor.

2.4.1 Production

Modern advancements have enabled many different materials to be used in production. Carbon

based materials are the most cost effective while still maintaining a high level of conductivity. Many

materials are known to be used in production but the most cost effective, and therefore most prevalent,

seems to be one based on activated carbon. A model involving carbon nanotubes has proven to be

quite an efficient method [11]. As carbon is one of the most abundant elements on earth, it has a

negligible impact on the environment. The impact from production would essentially come down to

that of the energy and fossil fuels used in manufacturing. This cannot be accurately calculated and at

best guess, would likely be similar to that of other electrical component manufacturers.

2.4.2 Disposal

The environmental impact due to the disposal of supercapacitors is low as there are no toxic,

or harmful materials used in production. As a result of a very high lifespan, supercapacitors are able

to keep up with the aging life of the vehicle. Although the life of a vehicle will outweigh that of the

supercapacitor, replacements would not exceed that of a typical lead car battery. A low replacement

frequency, along with safe materials makes them more environmentally friendly than their common


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battery predecessors. According to the installation guidelines for a supercapacitor powered outdoor

lighting terminal, it is necessary to go to a waste disposal agent [13]. There is very little documentation

about proper disposal procedures so at this time it is impossible to say with certainty how much it

actually effects the environment. If large scale manufacturing of modern EDLC's were to begin, a

proper system would likely be set up to dispose of them.

2.5 Safety

Supercapacitors are extremely safe, much more so than common lead based batteries. One

concern with many traditional batteries is the problem of overcharging. This can lead to rapid

degradation of the battery, and possibly an explosion. EDLC's are not prone to overcharging, as

when fully charged, they stop accepting any more charge [8]. All materials used in production have

a low toxicity and are not corrosive. An efficiency of around 90% is due to a low internal resistance

and as a result, the amount of heat that is released is easily dissipated [12]. The increased efficiency

effectively decreases the risk of any potential fires occurring. Most of the heat that is produced in

regular combustion engine is eliminated when switching to an electrical control system.

2.6 Compatibility

Supercapacitors do not have the characteristics required to power everything necessary in an


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electric vehicle. However, they have been found to work extremely well when coupled with either fuel

cell, battery or even both [10].

Below is the circuit diagram of the simplified power system of a test hybrid electric vehicle. It

is composed of a set of supercapacitors in parallel, seen on the left. The battery is providing power on

the top right, while a set of bridged converters transfer energy to and from the motor. This method has

been shown to provide a fully functional energy management system for electric vehicle [10].

Figure 3. A simplified schematic of energy control for a HEV [10].

Supercapacitors are ideal for use in vehicles for many reasons. Hybrid technology currently

allows vehicles to absorb some of the energy lost while breaking. As much of vehicle transportation

occurs in an urban environment, this can greatly extend the life of the power source. Most of the

power produced when breaking occurs in only a few seconds. The charge rate of supercapacitors

far outweighs that of fuel cells and batteries. This allows the ideal capturing of this abundant source

of often discarded energy. Hybrid vehicles currently implement this, but regenerated energy can be

maximized using supercapacitors, as a rapid charge time allows much more energy to be captured.

The use of EDLC's has another beneficial attribute when paired with a power source. The

source becomes strained when having to deal with any significant step in load such as stopping or

starting the engine. Battery strain results in a much reduced lifespan, which would limit the range of


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3. HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

3.1 HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE BACKGROUND

Of the various alternative power sources for gasoline-powered vehicles, the most common

type is the hybrid electric car that utilizes a simple battery. Unlike configurations involving fuel cell

or super capacitor technology, hybrid electric cars have been around in the vehicle market for years

now. This section will provide a clear definition of what qualifies as a hybrid and how they differ

from gasoline engine vehicles. Conventional hybrid electric vehicles differ from conventional gasoline

vehicles in two fundamental ways. The first is the addition of a much larger battery capable of either

working in unison with the gasoline engine, or alternating with the gasoline engine in providing power

to the vehicle. The second difference is the addition of the integrated starter generator, which allows

the battery to generate energy from the vehicles kinetic energy.

The division of power between the battery and engine depends on what type of hybrid electric

scheme vehicles are using. There are three main schemes; series hybrids, parallel hybrids, and parallel-

series combinations. In a series hybrid, the vehicles either receive all of its power via the gasoline

engine, or through the batterys motor. Parallel hybrids utilize a configuration where it is possible

for both the gasoline engine and battery motor to provide power simultaneously. The parallel-series

combination, as one would expect, can change its behavior depending on different situations, and act

in series or parallel. The behavior mentioned depends on vehicle speed, acceleration, and temperature.

The behavior itself is controlled by programmed control strategies built into the vehicle, which will

then take into consideration the mentioned variables and act accordingly [14].

The Integrated Starter Generator (also referred to as ISG) is what allows the vehicle to generate


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energy from its kinetic energy. The integrated starter generator is responsible for various fundamental

tasks. These include starting the engine initially, capturing energy from the regenerative brakes,

and stopping and starting the engine during the idle-stop phase. The advanced technology behind

the integrated starter generator allows it to start the engine much faster than a conventional gasoline

powered car. This is possible because the ISG is 3 to 8 times more powerful than a conventional

gasoline vehicle engine starter [14]. This ability is what makes it possible for the vehicles engine to

turn off and on during the idle-stop phase.

The idle-stop phase is any point in time during a vehicles trip where the vehicle comes to a

halt, such as at a red light, stop sign, train stop, or waiting in traffic. At such a time, the engine shuts

off and the cars remaining functions (air conditioning, vehicle electric power, dashboard display)

become powered by the battery. Once the cars brake pedal is released, the engine will start up again

which can be done quick enough via the integrated starter generator that the process does not interfere

or slow down the vehicle or other vehicles. The integrated starter generators can range from 6 to 80

kW and are able to match conventional gasoline powered vehicles in the acceleration from 0 to 60 mph

as well as the vehicles top speed [14].

