America’s History Seventh Edition CHAPTER 7 Teach each other about Politics and Society in the New Republic 1787-1820 Copyright © 2011 by Bedford/St. Martin’s

America’s HistorySeventh Edition

CHAPTER 7Teach each other about Politics and Society in the New Republic

1787-1820

Copyright © 2011 by Bedford/St. Martin’s

James A. HenrettaRebecca Edwards

Robert O. Self

An Emblem of America, 1800In the first years of independence, citizens of the United States searched for a symbolic representation of their new nation. This engraving shows many of the choices: Should the symbol of “America” have an ideological meaning, as in the Goddess of Liberty? Or should it be represented by national heroes, as in the stone Memorial to Washington? Or should America’s symbol be found among its unique features, such as Niagara Falls (pictured in the background) or the presence of Africans and Indians (as represented by the black youth to the right and the spear-brandishing figure in front of the falls)? Or, finally, should its symbol be the national flag?

I. The Political Crisis of the 1790sA. The Federalists Implement the Constitution

1. Devising the New Government• Washington received the highest number of

votes from the Electoral College and was elected president in 1788, John Adams elected VP.

• appointed a cabinet: T. Jefferson (head of Dept. of State), A. Hamilton (head of Treasury Dept), and Henry Knox (Sec. of War).

• Judiciary Act of 1789 established a federal district court in each state with three circuit courts to hear appeals

• Supreme Court would have final judicial say.

2. The Bill of Rights

B. Hamilton’s Financial Program1. Public Credit: Redemption and Assumption2. Creating a National Bank3. Raising Revenue through Tariffs

A. The Federalists Implement the Constitution1. Devising the New Government

• appointed a cabinet: T. Jefferson (head of Dept. of State), A. Hamilton (head of Treasury Dept), and Henry Knox (Sec. of War).





I. The Political Crisis of the 1790sA. The Federalists Implement the

Constitution1. Devising the New Government





2. The Bill of Rights• added to the Constitution;• Madison (now a member of

Congress) submitted 19 amendments

• 10 were approved by 1791• these 10 consisted the nation’s

first Bill of Rights to protect the individual citizen against an oppressive national government.


B. Hamilton’s Financial Program(Hamilton wrote three reports to Congress to outline his economic plans.)

1. Public Credit: Redemption and Assumption•Redemption and Assumption – (1790) extremely controversial because it would create a permanent national debt; •suggested that Congress “redeem at face value the $55 million in Confederation securities held by foreign and domestic investors” to create good credit; •critics said this policy would unfairly increase the profits of speculators; •wanted to improve public credit by having the national government assume the war debt of the states.

2. Creating a National Bank3. Raising Revenue through Tariffs

2. Creating a National Bank• (December 1790) Hamilton argued

that a national bank would be jointly owned by private stockholders and the national government;

• bank would make loans to merchants, handle government funds, and issue bills of credit;

• Jefferson and Madison opposed a national bank (strict interpretation of Constitution) on the grounds that the government did not have the right/power to create such an institution.

3. Raising Revenue through Tariffs

3. Raising Revenue through Tariffs

• report on manufactures (December 1791)

• called for Congress to impose “excise” taxes to pay the interest on the national debt

• advocated revenue tariffs and not protective tariffs.

Creating a National Political Tradition“Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, upon this continent, a new nation….” So Abraham Lincoln began his famous address at Gettysburg in 1863. In fact, although the American Patriots founded a new republic in 1776, it became a nation, with a sense of national consciousness, only in subsequent decades. How did America’s nationhood develop? The sheer act of living together and addressing common problems created a foundation for nationhood. But graphic representations such as these engravings shaped the national identity and created a sense of political continuity.

Consider these images together.

1. What common theme is conveyed by these two engravings?

Answer: both celebrate George Washington: in one Washington is met by bowing, flower-bearing women as he tips his hat to them, while in the other he is addressing a group of soldiers with the images of prominent American men in the background.)

2. For what purpose(s) might the engravings have been created?

Answers: both images seek to evoke feelings of patriotism and a sense of honoring the nation’s history, the Revolution, and the forefathers.)

