America’s HistorySeventh Edition

CHAPTER 8Teach each other about Creating a Republican Culture

1790-1820

Copyright © 2011 by Bedford/St. Martin’s

James A. HenrettaRebecca Edwards

Robert O. Self

Chapter 8 Learning Objectives 1. What were the origins and operation of the emerging market economy in America? 2. How did Americans’ pursuit of republican ideals after the Revolution transform the nation into a more egalitarian society? 3. Why and how did the role of women change in republican society? 4. How did Anglo Americans shape the institution of slavery during the Revolution and early Republican eras? 5. In what ways did the Missouri Compromise impact the United States? 6. How did Protestant Christianity act as a force for social change in the early republic?

The Fourth of July in Philadelphia, c. 1811By the early nineteenth century, the Fourth of July celebration of American independence had become a popular holiday, especially among Jeffersonian Republicans. (Federalists commemorated Washington’s birthday.) This detail from a painting by John Lewis Krimmel links the new nation to the Greek and Roman republics through architecture (the building and the statue), notes its social diversity (by including blacks as well as whites), and hints at the tenor of its social life. The young man buying an alcoholic drink and flirting with the young mother may well engage in some rowdy behavior before Independence Day is over.

I. The Capitalist Commonwealth

A. Banks, Manufacturing, and Markets1. Banking and Credit

• many Americans believed republicanism should advance capitalism• to finance economic ventures people needed banks• Boston and New York founded institutions similar to the Bank of the U.S., which issued notes and commercial loans• 1816 Congress chartered Second Bank of the U.S., joining 246 banks in the nation

• not all banking institutions were trustworthy• Panic of 1819 caused by “dubious” banking policies and a 30% drop in agricultural prices• Americans were learning the dangers of the up and down capitalist “business cycle.”

2. Rural ManufacturingB. Building a Transportation Infrastructure

1. By Land2. By Water

I. The Capitalist Commonwealth

A. Banks, Manufacturing, and Markets1. Banking and Credit

• not all banking institutions were trustworthy• Panic of 1819 caused by “dubious” banking

policies and a 30% drop in agricultural prices• Americans were learning the dangers of the

up and down capitalist “business cycle.”

2. Rural ManufacturingB. Building a Transportation

Infrastructure1. By Land2. By Water

The China TradeFollowing the Revolution, New England merchants traded actively with the major Asian manufacturing centers of China and India. In this painting by George Chinnery (1774–1852), the American flag flies prominently, alongside other national banners, in front of the warehouse district in Canton (modern Guangzhou). There, merchants exchanged bundles of American furs for cargoes of Chinese tea, silks, and porcelain plates, cups, and serving dishes.

A. Banks, Manufacturing, and Markets2. Rural Manufacturing

• by 1820 many small artisans were selling their products nationwide• rural manufacturing networks aided in this process• innovations in production and marketing• water-powered mills in New England and the Middle Atlantic states

(1780s) increased output• some farmers began to change their focus• in New England a switch from growing crops for subsistence to raising

livestock to sell• environmental repercussions: unwanted production-induced smells,

cutting down of trees, mills inhibited the existence of fish• wage labor became increasingly important.

B. Building a Transportation Infrastructure1. By Land2. By Water

The Yankee Peddler, c. 1830Even in 1830, most Americans lived too far from a market town to go there regularly to buy goods. Instead, they purchased their tinware, clocks, textiles, and other manufactures from peddlers, often from New England, who traveled far and wide in small horse-drawn vans like the one visible through the doorway in this painting

B. Building a Transportation Infrastructure1. By Land

• states issued charters for “turnpike companies” with special rights to transportation routes

• improved transportation would aid in the distribution of products

• creation of roads.

2. By Water• quickest and cheapest way to

transport goods• land near waterways became

increasingly expensive• speculators bought up land in small

cities with waterways: Cincinnati, Louisville, Chattanooga, St. Louis.

2. By Water• quickest and cheapest way to transport goods• land near waterways became increasingly expensive• speculators bought up land in small cities with waterways: Cincinnati, Louisville,

Chattanooga, St. Louis.