The following diagram displays the criteria needed to be met in order to classify a vehicle as a

hybrid vehicle.

fIGURE 4: DEFINITION OF A HYBRID [14].

As shown, there are a handful of hybrid vehicle types. This ranges from vehicles only capable

of the idle-stop function, to vehicles that do not rely at all on gasoline engines [14].

FIGURE 4. DEFINITION OF A HYBRID [14]


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3.2 HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE COMPATIBILITY

Focusing the attention even closer to the capabilities and limitations of the actual battery used

in a hybrid vehicle, one issue that arises is climate compatibility. As climates do vary from region to

region, the ability to operate under any temperature condition must be considered. As a manufacturer,

it is not desirable to limit your vehicle for sale in specific regions. Nor to sell your vehicles in all

regions only to have a bad reputation form due to the poor performance in the regions with more

extreme climates. This section will discuss the effects of different climates on hybrid batteries.

There are many types of batteries that are used in hybrid vehicles, each having its own

temperature limitations. Some battery technology cannot operate in conditions under a certain

temperature, as freezing occurs [15]. Operating the battery in temperatures too high can also result in

the battery melting key components [15]. As the hybrid market has grown, so too has the technology

of the batteries. Earlier hybrid vehicles using NiMH batteries for example were not able to start the

vehicle in temperatures 0 degrees Celsius and below. This was resolved by the addition of a small 12

volt starter battery that although was much less capable than the main battery, it was able to start the

engine at temperatures below freezing [15].

Vehicles using lead acid batteries had similar issues. Battery temperatures below 22 degrees

Celsius can result in the battery performing sluggishly, damaging and reducing its life cycle. Similar

to the NiMH batteries, lead acid batteries would freeze when below 0 degrees Celsius [16]. Today,

the most common battery used in hybrid electric vehicles is the lithium ion battery. This battery

has proven to be much more climate compatible, operating fine in temperature ranges from -20

degrees Celsius to 60 degrees Celsius. Going below these temperatures result in poor performance

and shortened life span, and going above 60 degrees will result in the battery anode/cathode separator

melting [17]. Shown below is a chart indication the effects and ranges of various batteries used in


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hybrid vehicles [16].

TABLE I: HYBRID BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS [16]

In summary, there are many batteries that do have limitations regarding the temperature

they can be operated in, but the most commonly implemented battery (the Lithium ion battery) has

overcome many of these issues, allowing for climate to only be a factor in the extremist of conditions.

3.3 HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE SAFETY

The main difference between a conventional gasoline car and a hybrid electric car is the

additional electrical components. The only additional safety concern (during operation of the vehicle)

that needs special attention for a hybrid electric vehicle would relate to electric overloading, short

circuiting, or a failure of the electrical components that would risk harming the passengers.


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Fortunately, hybrid electric vehicles utilize a low voltage storage system (also referred to as LVS),

which prevents these safety risks. The implementation of an LVS greatly reduces the sensitivity,

allowing for use in all weather conditions including wet weather (as wet weather poses the biggest risk

when involving electrical systems) [14]. Another advantage of the LVS in addition to protecting

against electrocution is the fact that if the vehicle is exposed to extreme wet conditions, it cannot

discharge quickly [14]. This means that the vehicle will not suddenly lose all of its battery power.

Were this to happen, it could certainly be a safety risk, as the vehicle may lose control with the sudden

loss of power. In summary, any safety hazards caused by implementing an electric system are avoided

through the addition of an LVS [14].

3.4 Battery Powered Environmental effects

Gas powered vehicles have been polluting the earth for years; it is time to find a solution. Is

there a feasible way to reduce or even replace gas powered vehicles by a more environmental friendly

energy source? In this report battery technology will be analyzed as a possible alternative to the

current gas powered vehicle. Lets start with the idea of a battery powered vehicle. When you think of

a battery powered vehicle and its associated emissions, you would probably say that a battery does not

generate any sort of by-product into the atmosphere. Like some kind of incredible clean energy that

is very environmental friendly. Sure batteries have a few negative outputs, for example, some heat is

emitted while the battery is in use, but the role of a battery is to purely store and release energy.

The work done to produce the electricity is done elsewhere. This work involves processes such

as burning coal, oil, natural gas and renewables to produce electricity [18]. The processes that are

applied to produce this energy (electricity) are where emission production takes place. Instead of gas

powered vehicles driving around polluting cities, the battery powered car would not pollute busy cities


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but instead pollution would be focused around the area where the energy is being produced. Another

beneficial factor batteries have over gas power is that the energy batteries store can also be produced

by more environmental friendly processes. By utilizing natural sources like flowing water (hydro)

and wind [18], energy can be captured and stored as electricity with a result of much less pollution

compared to a current combustion engine vehicle. In return urban areas would be less exposed to CO2

emissions.

Table II: Emission Rates for Fossil Fuels [18].

The following will deal with the comparison of CO2 emissions by gas powered vehicles and

battery powered vehicles. Referring to the chart to the right, this report will use coalas the generation

source since it accounts for over 50% of energy production. By burning coal to produce electricity, it

produces CO2 emissions at a rate of 2.095 lbs/kWh [18]. For example, a battery powered car running

on 8 kWh can more or less drive 40 miles [19]. Approximately 8.8 pounds of coal need to be burned

to produce 8 kWh [20], therefore resulting in about 16.76 pounds (8 kWh multiplied by 2.095 [18])

of CO2 being released into the atmosphere per 40 miles of driving. On the other hand, a gas powered

vehicle that travels 30 miles per gallon would use 1.33 gallons of

gas to go 40 miles resulting in approximately 26.6 pounds of CO2 per 1.33 gallons of gas burned [21].

After comparing the two CO2 outputs it is clearly shown that burning 8.8 pounds of coal produces less

CO2 emission than burning 1.33 gallons of gas.