Hamilton’s Fiscal Structure, 1792As treasury secretary, Alexander Hamilton established a national debt by issuing government bonds and using the proceeds to redeem Confederation securities and assume the war debts of the states. To pay the annual interest due on the bonds, he used the revenue from excise taxes and customs duties. Hamilton deliberately did not attempt to redeem the bonds because he wanted to tie the interests of the wealthy Americans who owned them to the new national government.

C. Jefferson’s Agrarian Vision1. Southern Planters and Western Farmers

• by 1793 the Federalists had split over Hamilton’s financial plans for the nation

• southern Federalists supported Jefferson and Madison (called themselves Democratic Republicans), while northerners supported Hamilton (Federalists)

• Jefferson argued that the wage-labor of the north could not sustain a republican nation

• focused instead on yeoman farmers and their families, whose work he argued could support the nation as well as European countries

• French Revolution’s disruption of European farming lent credibility to Jefferson’s ideas.

D. The French Revolution Divides Americans1. Ideological Politics2. Jay’s Treaty

Two Visions of AmericaThomas Jefferson (left) and Alexander Hamilton confront each other in these portraits, as they did in the political battles of the 1790s. Jefferson was pro-French, Hamilton pro-British. Jefferson favored farmers and artisans; Hamilton supported merchants and financiers. Jefferson believed in democracy and rule by legislative majorities; Hamilton argued for strong executives and judges. Still, in the contested presidential election of 1800, Hamilton (who detested candidate Aaron Burr) threw his support to Jefferson and secured the presidency for his longtime political foe.

D. The French Revolution Divides Americans1. Ideological Politics

• Americans made large profits from the French Revolution but argued over the ideologies that led to the revolution;

• some Americans supported the Jacobin ideas of social egalitarian/democratic society;

• Americans with strong Christian beliefs disliked the Jacobins closing the churches and feared a similar social rebellion in the U.S.;

• still other Americans were critical of the revolution’s bloodshed;

• 1794 Whiskey Rebellion in Pennsylvania as farmers protested Hamilton’s tax on alcohol.

2. Jay’s Treaty

• 1794 Whiskey Rebellion in Pennsylvania as farmers protested Hamilton’s tax on alcohol.

2. Jay’s Treaty

2. Jay’s Treaty•disagreements between the British and Americans over shipments to France led to Jay’s treaty (1793/94) with the British accepting their right to stop neutral ships;•Americans could make claims to the British for illegal seizures and required the British to remove their troops and Indian agents from the Northwest Territory

•seen as a decidedly pro-British treaty.

2. Jay’s Treaty• seen as a decidedly

pro-British treaty.

E. The Rise of Political Parties1. Public Interest

• many Americans feared organized political parties because they feared that they did not serve the public interest;

1. Public Interest• Adams elected president• maritime disputes with

the British erupted in the XYZ Affair.











The Presidential Elections of 1796 and 1800Both elections pitted Federalist John Adams of Massachusetts against Republican Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, and both saw voters split along regional lines. Adams carried every New England state and, reflecting Federalist strength in maritime and commercial areas, the eastern districts of the Middle Atlantic states; Jefferson won most of the agricultural-based states of the south and west (Kentucky and Tennessee). New York was the pivotal swing state. It gave its twelve electoral votes to Adams in 1796 and, thanks to the presence of Aaron Burr on the Republican ticket, bestowed them on Jefferson in 1800.

STOP AND THINK…•What was Hamilton’s vision of the future? What policies did he implement to achieve it? How was Jefferson’s vision different?

•What were the consequences of the French Revolution in American life and politics?

F. Constitutional Crisis and the “Revolution of 1800”1. The Election of 1800

• public criticism of the new president (Jefferson) led to passage of the:

1. Naturalization Act (residency requirements for citizenship)

2. Alien Act (allowed deportation of foreigners), and…

3. Sedition Act (prohibited publication of insults or attacks against the president or members of Congress)

• contested election of 1800 resulted in Hamilton’s support for Jefferson and his election.

II. The Westward Movement and the Jeffersonian RevolutionA. The Expanding Republic and Native American

Resistance1. Conflict over Land Rights

• disagreements continued in the west; • government asserted control over trans-Appalachia West

arguing that the natives who lived there were “conquered”;

• Indians disagreed because they had not signed the Treaty of Paris;

• native peoples were forced to cede land in New York and Pennsylvania, were bribed to supply additional land;

• conflict between allying native groups, white settlers, and the U.S. Army;

• Greenville Treaty ceded most of Ohio to U.S. and started a wave of migration from the east;

• by 1805 Ohio was a state with more than 100,000 people.