View of Cincinnati, by John Caspar Wild, c. 1835Thanks to its location on the Ohio River (a tributary of the Mississippi), Cincinnati quickly became one of the major processing centers for grain and hogs in the trans-Appalachian west. By the 1820s, passenger steamboats and freight barges connected the city with Pittsburgh to the north and the ocean port of New Orleans far to the south.

C. Public Enterprise: The Commonwealth System1. “Public Utility”

• increased production, transportation methods would add to the “common wealth” or “public utility”

• transportation charters included the power of “eminent domain” (the right of a government or its agent to expropriate private property for public use, with payment of compensation, therefore allowing the forced sale of land along routes).

2. Critics• some argued that statutes like eminent domain gave

privileges to corporations and violated the rights of individuals

• Supreme Court upheld these statutes as good for all.

C. Public Enterprise: The Commonwealth System

2. Critics• some argued that

statutes like eminent domain gave privileges to corporations and violated the rights of individuals

• Supreme Court upheld these statutes as good for all.

How did promoters of mercantilism (the commonwealth system) use state and national governments to promote economic growth?

How did promoters of mercantilism (the commonwealth system) use state and national governments to promote economic growth?Promoters petitioned state legislatures for assistance. Legislatures granted special charters, rights, and laws to private companies to promote economic growth and the market economy.

Why did many Americans believe that the granting of special privileges and charters to private businesses violated republican principles?

Why did many Americans believe that the granting of special privileges and charters to private businesses violated republican principles?Special privileges violated the equal rights of all citizens and restricted the sovereignty of the people to shape governmental affairs and national development.

II. Toward a Democratic Republican Culture

A. Opportunity and Equality – for White Men1. Social Divisions

• an emerging middle class after the new nation was formed publicly celebrated political equality and social mobility

• European visitors viewed the U.S. as different culturally and socially from Europe

• no aristocracy in their view• social division did exist as some used their talents to

achieve personal advancement• some criticized the nouveau riche who seemed to grow

their own wealth/rise from nothing• reality was that great majority of those who achieved

success were white and male.

2. Discrimination

II. Toward a Democratic Republican CultureA. Opportunity and Equality – for White Men

2. Discrimination• laws in the new nation and cultural rules

long existent in Europe kept women and African American men from advancing as white men did

• race and gender restrictions were written into law keeping women and black men/women from being able to vote (suffrage), own property

• politicians used both biology and custom to make their discriminatory arguments.

The Expansion of Voting Rights for White Men, 1800 and 1830Between 1800 and 1830, the United States moved steadily toward political equality for white men. Many existing states revised their constitutions and replaced a property qualification for voting with a less-restrictive criterion (the voter must have paid taxes or have served in the militia). Some new states in the West extended the suffrage to all adult white men. As parties sought votes from a broader electorate, the tone of politics became more open and competitive—swayed by the interests and values of ordinary people.1830 on next slide

The Expansion of Voting Rights for White Men, 1800 and 1830Between 1800 and 1830, the United States moved steadily toward political equality for white men. Many existing states revised their constitutions and replaced a property qualification for voting with a less-restrictive criterion (the voter must have paid taxes or have served in the militia). Some new states in the West extended the suffrage to all adult white men. As parties sought votes from a broader electorate, the tone of politics became more open and competitive—swayed by the interests and values of ordinary people.

B. Toward a Republican Marriage System1. The Impact of Sentimentalism •debate within American households over authority and political rights•post-war Americans did not arrange marriages for children as colonial parents had when land was abundant•“sentimentalism”: importance of feeling or appreciation of God, nature, other human(s)•consent-based marriage•relationships based on intimacy•celebration of “falling in love.”

1.Companionate Marriage – marriages based on love; in theory they were supposed to be more republican, reality was that husbands remained authoritarian; after 1800 divorce petitions mentioned emotional turmoil in marriages, sometimes drunkenness and personal cruelty.

The Wedding, 1805Bride and groom stare intently into each other’s eyes as they exchange vows, suggesting that their union was a love match, not a marriage based on economic calculation. The plain costumes of the guests and the sparse furnishings of the room suggest that the unknown artist may have provided us with a picture of a rural Quaker wedding.

B. Toward a Republican Marriage System2. Companionate Marriage •marriages based on love•in theory they were supposed to be more republican, reality was that husbands remained authoritarian•after 1800 divorce petitions mentioned emotional turmoil in marriages, sometimes drunkenness and personal cruelty.