In conclusion, after analyzing the emission outputs between battery and gas powered vehicles,

gas power seems to be the least efficient. The gas powered car produces more CO2 and also as a

consequence it is produced wherever the car goes. This means cities with large numbers of traffic

would be highly polluted. Battery powered vehicles would keep urban areas pollutant free of CO2, but

as a result CO2 levels would rise around industrial areas due to increased demand of energy needed to


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be produced.

3.5 Battery Powered Cost

The public needs to be considered when determining the cost; the goal is to make an affordable

vehicle that people are going to want to buy. If the product is not affordable it is not going to sell.

The cost of a battery powered vehicle needs to be feasible. Of course the idea of a battery powered

vehicle that can go 1000 miles without being recharged is ideal, but this is not feasible at this time.

The technology in batteries is just not there to make an incredibly efficient vehicle that is affordable.

Some things that need to be considered when determining cost are type of battery, efficiency, size,

maintenance, and charging method. There are three major types of batteries that have been considered

and tested in vehicles, which is illustrated in the next table [22].

Table III: Types of Batteries with Correlating Voltages, Energy Densities and Cost per

kWh [22][23].

Type of Battery Cell Voltage Energy Density MJ/kg Ave Cost of Battery Per kWh Capacity

Lithium ion 3.6 0.46 $650

Lead Acid 2.1 0.14 $100

Nickel Metal Hydride 1.2 0.36 $850

Figure 5. Vehicle Cost vs. Range [24].

As shown in the table above, the three types of batteries consist of lithium ion, lead acid and

nickel metal hydride. During the past few years, interest in lithium ion has increased due to its unique

physical properties [22]. Its properties like higher power to weight ratio, faster charging time and


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higher efficiency are what really sets lithium ion apart from the other two[22]. The cost

of lithium ion is also reasonable, which is another important factor when choosing between the

three [23]. With that in mind, the more power the battery can hold depends on the size; the bigger the

battery, the greater the power, the further the range that can be travelled, the higher the cost. The graph

to the right shows the cost to range relationship you can expect from a battery powered vehicle. Also

as the size increases so does the weight, and to compensate for the weight the vehicle needs upgraded

parts to handle the load. For example, heavier tires, larger brakes and stronger suspension are among

the parts that need upgrading to safely operate a heavier vehicle.

Another factor considered when determining the cost is how much it will cost to charge an

electric vehicle. The cost of electricity varies according to the time of year. The current cost of

electricity in residential homes in Manitoba is 6.25 cents per kWh for the first 900 kWh then it rises

to 6.30 cents per kWh [25]. A vehicle with an 8 kWh battery capacity would cost roughly $0.5 (6.25

cents multiplied by 8 kWh) to charge the battery. Then at the higher rate it would cost $0.504 (6.3

cents multiplied by 8 kWh) to fully charge the battery. According to calculation $0.504 worth of

energy can drive the car approximately 40 miles, or in simpler terms it costs 1.26 cents per mile.

Comparing this to current fuel prices, gas prices hover around $3.6 per gallon (96 cents per litre).

And relating this value to a car the gets 30 miles per gallon, fuel costs per mile would equal 12 cents

(($3.6x1.33gal)/40 miles). Electric vehicles can also be equipped with regenerative braking, this

enables the car to generate and store energy while the car is decelerating. Thus regenerative braking

allows the vehicle to travel farther distances on a single charge.

Maintenance is also another important factor that needs consideration. Batteries are practically

maintenance free. But like combustion engines, unexpected failures in components will occur. Faulty

electrical components would be expensive to fix, whereas combustion engines are fixed everyday as


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parts and mechanics are available at reasonable cost. If something fails in the battery powered car,

only people with specialized training could work on them. This could come at a higher cost due to the

fact that only a small population of people actually work on batteries and their components. Compared

to current combustion engines that require regular maintenance like oil changes, replaced parts etc., the

costs of maintenance should be even.

In review, current technology of batteries is what is preventing the cost of a battery powered

vehicle to be reasonable. The vehicle needs to be capable of traveling longer distances on a single

charge by means of a low initial purchase cost. But for short commutes the vehicle seems like it would

be ideal. With the cost of charging less than the cost of fuelling a car with gasoline, in the long run the

electric vehicle will pay itself off with the benefit of not polluting the area where driven.

3.6 Battery Powered Performance

When implementing a new product to replace another, it must match or exceed its replacement

in performance. Battery powered vehicles are capable of matching and exceeding gas powered engines

power output. A more powerful battery would cost more, just like a more powerful gas engine costs

more. For any person, affordability is the main factor in determining the performance of the vehicle.

Table IV: Charging Time and Range of Battery Temperature with set Ambient Temperatures [26].

Some factors that affect the performance of a battery are charging time and temperature.

Improper charging can result in overheating which could damage the battery and as a result shorten

its lifespan. For example charging the battery too fast or too long could possibly cause the battery

to catch fire [26]. For a battery to perform at its optimum level it needs to be run in ideal conditions,

temperatures ranging from 0-40C, at extreme low temperatures the battery would require a heater to


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perform well [26].

As shown in the table above, tests have been done by charging a lithium ion battery at

different temperatures and charging rates to see its efficiency. This information shows that at warmer

temperatures, the battery can be charged at faster rates.


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4. HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS

4.1 BACKGROUND OF FUEL CELLS

Fuel cells are a technology that one day could replace gasoline as a primary source of fuel in

private transportation. It is important that we know how they work.

Hydrogen fuel cells are a lot like batteries, they both use an anode, cathode and an electrolyte as

well as a catalyst to produce energy. The main difference between the two is that fuel cells use up the

fuel source and need it to be replaced [27]. PEM fuel cells are the newest advancements in hydrogen

fuel cells. It contains a polymer electrolyte membrane. This makes the hydrogen fuel cell a real

possibility for an alternative fuel source, and I will be discussing this fuel cell mostly in this section.