2. Assimilation Rejected

II. The Westward Movement and the Jeffersonian Revolution

A. The Expanding Republic and Native American Resistance1. Conflict over Land Rights

• Greenville Treaty ceded most of Ohio to U.S. and started a wave of migration from the east;

• by 1805 Ohio was a state with more than 100,000 people.


Treaty Negotiations at Greenville, 1795In 1785, Indian tribes in the Northwest Territory formed the Western Confederacy to prevent white settlement north of the Ohio River. After Indian triumphs in battles in the early 1790s, an American victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794) and the subsequent Treaty of Greenville (1795) opened up the region for white farmers. However, the treaty recognized many Indian rights because it was negotiated between relative equals on the battlefield. The artist suggests this equality: Notice the height and stately bearing of the Indian leaders – ninety of whom signed the document – and their placement slightly in front of the General Anthony Wayne and his officers.


• to prevent conflict, U.S. government encouraged assimilation to white culture;

• some converted to Christianity but kept their cultural practices.

Indian Cessions and State Formation, 1776–1840By virtue of the Treaty of Paris (1783) with Britain, the United States claimed sovereignty over the entire trans-Appalachian west. The Western Confederacy contested this claim, but the U.S. government upheld it with military force. By 1840, armed diplomacy had forced most Native American peoples to move west of the Mississippi River. White settlers occupied their lands, formed territorial governments, and eventually entered the Union as members of separate—and equal—states. By 1860, the trans-Appalachian region constituted an important economic and political force in American national life.

II. The Westward Movement and the Jeffersonian RevolutionB. Migration and the Changing Farm Economy

1. Southern Migrants• two “streams”: 1) white tenants and yeomen farmers into Kentucky and Tennessee, later into Ohio,

Indiana, Illinois.2) from the Carolinas: slaveowners and slaves moved toward Gulf of Mexico (Alabama,

Mississippi, Louisiana) to plant cotton.2. Exodus from New England

• Left New England for NH, VT, ME, NY in search of land for their children.

3. Innovation on Eastern Farms

Regional Cultures Move West, 1790–1820By 1790, four core cultures had developed in the long-settled states along the Atlantic seaboard. Between 1790 and 1820, migrants from these four regions carried their cultures into the trans-Appalachian west. New England customs and institutions were a dominant influence in upstate New York and along the Great Lakes, while the Lower South’s hierarchical system of slavery and heavy concentration of African Americans shaped the character of the new states along the Gulf of Mexico. The pattern of cultural diffusion was more complex in the Ohio and Tennessee river valleys, which were settled by migrants from various core regions.


B. Migration and the Changing Farm Economy3. Innovation on Eastern Farms

• in the north, farmers switched from grain to potatoes, bought farm equipment;

• began to adopt year-round farming schedules;

• harder and longer work, improved standard of living. The potato

Edward Hicks, The Residence of David TwiningHicks painted this farm around 1845, as he remembered it from his childhood in the 1780s (he is the young lad standing next to Elizabeth Twining). By the 1780s, Bucks County in Pennsylvania had been settled by Europeans for more than a century. The county’s prosperous Quaker farmers had built large and comfortable clapboard-covered houses, commodious barns, and solid fences. They hired workers, such as the black plowman in the painting, to cultivate their spacious well-manured fields and tend their cattle and sheep. Like many other rural easterners, they had become commercial farmers who sold their grain, meat, hides, and wool into the market economy.

1. Examine this illustration of a Creek log cabin. Identify traditional symbols of Native American culture.

Answers: clothing, headdresses, pipe being held by man in foreground, corn being grown in background.

2. Is there evidence of European influence on the Creek people in this picture?

Answer: log house is of Scots-Irish or German design.)

3. What do the combination of European and indigenous symbols present in these people’s daily lives teach us about Native Americans in the late eighteenth century?

Answer: by the1790s native peoples living in the new republic had integrated some European practices in to their lives, including this style of house-building.


