Amos: a Handbook on the Hebrew Text

Amos

Garrett Amos final.indd 1 6/6/08 2:24:17 PM

Baylor Handbook on the Hebrew Bible

General Editor

W. Dennis Tucker Jr.


AmosA Handbook on the Hebrew Text

Duane A. Garrett

Baylor University Press


2008byBaylorUniversityPress,Waco,Texas76798

All Rights Reserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise,withoutthepriorpermis-sioninwritingofBaylorUniversityPress.

Cover DesignbyPamelaPollCover photographbyBruceandKennethZuckerman,WestSemiticResearch,incollaborationwiththeancientBiblicalManuscriptCenter.CourtesyRus-sinaNationalLibrary(Saltykov-Shchedrin).

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Garrett,DuaneA.Amos:ahandbookontheHebrewtext/DuaneA.Garrett.p.cm.--(BaylorhandbookontheHebrewBibleseries)Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBN978-1-932792-69-0(pbk.)1.Bible.O.T.Amos--Criticism,Textual.2.Bible.O.T.Amos--Language,style.3.Hebrewlanguage--Grammar.I.Title.

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TABlE of ConTEnTs

v

Introduction 1

Amos1 13

Amos2 47

Amos3 77

Amos4 104

Amos5 129

Amos6 177

Amos7 204

Amos8 229

Amos9 256

Glossary 292

Bibliography 295

IndexofModernAuthors 301

SubjectIndex 303


1

InTroDuCTIon

ThebookofAmos,thesuperscripttellsus,wascomposedbyAmosof Tekoa in the mid-eighth century B.C. Although from Judah,Amosdirectedhismessageagainstthearistocraticandpriestlyupper-classesofSamariaandBethel.Israelatthistime,duringthereignofJeroboamII,wasinthemidstofamisleadingperiodofprosperityandmilitarypower.Deceivedbytheiraffluenceandterritorialexpansion,theIsraelitessupposedthatGodwasontheirsideandthatthegoodtimeswouldneverend.Crueltytothepoor,religiousarrogance,andanunboundedsenseofconfidenceinthemightoftheirfortificationscharacterizedtheupperechelonsofsociety.Theycouldnotimaginethattheircitieswereonlydecadesawayfromtotaldestruction,andthey countedAmos a charlatan andblasphemer forhis predictionsof their imminentdemise.ThebookofAmos isacarefullycraftedindictmentagainst Israel, anapologia forAmos claims to thepro-phetic office, and a prediction of calamity for Israel followed by afinal,eschatologicalsalvation.The focusof this commentary is theHebrewtextofAmos.Dis-

cussionsof thebooks social andhistorical background,of insightsgainedfromarchaeology,andofitstheologyaresecondaryandpur-posefullykept toaminimum. Inaddition, this commentaryworksfrom the receivedMasoreticText ofAmos andmakes no effort toincludeanexhaustiverecordoftextualvariants,ofversionalreadings,andofconjecturalemendationsproposedbybiblicalscholars.Discus-sionsoftext-criticalissuesthereforewillappearonlywheneithertheobscurityofthereceivedtextorsomeotherconsiderationsrequireit.ThiscommentaryisintendedprimarilyforthestudentofHebrewand


2 Amos

theBibletranslator,butitshouldbehelpfulalsoforanyteachersoftheBiblewhobelievethatwrestlingwiththeoriginallanguageofthetexttobevaluable.