Fuel cells use a chemical reaction to produce energy and a H2O emission that is harmless to the

environment. This takes place at the anodes and cathodes of the fuel cell and the balanced reaction is

represented in the next figure.


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Figure 6. Fuel Cell [35].

Anode: 2H2 4H+ + 4e-

Cathode: 02 + 4e- 20-

Overall: 2H2 + O2 2H2O [28]

The electrolyte, which usually looks like a piece of clear plastic, conducts positive ions and

blocks electrons. In the fuel cell it also has to remain hydrated in order to work properly [30].

The catalyst accelerates the chemical reaction of turning hydrogen and oxygen into water. It is usually

made up of platinum that is very thinly coated on a cloth [30].

4.2 PERFORMANCE OF FUEL CELLS

The way a fuel cell operates is that the H2 gets split into two hydrogen atoms and then they

combine with the oxygen to create water and an electric potential. A hydrogen fuel cell only creates

about 0.7 volts of electricity. To create a higher voltage many fuel cells are connected together in a

fuel cell stack [30].

4.2.1 FUEL CELL STACK

A stack of fuel cells contain many different components. It contains a fuel processor, a power

section and a power conditioner [27].

Figure 7. Fuel cell Stack [36].


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Hydrogen as a fuel is very good but we do have some problems storing and transporting it.

Mostly because it likes to stay in a gaseous state and for fuel cell vehicle purposes it needs a high

pressure container to store it for travel. One way to overcome this is to use methanol and a fuel

processor. What a fuel processor does is takes the methanol (CH4OH) and water and heats them both

up until they are a vapor. Then, by using a catalyst, separates the hydrogen from the water and the

methanol. The carbon and oxygen combines into CO and CO2, while the hydrogen enters the power

section of the fuel cell [34].

The power section is the stack of fuel cells where the power is generated. The power that

comes out of the fuel cell stack is in DC current and voltage, so the power conditioner takes it and

converts it to AC current [27].

4.2.2 FUEL STARVATION PHENOMENON

Fuel cells are able to compete with gasoline quite well in the automotive industry especially

since fuel cells have and efficiency from 40% to 85% [28] while compared to gasoline engines

efficiency which is from 20% to 30 % [29]. Even though hydrogen fuel cells can be more efficient

than a gasoline engine, there is still a major problem with it that does not allow the fuel cell to perform

as well as a gasoline engine. This problem is called the fuel starvation phenomenon of the fuel cell.

This causes a drop in voltage across the fuel cell when there is a rapid increase in current, for example,

accelerating rapidly. The drop in voltage is caused by a delay in the air flow into the fuel cell which

results in less oxygen getting in. Fuel starvation is known to damage the fuel cell permanently, so this

problem must be solved before fuel cells can be used properly in vehicles [31].

Fuel cells are a very efficient type of fuel source. However, there are still improvements that


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need to be made in order for it to compete with gasoline.

4.3 COST OF FUEL CELL

There are different costs associated with fuel cells being implemented into cars. The cars

would remain the same with the drive shaft, wheels and frame being the same as well. The major

difference would be the engine. The most predominant cost while owning such a vehicle would be the

maintenance over the average life span of the car and fuel cost.

Another main concern for fuel cell cost is how much it will cost in tax dollars to create an

infrastructure that can provide and distribute hydrogen fuel. A study by General Motors estimates that

an infrastructure to support 70% of the United States population with access to a fuel station within two

miles of them would cost in between 10 and 15 billion dollars [33].

4.3.1 AVERAGE COST

The average vehicle usually has a life span of about 14 years if properly maintained. A

standard gasoline vehicle costs on average $516.00 per year while a hydrogen fuel cell costs on

average $434.00 per year to maintain [32].

Average gas prices in Winnipeg, Manitoba over the last thirteen months were 96 cents per litre

[37]. With that average price, the cost of gasoline per kilogram would be $1.30. The current cost to

produce hydrogen is $3.51 per kilogram. The hopes are to get in down to $2.33 per kilogram [33].


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Table V: Gas Prices per liter [37].

Statistics Canada, CANSIM using CHASS.

Date (YYYY-MM-

DD)

v735083 Winnipeg, Manitoba [46602]; Regular unleaded gasoline at self

service filling stations

2009-02 86.4

2009-03 86.9

2009-04 89.5

2009-05 94.5

2009-06 102.9

2009-07 99.8

2009-08 99.7

2009-09 100.2

2009-10 95.9

2009-11 98.5


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2009-12 96.0

2010-01 98.9

2010-02 98.9

Overall it is hard to compare costs between gasoline and hydrogen fuel cells.

I believe hydrogen fuel cells will someday be cheaper to run than gasoline. For

right now though, we just havent got the technology that would be able to produce

hydrogen at a cheaper cost.

4.4 SAFETY OF FUEL CELLS

In order for hydrogen fuel cells to be considered a viable option, the key element of user safety

must be addressed. The very nature of hydrogen causes concerns involving fire and explosion hazards.

The same electrochemical conversion required for fuel cell operation can also lead to dangerous

combustion. Hydrogen fuel leaks easily, and coupled with its quick ignition and wide range of

flammability, demands appropriate investigation [38]. Furthermore, hydrogen fuel only has roughly 1/

10th the potential energy of gasoline per unit volume. Combine this fact with the need for maximum

vehicle range, and extreme pressurization or liquefaction becomes necessary to increase the energy

density [39]. High energy density will naturally raise the risk of severe damage during an explosion.

Finally, the issue has to be looked at from numerous viewpoints, including pressurized hydrogen

safety, collision safety, and eventual code and standard formation.