C. Republican Motherhood1. Demographic Transition

• by 1790s northern states’ birthrate was declining• native-born white women were having fewer children• U.S. first nation to experience “demographic

transition” caused by: 1) decrease in the number of men in the East because of

single men migrating to the West2) later marriage for women meant fewer children3) white couples were deliberately limiting family size to

be better able to provide for children (abstinence and birth control).

2. Christian Thought

C. Republican Motherhood2. Christian Thought

• by 1800 Protestant ministers were blaming men for the sexual misconduct of women• claimed women were pure and spiritual by nature• Benjamin Rush called for “republican mothers” to instruct their sons to be better citizens• ministers embraced Rush’s ideas• instead of seeking the vote, women should care for children.

The Battle over EducationHere an unknown artist pokes fun at a tyrannical schoolmaster and, indirectly, at the strict approach to child rearing taken by evangelical authors, parents, and teachers. The students’ faces reflect the artist’s own rationalist outlook. One minister who had been influenced by the Enlightenment suggested that we see in young children’s eyes “the first dawn of reason, beaming forth its immortal rays.”

D. Raising Republican Children1. Two Modes of Parenting

• unlike Europeans, who generally left property to eldest son, Americans were now encouraged to divide their property equally

• parenting among the middle class appeared to observers more permissive than traditional European practices

• yeoman and tenant farmers tended toward a stricter approach with authoritarian practices.

2. Debates over Education3. Promoting Cultural Independence

D. Raising Republican Children2. Debates over Education

• post-Revolution emphasis on public schooling increased significantly

• among the elite the importance of primary, secondary, and potentially college training emphasized

• most American families needed the income their children could provide

• farmers, artisans, laborers wanted their children to know how to read, write, and do basic math

• until the 1820s few children attended school for extended periods of time

• post-1820s legislatures included provisions for public schools in local areas.

3. Promoting Cultural Independence

Women’s EducationEven in education-conscious New England, during the colonial era few girls attended free public primary schools for more than a few years. After 1800, as this detail from Scenes from a Seminary for Young Ladies (c. 1810–1820) indicates, some girls stayed in school into their teenage years and studied a wide variety of subjects, including geography. Many graduates of these female academies became teachers, a new field of employment for women.

D. Raising Republican Children3. Promoting Cultural Independence

• Noah Webster argued that education should raise the “nation’s intellectual reputation”

• literary culture was slow to catch on

• only Washington Irving was popular outside of the U.S. (The Legend of Sleepy Hollow)

• 1830s/40s an “American Renaissance” (Emerson).

Did American culture become more democratic—for men and for women—in the early nineteenth century? If so, why? If not, why not?

Did American culture become more democratic—for men and for women—in the early nineteenth century? If so, why? If not, why not? • The continuing absence of a hereditary aristocracy increased social mobility for the white middle class, creating a system of status based on financial success. • Voting rights increased for white men. • The emerging middle class redefined the nature of family and education by seeking more egalitarian marriages and more affectionate ways of rearing and educating children. • Blacks and women were explicitly limited in their legal and political rights through new state laws designed to narrow opportunities for both groups and restrict suffrage to white men.

How did republican ideas shape parent-child interactions, marriage relationships, and intellectual life?

How did republican ideas shape parent-child interactions, marriage relationships, and intellectual life?• The notion of political equality called into question patriarchal authority, giving women more social latitude for advocating rights for social and political equality. • As patriarchal authority over the family decreased, young men and women began to create companionate marriages and choose their own marriage partners for love, affection, and happiness. • Patriarchal authority diminished as fathers lost their central role as shapers of their families’ financial future, largely because of a lack of abundant land. • Rather than dictate to their children, fathers began to act as paternalists and protect them from their own behavior.

Examine these depictions of American families.

The Cheneys c. 1795

The Caverleys 1836The Caverleys 1836

Examine these depictions of American families.

1. Describe these two American families.

Answers: The Cheneys: large family, appears to be either parents with several children, including a married daughter, her husband, children and siblings, all members of the family are well-dressed; no indication of father’s business/trade. The Caverlys: father, mother, son, daughter; father engaged in reading the newspaper with son at his feet holding a square; mother holds baby girl whose hand is on a book (possibly the Bible); all eyes look upon the father, behind them a painting of a home draped in garland; all members of the family are well-dressed, parents are seated upon nice furnishings.