C. The Jeffersonian Presidency1. Policies

• Jefferson’s presidency began the “Virginia Dynasty” of (1801-1Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe 825)

• all three actively supported westward expansion• Jefferson reduced the size of the permanent

army.•

2. Marbury v. Madison • 1808 Supreme Court decision. The Supreme

Court did not have the constitutional power to enforce legislation, but did have the power to review legislation and interpret the Constitution.

D. Jefferson and the West1. The Louisiana Purchase2. Secessionist Schemes3. Lewis and Clark Meet the Mandan and Sioux

VA MA VA VA VA

C. The Jeffersonian Presidency 2. Marbury v. Madison (1808) • The Supreme Court did not have the constitutional power to enforce

legislation, but did have the power to review legislation and interpret the Constitution.

D. Jefferson and the West1. The Louisiana Purchase2. Secessionist Schemes3. Lewis and Clark Meet the Mandan and Sioux

Preble in August 1804. As the USS Constitution and other large warships lob shells into the city, small American gunboats defend the fleet from Tripolitan gunboats. “Our loss in Killed & Wounded has been considerable,” Preble reported, and “the Enemy must have suffered very much…among their Shipping and on shore.”

America in the Middle East, 1804To protect American merchants from capture and captivity in the Barbary States, President Thomas Jefferson sent in the U.S. Navy. This 1846 lithograph, created by the famous firm of Currier & Ives, depicts one of the three attacks on the North African port of Tripoli by Commodore Edward

Now you know where the last slide was talking about.

II. The Westward Movement and the Jeffersonian RevolutionD. Jefferson and the West

1. The Louisiana Purchase• Jefferson wanted it to be easier for farm families to

acquire land in the west; • 1801 Napoleon signed a secret treaty with Spain that

regained Louisiana for France; • coupled with revolt in Haiti against French rule,

Jefferson began to fear relationship with France, made efforts to purchase New Orleans (ultimately all of Louisiana);

• Jefferson believed this would force Indian population further west.

2. Secessionist Schemes3. Lewis and Clark Meet the Mandan and Sioux

Toussaint L’Ouverture, Haitian Revolutionary and StatesmanThe American Revolution of 1776 constituted a victory for republicanism; the Haitian revolt of the 1790s represented a triumph of liberty over slavery and a demand for racial equality. After leading the black army that ousted French planters and British invaders from Haiti, Toussaint formed a constitutional government in 1801. A year later, when French troops invaded the island, he negotiated a treaty that halted Haitian resistance in exchange for a pledge that the French would not reinstate slavery. Subsequently, the French seized Toussaint and imprisoned him in France, where he died in 1803.


D. Jefferson and the West1. The Louisiana Purchase

• Jefferson believed this would force Indian population further west.

2. Secessionist Schemes3. Lewis and Clark Meet the Mandan and Sioux

• IT DID.

U.S. Population Density in 1803 and the Louisiana PurchaseWhen the United States purchased Louisiana from France in 1803, much of the land to its east—the vast territory between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River—remained in Indian hands. The equally vast lands beyond the Mississippi were virtually unknown to Anglo-Americans, even after the epic explorations of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, and Zebulon Pike. Still, President Jefferson predicted quite accurately that the huge Mississippi River Valley “from its fertility…will ere long yield half of our whole produce, and contain half of our whole population.”

2. Secessionist Schemes• New England Federalists

considered leaving the Union after Louisiana Purchase to form a confederacy of northeastern states, supported by the VP Aaron Burr

• (Right) Political cartoon critical of Jefferson shows him being robbed by King of Spain and Napoleon.

3. Lewis and Clark Meet the Mandan and Sioux

D. Jefferson and the West2. Secessionist Schemes

• Hamilton accused Burr of planning to destroy the Union, a duel occurred between the men and Hamilton was killed

• Burr was later acquitted of treason.



• 1804 Jefferson sent his secretary Meriwether Lewis and army officer William Clark to explore the Louisiana region;

• came into contact with Mandan and Sioux peoples;

• continued traveling further (1,300 miles) into unknown territories;

• gave to Jefferson the first maps of the western wilderness, its resources and inhabitants.