Researchers Watanabe, Tamura and Suzuki maintain that despite the development of fuel cell

technology for vehicles, crucial safety tests had not yet been performed to the point where conclusions

can be reached with confidence. New facilities and experiments aim to change this. Fire tests have


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recently been conducted on hydrogen fuel, and subsequently compared to gasoline and natural gas.

These tests were performed at Canadas Powertech Laboratory. The tanks used were lightweight

composite with carbon fiber reinforcement. Natural fires were simulated in vehicles equipped with

each type of fuel and the heat radiated from the fires was measured. The tanks were designed with

safety valves which opened in response to heat in order to relieve pressure [38].

Hydrogen released upward from twin 34 L tanks at 35 MPa produced no abnormal spike in

radiated heat. Releasing the hydrogen downward provided a peak value of 190 kW/m2. Natural

gas, released downward at 20 MPa, yielded a value of 235 kW/m2. Lastly, gasoline vapor leaks

from a standard 40 L tank provided intermittent flames, and the maximum value of radiated heat was

measured to be approximately 200 kW/m2 [38].

Further observation and analysis of hydrogen fuel indicates a short burn time. Flame spread

was determined to be roughly equal to gasoline and narrower then natural gas. Researchers attribute

these findings to the fact that hydrogen has a very low resistance to flow and rapid combustion

characteristics. Based on these findings, it can be concluded the fire resulting from a depressurizing

35 MPa hydrogen tank does not pose a significantly higher hazard, if any at all, when compared to its

gasoline and natural gas counterparts [38]. The following pictures and graphs illustrate the hydrogen

related findings.

Figure 8. Hydrogen released upward [38]. Figure 9. Hydrogen released downward [38].

Other scenarios, such as instantaneous explosion, can be envisioned. Typically, these tests

are done outside in secluded areas due to the violent nature of the experiment. This fact makes

reproducing results difficult, while the installation and use of precision data collecting instruments


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becomes rather troublesome [38].

In order to promote better research methods, a new facility was constructed in Japan, called the

Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Vehicle Safety Evaluation Facility. The test building is a large chamber

constructed from thick concrete and reinforced steel plating. It is fully capable of withstanding

explosive shockwaves from hydrogen tank combustion. Because of this new building, explosion

studies can be carried out with the accuracy and reproducibility required. The facility is especially

important for testing the operation of safety valves. This is a crucial aspect of hydrogen safety; the

valves must operate to clear the tank before it explodes. All tests, prior to the publication of the article,

have been successful. The safety valves have not allowed any explosions. However, this is an area

that will require continuous research, due to the many factors involved. Multiple valve designs and

tank construction types will have to be evaluated [38].

These tests inevitably lead to a discussion on tank design and construction. With several

possibilities including high pressure storage (as studied above), liquid storage, and hydrogen-absorbing

alloy tanks, much more research has to be done on each individual tank design [39].

However, some broad conclusions can still be drawn. The first is that hydrogens reputation as

far too dangerous to use is not necessarily true. Indeed, we have seen data that illustrates natural gas to

be more hazardous in certain fire situations. The second is that hydrogen tanks can be used safely with

valves designed to release pressure and prevent explosions. Thirdly, researchers have access to a state-

of-the-art facility to test hydrogen tanks, and that will prove to be invaluable in the study of fuel cell

advancement. This research will help form codes and standards, which will be mandatory when public

use of hydrogen fuel cells begins.


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4.5 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF FUEL CELLS

One of the biggest advantages of hydrogen fuel cells is that they emit essentially zero

emissions. The reaction that takes place in a fuel cell, as previously shown, is a typical oxidation-

reduction reaction. Oxidation takes place at the anode, and reduction at the cathode. The free electrons

are able to power a load (electric motor in this case) as they travel from the anode to the cathode.

Recall that the only product of this reaction is water. In essence, this zero emission characteristic is

what makes fuel cells so attractive.

However, the discussion must then shift from fuel cell emissions to the production of hydrogen.

In order to achieve a sustainable hydrogen infrastructure, extensive hydrogen supply systems are

crucial. While hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, it is lighter than air and

simply floats away in the natural environment [40]. It must therefore be manufactured and contained.

Fortunately, it can be obtained from multiple primary sources, like natural gas, coal, biomass and the

electrolysis of water [41].

Despite these advantages, according to authors Qadrdan, Saboohi and Shayegan, securing

hydrogen from natural gas and coal require technologies that will emit CO2 and other pollutants.

Gas reforming and coal gasifying are two of the most plausible techniques, but they do pollute. In

addition, the hydrogen molecule may be a threat to the ozone, contributing to its depletion. Leakage

from containment systems is the most likely source of hydrogen pollution, and a percentage will

be removed immediately via reaction with hydroxide ions. Nevertheless, the remainder can reach

the stratospheric air, beginning a set of chemical reactions that result in ozone being converted into

water and oxygen. Given the goal of clean energy, the hydrogen supply chain must ensure that an

excessive amount of hydrogen cannot poison the ozone. In a model for analyzing hydrogen supply

and environmental impacts, researchers deemed pipelines the most appropriate method of hydrogen


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transport. Undoubtedly, the prerequisite pipeline system will require additional capital in order to meet

these specifications [41].

This model also concluded that biomass, given its low price and cleaner conversion, would

be used to supply all the hydrogen needed for transportation. The following graphic illustrates the

predicted hydrogen distribution system.

Figure 10. Predicted delivery of hydrogen power [41].

In an ideal situation, biomass gasification is a zero net emission process. The increase in

biomass crops will help eliminate CO2 emissions through the photosynthesis process. This is called a

life cycle view, and when considered, makes biomass gasification a very attractive way to obtain

hydrogen [41].

There are limitations. Biomass gasifiers have yet to be satisfactorily displayed in the

appropriate role [40]. Also, biomass does not have a high hydrogen yield, simply because biomass is

already lower in hydrogen content (~6%) when compared to other sources, such as methane (25%).