Based on these images, what can we infer about changes in American family life from the eighteenth to the nineteenth century?

Answers: The Cheneys: large family, appears to be either parents with several children, including a married daughter, her husband, children and siblings, all members of the family are well-dressed; no indication of father’s business/trade. The Caverlys: father, mother, son, daughter; father engaged in reading the newspaper with son at his feet holding a square; mother holds baby girl whose hand is on a book (possibly the Bible); all eyes look upon the father, behind them a painting of a home draped in garland; all members of the family are well-dressed, parents are seated upon nice furnishings.

III. Aristocratic Republicanism and Slavery

A. The Revolution and Slavery, 1776-1800

1. Manumission and Gradual Emancipation• one-third of population of South were slaves• some believed that the Revolution would end slavery• many black Loyalists fled to Canada at war’s end• others stayed in the States supporting the Patriots• free blacks in New England volunteered for service• some slaves in Maryland and Virginia bargained service in local militias for postwar freedom• 1782 Virginia manumission act allowed for the release of slaves by their owners

• condemnation of slavery by Quakers and Enlightenment thinkers increased after war• 1784 Massachusetts abolished slavery• all states north of Delaware followed by 1804• some states promised freedom after a period of service• even where slavery was abolished discrimination continued.

2. Slavery DefendedB. The North and South Grow Apart

1. Slavery and National Politics2. African Americans Speak Out

III. Aristocratic Republicanism and Slavery

A. The Revolution and Slavery, 1776-18001. Manumission and Gradual Emancipation

• condemnation of slavery by Quakers and Enlightenment thinkers increased after war

• 1784 Massachusetts abolished slavery• all states north of Delaware followed by 1804• some states promised freedom after a period

of service• even where slavery was abolished

discrimination continued.

2. Slavery DefendedB. The North and South Grow

Apart1. Slavery and National Politics2. African Americans Speak Out

The Status of Slavery, 1800In 1775, racial slavery was legal in all of the British colonies in North America. By the time the states achieved their independence in 1783, most African Americans in New England had also been freed. By 1800, all of the states north of Maryland had provided for the gradual abolition of slavery, but the process was slow and not completed until the 1830s. Some slave owners in the Chesapeake region also manumitted their slaves, leaving only the whites of the Lower South firmly committed to racial bondage.

Republican Families…and ServantsAround 1828, an unidentified artist painted this York, Pennsylvania, family with an African American servant. The husband and wife embody a republican companionate-style marriage (the artist gives equal emphasis to the wife and the husband) in which the mother takes the leading role in rearing and educating the children. Befitting its upper-middle-class status, the family employs an African American woman as a domestic servant and nanny—common occupations among free black women of the time.

A. The Revolution and Slavery, 1776-18002. Slavery Defended

• financial investment in slaves made linking republicanism to their condition difficult for most slaveholders

• some did release slaves or allow them to buy freedom

• slavery a “necessary evil” in the South, most contended

• maintenance of white supremacy and planter lifestyle critical

• 1800 a planned uprising by Gabriel Prosser (VA) resulted in him and 30 others being hanged

• increased argument among southerners that republicanism was meant for whites only.

B. The North and South Grow Apart1. Slavery and National Politics2. African Americans Speak Out

A. The Revolution and Slavery, 1776-18002. Slavery Defended

• 1800 a planned uprising by Gabriel Prosser (VA) resulted in him and 30 others being hanged

• increased argument among southerners that republicanism was meant for whites only.

B. The North and South Grow Apart1. Slavery and National Politics2. African Americans Speak Out

1. Slavery and National Politics• foreign visitors noticed distinct

cultural differences between North and South

• during Constitution debate it was accepted that Congress not interfere in slavery

• a growing national issue of debate

• slave trade outlawed by Congress in 1808 but the institution remained.