A Mandan VillageThis Mandan settlement in North Dakota, painted by George Catlin around 1837, resembled those in which the Lewis and Clark expedition spent the winter of 1804–1805. Note the palisade of logs that surrounds the village, as protection from the Sioux and other marauding Plains peoples, and the solidly built mud lodges that provided warm shelter from the bitter cold of winter.

Can you answer the following?•Was there anything the Western Indian Confederacy could have done to limit white expansion and preserve Indian lands? Explain your position.

•Why did Jefferson support westward expansion? Why did eastern farm families leave their communities to go west? Were their reasons the same as Jefferson’s?

DID you answer the following?•Was there anything the Western Indian Confederacy could have done to limit white expansion and preserve Indian lands? Explain your position.

•Why did Jefferson support westward expansion? Why did eastern farm families leave their communities to go west? Were their reasons the same as Jefferson’s?

III. The War of 1812 and the Transformation of PoliticsA. Conflict in the Atlantic and the West

1. The Embargo of 1807• Napoleonic War in Europe and the Atlantic eventually brought Americans into the conflict; • the British navy impressed Americans into service from merchant ships;

• Embargo Act of 1807 kept American ships from leaving ports until the French and British restrictions had been lifted; • American economy weakened; • 1808 Madison elected and continued to restrict American trade.

2. Western War Hawks

B. The War of 18121. Federalists Oppose the War2. The War’s End

III. The War of 1812 and the Transformation of Politics1. The Embargo of 1807

• Embargo Act of 1807 kept American ships from leaving ports until the French and British restrictions had been lifted;

• American economy weakened; • 1808 Madison elected and

continued to restrict American trade.

2. Western War Hawks


What is Ograbme spelled backwards?What is Ograbme spelled backwards?

III. The War of 1812 and the Transformation of PoliticsA. Conflict in the Atlantic and the West

2. Western War Hawks (or simply hawks, is a term used in politics for those favoring war in a debate over whether to go to war, or whether to continue or escalate an existing war. War hawks are the opposite of doves)

• Republicans from the West blamed Britain; • Tecumseh rebuilt the Western Confederacy (Indians) and mobilized

his people (and others) for war; • violence broke out between native peoples and white Americans,

British aided Indians;

• war broke out between U.S. and Britain June 1812 with U.S. arguing that Britain had violated the nation’s commercial rights.


Tenskwatawa, “The Prophet,” 1830Tenskwatawa added a spiritual dimension to Native American resistance by urging a holy war against the invading whites and calling for a return to sacred ancestral ways. His dress reflects his teachings: Note the animal-skin shirt and the heavily ornamented ears. However, some of Tenskwatawa’s religious rituals reflected the influence of French Jesuits; he urged his followers to finger a sacred string of beads (such as those in his left hand) that were similar to the Catholic rosary, thereby “shaking hands with the Prophet.” Whatever its origins, Tenskwatawa’s message transcended the cultural differences among Indian peoples and helped his brother Tecumseh create a formidable political and military alliance.

• war broke out between U.S. and Britain June 1812 with U.S. arguing that Britain had violated the nation’s commercial rights.


B. The War of 18121. Federalists Oppose the War

•failed U.S. invasion of British Canada; •U.S. offensive in the West; •in East, no invasion of Canada as New England Federalists opposed the war completely; •in the North war went poorly; •in the Southwest Andrew Jackson (slaveholding planter) was leading militiamen from Tennessee successfully against the British and Spanish-supported Indians; •New Englanders continued to oppose the war.

2. The War’s End

The Battle of New Orleans

Battle of New Orleans, by Jean-Hyacinthe de Laclotte (detail)As their artillery (right center) bombarded the American lines, British infantry attacked the center of General Andrew Jackson’s line of troops. At the same time, a column of redcoats (foreground) tried to breach the right flank of the American fortifications. Secure behind their battlements, Jackson’s forces repelled the assaults, taking thousands of prisoners and leaving the ground littered with British casualties.

B. The War of 18122. The War’s End

•war cost the U.S. $88 million and grew increased national debt; (50% INFLATION)•1815 Britain called for peace; •Treaty of Ghent (1814) put borders back to pre-war.