Adding to the problem, there are many types of biomass gasifying processes, which fall under the two

broad categories of thermo-chemical and bio-chemical. This could become an issue simply because it

will take time to determine which is the most viable for wide-scale hydrogen production. Recall that

currently there are no completed technology demonstrations to date, and timeframe becomes an issue

[40].

In conclusion, it is the production and transport of hydrogen, not the use of hydrogen as a fuel

which will have an environmental impact. The methods of transporting hydrogen must be carefully

constructed as not to allow any leakage; yet the production of hydrogen remains the biggest roadblock.


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While there are environmentally friendly ways of producing hydrogen, namely from biomass, these

technologies are not in full developmental stages.

4.6 COMPATABILITY OF FUEL CELLS

The final criteria used to judge the hydrogen fuel cell is compatibility. Specifically, this refers

to its workability in our environment. While we obviously lack the infrastructure to support hydrogen

vehicles, this in itself is not an unsolvable problem. Indeed, there are few cities globally (mostly cities

located in Scandinavia, Japan and USA) that have any type of support for fuel cells [42]. However,

climate could be a major issue. Environment Canada reports that between 1971 and 2000, the daily

average temperature per year is 2.7 degrees Celsius. From the same data, five months have average

temperatures below 0 degrees Celsius, which is the freezing point of water [43]. Since hydrogen fuel

cells produce water, this becomes a problem. If freezing occurs in a fuel cell stack, it can negatively

affect performance and damage the cell. Since much of the world is afflicted by sub zero temperatures

for part of the year, this is an area which requires, and has received, extensive research [44].

Researcher H. Meng documented a very technical study on cold-start and cold operation of

hydrogen fuel cells. He essentially tied together information and data from many previous studies on

fuel cell cold temperature operation. The mathematics involved is impressive and complex. The

model he developed was used to test the cold-start operation of a hydrogen fuel cell at a temperature of

-20 degrees Celsius, while under constant current and voltage [44].

The conclusion of this study provides tangible evidence that with the proper measures in place,

hydrogen fuel cells are capable of cold weather start up and operation. The study concluded that the

biggest factor in poor start up performance was the build up of water vapor inside the cathode gas


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channel. In order to solve this, maximum gas flow during start up is required to purge the water [44].

In fact, Mercedes already uses an electronic turbo charger to assist their B-class fuel cell vehicle during

cold starts [45].

Also, the membrane cannot be overlooked when designing a cold weather fuel cell. The study

confirms that the membrane will absorb water during the start up process, although it does not state any

broad conclusions as to what membrane design is best. While the fuel cell concept is simple enough,

the inner mechanics are very intricate. Membranes will have to be designed with the utmost attention

paid to water absorption characteristics, and how these characteristics affect performance [44].

It should be noted that cold weather capability has been proven in practical situations. In 2007,

a Toyota fuel cell hybrid successfully completed a 2300 mile (3701 km) trek from Fairbanks, Alaska

to Vancouver, British Columbia. The rugged road test was designed to demonstrate modern fuel cell

advancements in cold weather operation, as well as general reliability, durability and driving range

[46].

In conclusion, the data supports the idea that fuel cell vehicles can be engineered to operate in

sub zero climates. While theoretical studies have shown fuel cell start ups at -20 degrees Celsius to

be attainable, whether or not a fuel cell vehicle could start on a -40 degree Celsius Winnipeg morning

remains to be shown. The consumer will not have the luxury of a dedicated team of engineers and

researchers to maintain their vehicle, unlike the road tests that are being performed. Cold weather

performance will remain a daunting task for fuel cells in the immediate future.

5. CONCLUSION


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Our teams goal was to set out and evaluate three energy sources that could possibly replace the

current gasoline vehicle; supercapacitors, hybrid electric and fuel cells. The criteria for each alternative

power source are; background, safety, compatibility, environmental effects, cost and performance were

researched. After weighing out the pros and cons for each technology, we ruled out supercapacitors

and fuel cells as technologies that could be implemented today. They seem like solid concepts but need

further development and testing. Furthermore hybrid electric vehicles have been implemented into our

society for some years now. Many of the issues and obstacles that supercapacitors and fuel cells face

have already been overcome by hybrid electric technology. Safety regarding the electrical components

during operation is no longer an issue, and the vehicles are able to operate in most climates. In the

cases that the vehicle is operating outside of the preferred climate, then the vehicle just acts as a normal

gasoline engine vehicle. The cost of an electric hybrid is slightly high but in the long run the high

cost cancels out with the vehicles efficiency. Therefore hybrid electric vehicles are the most realistic

solution with today's technology.