2. African Americans Speak Out

B. The North and South Grow Apart

plantation along the Ashley River. The design of the home he erected on the site, Drayton Hall (built 1738–1742), was inspired by Andrea Palladio, the Italian Renaissance architect who celebrated the concepts of classical Roman proportion and decoration in his widely read The Four Books of Architecture (1516)

Aristocratic Republicanism in South CarolinaThe money that paid for Drayton Hall came originally from raising cattle in South Carolina for sale in the West Indies. At his death in 1717, Thomas Drayton left an estate that included 1,300 cattle and 46 slaves (both Native American and African). His third son, John (1715–1779), used his inheritance to buy slaves, and create a rice-growing

2. African Americans Speak Out• black abolitionists became more

vocal after trade ended• used the Haitian Revolution as

evidence of the ability of a people to overthrow the institution

• creation of secret anti-slavery societies

• demand continued to increase with cotton demand

• 1817 formation of the American Colonization Society by white men with the goal of freeing the slaves and sending them back to Africa

• approx. 6,000 re-settled in Liberia• free blacks opposed colonization.

Reverend Richard Allen and the African Methodist Episcopal ChurchOne of the best-known African Americans in the early republic, Richard Allen founded a separate congregation for Philadelphia’s black Methodists, the Bethel Church. Working with other ministers in 1816, he created the first independent black religious domination in the United States—the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church—and became its first bishop.

C. The Missouri Crisis, 1819-18211. Constitutional Issues

• debate over whether Missouri would enter the union as a slave state

• northern congressional majority blocked attempts to allow slavery in its constitution

• southerners threatened to keep Maine from entering the union as a free state

• southerners argued 1. equal rights (Missouri could not be held to a

different standard than other new states)2. Constitution guaranteed state sovereignty3. Congress could not infringe on rights of

slaveholders who wanted to live in Missouri.

2. A Compromise

How did the aristocratic republicanism of the South differ from the democratic republicanism of the North?

How did the aristocratic republicanism of the South differ from the democratic republicanism of the North?• The presence of slaves exposed the blatant contradiction of the southern slave society with republican values. • Because of the regional importance of slavery, southern republicanism was based more on property rights than a respect for liberty. • Slavery helped to create a southern culture based on racism toward blacks and racial solidarity with whites across class lines. • The focus on establishing slave plantations mitigated against the creation of educational institutions, and in general corrupted southern culture through the idleness of rich planters who relied on slave labor and engaged in extravagant displays of wealth.

What compromises over slavery did the members of Congress make to settle the Missouri crisis? Who benefited most from the agreement?

What compromises over slavery did the members of Congress make to settle the Missouri crisis? Who benefited most from the agreement?• Maine entered Union as a free state in 1820, and Missouri as a slave state in 1821, balancing the number of free and slave states. • Southern senators accepted the prohibition of slavery in the northern section of the Louisiana Purchase, the lands north of latitude 36°30'. • The task of compromise had become more difficult. It took only two months in 1787 but over two years in 1820 to resolve the issue.

C. The Missouri Crisis, 1819-1821

2. A Compromise• Henry Clay drafted a

compromise after two years of debate

• Maine would be admitted free (1820) and Missouri would be slave (1821)

• preserved a balance between North and South but also created a precedent for future admissions.

The Missouri Compromise, 1820–1821The Missouri Compromise resolved for a generation the issue of slavery in the lands of the Louisiana Purchase. •The agreement prohibited slavery north of the Missouri Compromise line (36°30′ north latitude), with the exception of the state of Missouri. •To maintain an equal number of senators from free and slave states in the U.S. Congress, the compromise provided for the nearly simultaneous admission to the Union of Missouri and Maine.

IV. Protestant Christianity as a Social ForceA. A Republican Religious Order

1. Religious Freedom• prior to the Revolution only Rhode Island and Pennsylvania

did not have state churches/religious taxes• postwar other states debated religious tolerance and an end

to such taxation• newer states did offer religious tolerance because they had

members of many different denominations• Congregationalism in New England until the 1830s.

2. Church-State Relations• Virginia prohibited religion as a qualification for holding

office• other states disqualified candidates who were Catholics

and/or Jews• Enlightenment thinking influenced states to advocate

freedom of conscience and encouraged “voluntarism” (funding churches through membership).

B. The Second Great Awakening1. Evangelical Churches2. Black Christianity

IV. Protestant Christianity as a Social ForceA. A Republican Religious Order

2. Church-State Relations• Virginia prohibited religion as a

qualification for holding office• other states disqualified

candidates who were Catholics and/or Jews

• Enlightenment thinking influenced states to advocate freedom of conscience and encouraged “voluntarism” (funding churches through membership).