The War of 1812Unlike the War of Independence, the War of 1812 had few large-scale military campaigns. In 1812 and 1813, most of the fighting took place along the Canadian border, as small American military forces attacked British targets with mixed success (nos. 1–4). The British took the offensive in 1814, launching a successful raid on Washington, but their attack on Baltimore failed, and they suffered heavy losses when they invaded the United States along Lake Champlain (nos. 5–7). Near the Gulf of Mexico, American forces moved from one success to another: General Andrew Jackson defeated the pro-British Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, won a victory in Pensacola, and, in the single major battle of the war, routed an invading British army at New Orleans

1. Describe the action taking place in this cartoon.

Answer: a man of Native American heritage is scalping a man on the ground, nearby a scalped man lies dead; a second native hands a fresh scalp to a British officer, on his back a gun with a sign: “Reward for sixteen scalps”; by the head of the British officer it reads: “Bring me the scalps and the King, our master, will reward you”; atop the image reads the heading: “A scene from the frontier as practiced by the human British and their worthy allies.”)

2. What political perspective is depicted in this image?

Answer: anti-British, anti-Indian, supportive of colonial efforts to settle the frontier, despite potential for violence and bloodshed.

3. How does this image feed into stereotypes of both Native Americans and British soldiers in the eighteenth century?

Answer: the practice of scalping, the over-weight, perhaps over-indulged, British officer, the alliance of the two groups over-simplifies the complex relations that native nations had with the colonists and the British in North America.

C. The Federalist Legacy

(Postwar, Republicans split into two opposing camps: “National Republicans” and “Jeffersonian Republicans.”)

1. Marshall’s Federalist Law• John Marshall, Supreme Court Chief Justice;• three main principles influenced Marshall’s thinking:A. judicial authority, B. supremacy of natural law, C. traditional property rights.

2. Asserting National Supremacy3. Upholding Vested Property Right4. The Diplomacy of J.Q. Adams

5. Monroe Doctrine

John Marshall, by Chester Harding, c. 1830Even at the age of seventy-five, John Marshall (1755–1835) had a commanding personal presence. After he became chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court in 1801, Marshall elevated the Court from a minor department of the national government to a major institution in American legal and political life. His decisions on judicial review, contract rights, the regulation of commerce, and national banking permanently shaped the character of American constitutional law.

C. The Federalist Legacy2. Asserting National Supremacy

• dominance of the nation over the state.3. Upholding Vested Property Right

• fearing tyranny of the majority; • Marshall advocated protecting the property rights of the individual.

4. The Diplomacy of J.Q. Adams• citizens and political leaders embraced the Republican Party;• J.Q. Adams was a member of the Republican Party before the war of 1812 and had negotiated the

Treaty of Ghent• Secretary of State under President Monroe.

5. Monroe Doctrine

5. Monroe Doctrine•J.Q. Adams was the architect of the doctrine, which stated the Americas were no longer open for colonization from European Powers and U.S. would not interfere in the internal issue of European nations.•It’s called the Monroe doctrine because Monroe used it in his address to Congress. JQA was President Monroe’s Secretary of State when he helped to formulate it.

Defining the National Boundaries, 1800–1820After the War of 1812, American diplomats negotiated treaties with Great Britain and Spain that defined the boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase, with British Canada to the north and New Spain (which in 1821 became the independent nation of Mexico) to the south and west. These treaties eliminated the threat of border wars with neighboring states for a generation, giving the United States a much-needed period of peace and security.

Stop and think…•Was the War of 1812 “necessary”? If so, why? If not, why did it occur?

•How did the decisions of the Supreme Court between 1801 and 1820 alter the nation’s understanding of the Constitution? How did they change American society?

•Explain the causes of the rise and fall of the Federalist Party. Why was the Republican triumph so complete?

CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS

•What impact did the two great developments of this period—the French Revolution and subsequent war in Europe, and the westward expansion of the United States across the North American continent—have on each other?

•Explain the rise and fall of the First Party System. How did the policies pursued by Republican presidents between 1801 and 1825 differ from those implemented by Hamilton and the Federalists during the 1790s? Why did the Federalist agenda fall out of favor? What legacy did the Federalists leave?

Documents

America’s History Seventh Edition CHAPTER 7 Teach each other about Politics and Society in the New Republic 1787-1820 Copyright © 2011 by Bedford/St. Martin’s