6. REFERENCES


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http://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Flees.mit.edu%2Flees%2Fposters%2FRU13_signorelli.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFP5kdDmn90tRuHH5z4sHfU8PqRzwhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Flees.mit.edu%2Flees%2Fposters%2FRU13_signorelli.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFP5kdDmn90tRuHH5z4sHfU8PqRzwhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Flees.mit.edu%2Flees%2Fposters%2FRU13_signorelli.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFP5kdDmn90tRuHH5z4sHfU8PqRzwhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Flees.mit.edu%2Flees%2Fposters%2FRU13_signorelli.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFP5kdDmn90tRuHH5z4sHfU8PqRzwhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Flees.mit.edu%2Flees%2Fposters%2FRU13_signorelli.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFP5kdDmn90tRuHH5z4sHfU8PqRzwhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Flees.mit.edu%2Flees%2Fposters%2FRU13_signorelli.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFP5kdDmn90tRuHH5z4sHfU8PqRzwhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Flees.mit.edu%2Flees%2Fposters%2FRU13_signorelli.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFP5kdDmn90tRuHH5z4sHfU8PqRzwhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Flees.mit.edu%2Flees%2Fposters%2FRU13_signorelli.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFP5kdDmn90tRuHH5z4sHfU8PqRzwhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Flees.mit.edu%2Flees%2Fposters%2FRU13_signorelli.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFP5kdDmn90tRuHH5z4sHfU8PqRzwhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Flees.mit.edu%2Flees%2Fposters%2FRU13_signorelli.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFP5kdDmn90tRuHH5z4sHfU8PqRzwhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Flees.mit.edu%2Flees%2Fposters%2FRU13_signorelli.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFP5kdDmn90tRuHH5z4sHfU8PqRzwhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Flees.mit.edu%2Flees%2Fposters%2FRU13_signorelli.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFP5kdDmn90tRuHH5z4sHfU8PqRzwhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Flees.mit.edu%2Flees%2Fposters%2FRU13_signorelli.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFP5kdDmn90tRuHH5z4sHfU8PqRzwhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectric_double-layer_capacitor&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFAfffZnCM3lJDD15sJGKZkBIgYCQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectric_double-layer_capacitor&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFAfffZnCM3lJDD15sJGKZkBIgYCQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectric_double-layer_capacitor&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFAfffZnCM3lJDD15sJGKZkBIgYCQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectric_double-layer_capacitor&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFAfffZnCM3lJDD15sJGKZkBIgYCQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectric_double-layer_capacitor&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFAfffZnCM3lJDD15sJGKZkBIgYCQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectric_double-layer_capacitor&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFAfffZnCM3lJDD15sJGKZkBIgYCQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectric_double-layer_capacitor&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFAfffZnCM3lJDD15sJGKZkBIgYCQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectric_double-layer_capacitor&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFAfffZnCM3lJDD15sJGKZkBIgYCQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectric_double-layer_capacitor&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFAfffZnCM3lJDD15sJGKZkBIgYCQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectric_double-layer_capacitor&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFAfffZnCM3lJDD15sJGKZkBIgYCQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectric_double-layer_capacitor&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFAfffZnCM3lJDD15sJGKZkBIgYCQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectric_double-layer_capacitor&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFAfffZnCM3lJDD15sJGKZkBIgYCQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectric_double-layer_capacitor&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFAfffZnCM3lJDD15sJGKZkBIgYCQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectric_double-layer_capacitor&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFAfffZnCM3lJDD15sJGKZkBIgYCQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FElectric_double-layer_capacitor&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFAfffZnCM3lJDD15sJGKZkBIgYCQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FDouble_layer_(interfacial&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNF6pfaJzsWuq5Dr5NEo-ue2zWzBjghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FDouble_layer_(interfacial&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNF6pfaJzsWuq5Dr5NEo-ue2zWzBjghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FDouble_layer_(interfacial&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNF6pfaJzsWuq5Dr5NEo-ue2zWzBjghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FDouble_layer_(interfacial&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNF6pfaJzsWuq5Dr5NEo-ue2zWzBjghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FDouble_layer_(interfacial&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNF6pfaJzsWuq5Dr5NEo-ue2zWzBjghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FDouble_layer_(interfacial&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNF6pfaJzsWuq5Dr5NEo-ue2zWzBjghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wiki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This study provided some figures and numeric data that I used in the report to back up some of my

claims and to evaluate the properties of a real, demonstrated supercapacitor. JH

[5] S. Zurek. (2006, June 12). supercapacitors_chart.png, in Wikimedia [Online]. Available:http://

commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Supercapacitors_chart.png [March27, 2010].

This is an excellent graph that quickly sums up the pros and cons of all of the energy sources that we

are considering. I use it to explain what properties supercapacitors have that are positive, and those

that are not. JH

[6] P. Thounthong, S. Ral, and B. Davat. (2009, March). Analysis of supercapacitor as second source

based on fuel cell power generation,IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion [Online], vol. 24

(1), pp. 247-255. Available: IEEE Xplore [March 27, 2010].

A study comparing the application of supercapacitors to other technologies, such as fuel cells. I used

this journal article to back up my claim that originated from [5] that supercapacitors are useful when

used in conjunction with other technologies. JH

[7] R. Ball. (2006, March 6).Electronics Weekly [Online]. Available: http://tinyurl.com/y8gnpge

[March 27, 2010].

I used this article to get some figures as to the cost of supercapacitors. JH
http://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fy8gnpge&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNE8FDBwOImeR2G1OjZvgkCHRQ_rGAhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fy8gnpge&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNE8FDBwOImeR2G1OjZvgkCHRQ_rGAhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fy8gnpge&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNE8FDBwOImeR2G1OjZvgkCHRQ_rGAhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fy8gnpge&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNE8FDBwOImeR2G1OjZvgkCHRQ_rGAhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fy8gnpge&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNE8FDBwOImeR2G1OjZvgkCHRQ_rGAhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fy8gnpge&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNE8FDBwOImeR2G1OjZvgkCHRQ_rGAhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fy8gnpge&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNE8FDBwOImeR2G1OjZvgkCHRQ_rGAhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fy8gnpge&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNE8FDBwOImeR2G1OjZvgkCHRQ_rGAhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fy8gnpge&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNE8FDBwOImeR2G1OjZvgkCHRQ_rGAhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fy8gnpge&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNE8FDBwOImeR2G1OjZvgkCHRQ_rGAhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fy8gnpge&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNE8FDBwOImeR2G1OjZvgkCHRQ_rGAhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASupercapacitors_chart.png&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEfDJ9Ji7DFZ6RwKAysrTmy5Tj8lQ


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[8] C. Arbizzani, M. Biso, D. Cericola, M. Lazzari, F. Soavi, and M. Mastragostino.

(2008, Dec.). Safe, high-energy supercapacitors based on solvent-free ionic liquid electrolytes,

Journal of Power Sources [Online], vol. 185, (2), pp. 1575-1579.

Available: ScienceDirect [March 10, 2010].