B. The Second Great Awakening1. Evangelical Churches2. Black Christianity

Political cartoon showing Catholic bishops attacking public schoolchildren

B. The Second Great Awakening1. Evangelical Churches

• Methodist and Baptist most popular churches during decade-long series of revivals• Baptists had self-governing congregations• Baptists and Methodists had egalitarian (all people are equal and deserve equal rights and

opportunities) services• Massachusetts and northern New England developed a new sect, Universalists• camp meetings in South Carolina, Tennessee, Ohio, Kentucky offered a message of religious

fellowship to believers• spoke in simple language with great style and gestures • in South ministers angered planters by criticizing slavery• eventually they would modify their message to fit southern culture: pro-slave and

authoritarian white males in society/household.

2. Black Christianity

Number of Church Congregations by Denomination, 1780 and 1860The growth of evangelical churches, Methodist and Baptist, transformed American Christianity during the first half of the nineteenth century. Also noteworthy was the surge in the number of Catholic congregations, the result of immigration from Ireland and Germany after 1830.

B. The Second Great Awakening2. Black Christianity

• some planters were convinced to allow Christianity to spread among their slaves

• over time free blacks and the enslaved adapted these teachings to their own beliefs, teaching that as slaves they had a special relationship with the Christian God.

The Second Great Awakening, 1790–1860The Second Great Awakening lasted for decades and invigorated churches in every part of the nation. The revivals in Kentucky and New York State, though, were particularly influential. As thousands of farm families migrated to the west, they carried with them the religious excitement generated by the Cane Ridge revival in Kentucky in 1801. And, between 1825 and 1835, the area along the Erie Canal in New York witnessed such fervor that it came to be known as the Burned-over District.

C. Religion and Reform1. Benevolence and Reform

• some ministers linked individual salvation to religious benevolence, preaching of a duty to do for others

• founding of the Humane Society in NYC and other such organizations• common among devout women to adopt a charitable causes in their

community• cooperation among churches led to the founding of religious

societies to produce pamphlets and disseminate information. 2. In Political Life

• religion increasingly important in political life of the nation even as it became separate from the state

• some ministers advocated the election of Christian leaders and converting non-Christians in the U.S. and abroad.

D. Women’s New Religious Roles1. A Growing Public Presence2. Spiritual Authority vs. Political Power

D. Women’s New Religious Roles1.A Growing Public Presence•numerous public activities of women in mainstream churches gave females the opportunity to participate in an acceptable arena of public life (charity)•some congregations were as much as 70% female•ministers stopped segregating men and women in prayer groups and instead encouraged them to pray together•ministers argued that these men and women showed surprising restraint in their sexual relationships•decrease in the number of women pregnant at marriage in these communities.

1.Spiritual Authority vs. Political Power

Women in the AwakeningThe Second Great Awakening was a pivotal moment in the history of American women. In this detail from Religious Camp Meeting, painted by J. Maze Burbank in 1839, all the preachers are men, but women fill the audience and form the majority of those visibly “awakened.” By transforming millions of women into devout Christians, the revival movement filled Protestant churches with dedicated workers, teachers, and morality-minded mothers. When tens of thousands of these women also joined movements for temperance, abolition, and women’s rights, they spurred a great wave of social reform.

D. Women’s New Religious Roles2. Spiritual Authority vs. Political Power•in both North and South men feared the power women were gaining within the churches•women were prevented from being voting members of churches even when they outnumbered male church participation•ministers and husbands encouraged them to focus on being mothers•this participation did encourage more girls to attend school as the churches sponsored female academies for academic and moral instruction•women educated in these schools became school teachers in the 1820s.

1. Describe this woman and her actions.

Answer: Appears to be of African-American descent, well-dressed, standing at a lectern of some kind, open book in front, arm raised in emphasis of a point about which she is speaking to an audience.

2. What makes this image of Mrs. Tillman unusual for the 19th century?.

Answer: a black female addressing an audience would have been controversial even in audiences comprised entirely of African Americans; her race and gender would have made opportunity to do as such extremely limited.