This article demonstrates the use of a supercapacitor manufactured from liquid electrolytes. It is

extremely safe and stable while providing a peak power output of 200kW during the 20 s of operation.

KH

[9] K. Hung, C. Masarapu, T. Ko, and B. Wei. (2009, Sept.). Wide-temperature range operation

supercapacitors from nanostructured activated carbon fabric,Journal of Power Sources [Online],

vol. 193 (2), pp. 944-949. Available: ScienceDirect [March 10, 2010].

This article shows the temperature range of a typical carbon nanotube supercapacitor. It shows that a

voltage window of -2V to 2V can be achieved in the temperature range of -40C to 100C. Stability is

shown, even at extreme temperatures. KH

[10] P. Thounthong, S. Rael, and B. Davat. (2009, Aug.). Energy management of fuel cell/battery/

supercapacitor hybrid power source for vehicle applications,Journal of Power Sources [Online],

vol. 193 (1). Available: ScienceDirect [March 14, 2010].

This paper demonstrates an energy management system used for hybrid electric vehicles. It uses a fuel

cell, battery, and a supercapacitor, and shows the practicality and performance of using such a system.

KH


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[11] Q. Wang, Z. Wen, and J. Li. (2006, Oct.). A hybrid supercapacitor fabricated with a carbon

nanotube cathode and a TiO2-B nanowire anode,Advanced Functional Materials [Online], vol.

16 (16), pp. 2141-2146. Available: Wiley InterScience [March 14, 2010].

This article researches a supercapacitor constructed of a nanotube cathode and nanowire anode. It

explains how such production occurs and also shows the capabilities of said supercapacitor. KH

[12] Y. Wu, and H. Gao. (2006, Nov.). Optimization of fuel cell and supercapacitor for fuel-cell

electric vehicles,IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology [Online], vol. 55 (6), pp. 1748-

1755. Available: IEEE Xplore [March 17, 2010].

This article looks at fuel cells and supercapacitors working in tandem. It tries to find the optimal

design required to maximize cell life while minimizing the cost. They use an electric vehicle as the

basis for this test. KH

[13] Nichicon Corp. (n.d.).Application Guidelines for Electric Double Layer Capacitors [Online].

Available: http://www.nichicon.co.jp/english/products/pdf/e-ev_gui.pdf[March17, 2010].

This is a product installation guide for double layer capacitors, detailing possible hazards. KH

[14] A. Emadia, M. Ehsani, and J. Miller. (2004). Vehicular Electric Power Systems: Land, Sea, Air,

and Space Vehicles [Online]. Available: http://tinyurl.com/ybeucel[March 13, 2010].

Section 5 of this report provides good information on the background of the technology of hybrid
http://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fybeucel&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFB1oWqECgT_p34S9JGVfOHrNzWeghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fybeucel&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFB1oWqECgT_p34S9JGVfOHrNzWeghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fybeucel&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFB1oWqECgT_p34S9JGVfOHrNzWeghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fybeucel&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFB1oWqECgT_p34S9JGVfOHrNzWeghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fybeucel&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFB1oWqECgT_p34S9JGVfOHrNzWeghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fybeucel&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFB1oWqECgT_p34S9JGVfOHrNzWeghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fybeucel&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFB1oWqECgT_p34S9JGVfOHrNzWeghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fybeucel&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFB1oWqECgT_p34S9JGVfOHrNzWeghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fybeucel&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFB1oWqECgT_p34S9JGVfOHrNzWeghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fybeucel&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFB1oWqECgT_p34S9JGVfOHrNzWeghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fybeucel&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFB1oWqECgT_p34S9JGVfOHrNzWeghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fybeucel&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFB1oWqECgT_p34S9JGVfOHrNzWeghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Ftinyurl.com%2Fybeucel&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFB1oWqECgT_p34S9JGVfOHrNzWeghttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichicon.co.jp%2Fenglish%2Fproducts%2Fpdf%2Fe-ev_gui.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNEFHDZxkP1PgSVvn9QKD0BUuT7zdQ


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electric vehicles as well as fuel cell. MC

[15] D. Doughty, P. Butler, R. Jungst, and E. Roth. (2002, June). Lithium Battery Thermal Models,

Journal of Power Sources [Online], vol. 110 (2), pp. 357-363. Available: ScienceDirect [March

12, 2010].

This article reports on the thermal modeling of lithium ion batteries. The report is on multiple uses

of the batteries, including hybrid vehicles. This is of interest because it details the effects of extreme

thermal scenarios. MC

[16] ThermoAnalytics, Inc. (2007).Battery Types and Characteristics [Online]. Available:

http://www.thermoanalytics.com/support/publications/batterytypesdoc.html

[March 12, 2010].

The author provides detailed information about the various battery types used for hybrid technology as

well as the important characteristics. This is of interest since it provides temperature range for HEV.

MC

[17] I. Buchmann. (2008, Feb.).BatteryUniversity [Online] Available:

http://www.batteryuniversity.com/partone-15.htm [March 14, 2010].
http://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thermoanalytics.com%2Fsupport%2Fpublications%2Fbatterytypesdoc.html&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFBCNbpYLJ2-HBLeIlgNhJAluTxJQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thermoanalytics.com%2Fsupport%2Fpublications%2Fbatterytypesdoc.html&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFBCNbpYLJ2-HBLeIlgNhJAluTxJQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thermoanalytics.com%2Fsupport%2Fpublications%2Fbatterytypesdoc.html&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFBCNbpYLJ2-HBLeIlgNhJAluTxJQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thermoanalytics.com%2Fsupport%2Fpublications%2Fbatterytypesdoc.html&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFBCNbpYLJ2-HBLeIlgNhJAluTxJQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thermoanalytics.com%2Fsupport%2Fpublications%2Fbatterytypesdoc.html&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFBCNbpYLJ2-HBLeIlgNhJAluTxJQhttp://www.google.com/url?q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thermoanalytics.co

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