Mrs. Juliann Jane Tillman, 1844In 1837, Mrs. Tillman explained in a newspaper article that she “was strangely wrought upon” and “went to God” for help. Soon, “what seemed to be an angel made his sudden appearance, and in his hand was a roll…on which was written, ‘Thee I have chosen to preach my gospel without delay.’” After much anguish and more supernatural visitations, Mrs. Tillman overcame strong personal doubts—and the equally strong opposition of male ministers and laity—and began to preach in the African Methodist Episcopal Church.

Which American churches were the most republican in their institutions and ideology?

Which American churches were the most republican in their institutions and ideology?Evangelical Methodist and Baptist churches were by far the most popular. The Baptists boasted a republican church organization, with self-governing congregations. Both Baptists and Methodists developed an egalitarian religious culture marked by communal singing and emotional services. Few Americans joined the Protestant Episcopal Church because wealthy lay members dominated many congregations.

Why did Protestant Christianity and Protestant women emerge as forces for social change?

Why did Protestant Christianity and Protestant women emerge as forces for social change?• The Second Great Awakening and its democratic religious emphasis strengthened connections between the American people and Protestant Christianity, swelling the ranks of new churches and sects of Protestantism and making the congregants active reformers.• The Second Great Awakening appealed directly to women and their quest for social and political equality. • The Second Great Awakening increased the confidence and role of women as a positive force for social change achieved through active efforts in the church, public arena, educational institutions, and home.

CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS

Explain how the republican ideas of the Revolutionary era shaped American society and culture in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. What regional differences in the social development of republicanism emerged? How can we account for these differences?

CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONSExplain how the republican ideas of the Revolutionary era shaped American society and culture in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. What regional differences in the social development of republicanism emerged? How can we account for these differences?• Republican ideas impacted all aspects of American society, politics, and economy. • The idea of equality increased the development of capitalism and a market economy in the capitalist commonwealth. • Republicanism also increased racial solidarity among whites and racism and exclusion toward blacks, thereby strengthening slavery as an institution. • Relations between men and women and parents and children became less conservative, patriarchal, and coercive, and based more on love, affection, companionate marriage, and paternalism. • Republicanism eroded the idea of an established church, producing a climate conducive to the rise of other Protestant sects during the Second Great Awakening. • Women increased their rights to education, divorce, and playing an active role in public by calling on the need to apply republican values to U.S. society. • Regional differences included a much more property rights-based idea of republicanism in the slave-based South, where free labor and a respect for liberty were minimal. • Slavery and heavy southern investments in the institution over industrial development accounted for the main value differences in republicanism between North and South.

CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS

Trace the relationship between America’s republican culture and the surge of evangelism called the Second Great Awakening. In what ways are the goals of the two movements similar? How are they different?

CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS

Trace the relationship between America’s republican culture and the surge of evangelism called the Second Great Awakening. In what ways are the goals of the two movements similar? How are they different?• Similarity of goals: Both broadened the level of participation of average people in forces of social change, influenced individuals to become more moral in daily pursuits, provided an environment of fellowship, and inspired an emotional impact. • Differences: Republicanism did not seek to convert people to Christianity, but actually made problematic the idea of an established church. While republicanism denied women and blacks a role to play in the new nation, the Second Great Awakening opened up opportunities for both groups to achieve a religious equality with white men.

CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONSThe text argues that a distinct American identity had begun to emerge by 1820. How would you describe this identity? What were the forces that helped create unity? And what were the points of contention?

CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONSThe text argues that a distinct American identity had begun to emerge by 1820. How would you describe this identity? What were the forces that helped create unity? And what were the points of contention?• Identity was based on republicanism and strong faith in equality among whites in society and politics. • Slavery had produced a race-based society where whites exercised class and racial solidarity by excluding blacks from political rights and enslaving them. • There was a strong rural and capitalist identity based on Indian removal and the growth of a market and transportation system utilized by white immigrants heading to the trans-Mississippi west.• Slavery was a force of unity and contention: It united whites racially but divided the white population regionally, politically, and economically as slavery became more profitable and entrenched in the South by 1820. The Missouri Compromise is a case in point.• Desire to economically develop the nation into a market economy united Americans in a capitalist ethos, but also divided them over the constitutional and moral methods to achieve national wealth. • Religion was a strong force of unity and contention: The Second Great Awakening united Americans in a fervid faith in Protestant Christianity, but also created competing Protestant sects.