redaction and structure of the Book of AmosIncurrentOTstudies,thequestionofthestructureofAmosiscloselylinkedtothequestionofitsredactionhistory,asscholarsseektoshowbothwhatwastheoriginal formofthebookandhowitevolved.AfamousexampleofthismethodisthecommentarybyH.W.Wolffwhich,onthebasisofaform-criticalanalysis,arguesthatAmoswentthroughsixredactionalstages(Wolff1977,10613).ButDirkRott-zollarguesthat itwentthroughno less thantwelvestagesofredac-tion(Rottzoll1996,28590)!AmorerecentexampleisWood(2002),whichargues that thebookwasoriginally sevenpoemswrittenandperformedbytheprophetasapoetictragedy.Woodassertsthatasec-ondeditionoftheprophetsbookwasproducedbyanexilicauthorwhoinsertedarunningcommentaryontheoriginalwork,therebynotonlygreatlyexpandingandreorderingtheoriginalbutalsotransformingitintoacomedy(bygivingitaredemptive,happyending).Thisrevisedversion,thepresentbookofAmos,isintenparts.Woodstheory,likeothersofitskind,isattimesforcedandisnotpersuasive.Nevertheless,somemayfindthetendivisionsthatWoodproposesasthestructureofAmoshelpful. Similarly, butwith very different results, one seesstructuralanalysismixedinwithaproposedredactionhistoryinPark(2001).Theresultsofredaction-criticalstudiesareinfactexceedinglydiverse.Thereisnoconsensus(seeMller2003,ReconstructingandInterpretingAmossLiteraryPrehistoryforasurveyofrecentredac-tion-criticalanalyses;seealsoMller2003,A Prophet in Debate,whicharguesonthebasisofarhetorical-criticalanalysisthatthetextofAmosdidnothaveanextensiveredactionhistory). Inmyview,redaction-criticalapproachesareneithercompellingnorheuristicallyvaluable.AlthoughcertaindivisionsofAmos areobvious in even a casual

readingofthetext(e.g.,thattheeightoraclesagainstthenationsin


Introduction 3

1:32:16constituteasingledivision),manyaspectsofthestructureareobscureanddebated,andreaderswillfindanabundanceofproposalsinthescholarlyliterature.Forexample,OConnell(1996)arguesthat,followingthepatternofsevennationsplusIsraelin1:32:16,Amosuses an N+1 pattern throughout (where N is some stereotypi-calnumbersuchas3or7,andtheadditionalitemissomeelementofsurprise,suchasaddingIsrael tothe listofcondemnednations).OConnell does not, however, convincingly demonstrate that thispatterngovernsthewholebook.Boyle(1971)saysthat3:14:13isacovenant lawsuit,butthis,too, isunpersuasive.Koch(1974)arguesthat the hymn fragments inAmos 4:13; 5:8; 9:5-6 are redactionalbutthattheydemarcatedivisionsofthebook.Noble(1995)saysthatAmosisinthreeparts(1:23:8;3:96:14;7:19:15).Heclaimsthatthemiddlesectionisachiasmus,buthemustrelocateordeleteseveralversestomakeitwork.EverymajorcommentaryonAmos,moreover,has its ownpresentation of the structure of the book.While therearesomeareasofagreement(again,that1:32:16belongstogether),itwouldbeamistaketospeakofanythinglikeastandardview.Thereadershouldconsultthecommentariesforvariousalternativestothestructuresuggestedhere.ThestartingpointfortheoutlineofAmosproposedinthiscom-

mentaryisLimburg(1987),wherehestatesthattherearefiftydivinespeechformulas(suchas ,saysYHWH,and ,theoracleofYHWH)inAmos.Theseare,hesays,distributedasfollows:oneat1:12,fourteenin1:32:16,andseveneachin3:115;4:113;5:16:14;7:18:3;and8:49:15.Thus thereare sevendivi-sionsinthebook.Limburgpointsoutthatthenumberseven(orsevenplusone)isveryimportantinAmos.TherearesevenaccusednationsplusIsraelin1:32:16,forexample,andthecallforjusticein5:21-24listsseventhingthatYHWHhates:feasts,solemnassemblies,burntofferings,cerealofferings,peaceofferings,noiseofsongsandmelo-diesofharps.


4 Amos

AsremarkableasLimburgsanalysisis,thereareaspectsofitthatare not satisfying. For example, 1:2 has no divine speech formulaexplicitnohas ) subject and isnotadivine speech formula),andthereforethereareforty-nine,notfifty,suchformulas.Thisisnotreallyaproblem,however.Thewholeof1:2 isaboutdivine speechandservestointroducethisasthemotifthatgovernsthebook.Lim-burgcounts3:1twice,apparentlyonthestrengthofitshaving ,and but hedoesnot count 3:8,whichhas tojoinedis(itseparatelycountedbenotshould But. certainlybutframes),quotativeon1995Millersee;-showtoattentionlittlegivesLimburgAlso,counted.beshould ingthatthestructureofAmosactuallydoesfallintothesevengroupshementions.If,forexample,onecannotshowthat8:49:15belongstogetherasasingledivision,thereisnoreasontocountthisasonepassagethathassevenspeechformulas.Slightlymodifying Limburgs presentation, one can see how the

various formulas areused.After1:2 sets forthdivine speechas thegoverningmotif of the book, the divine speech formulas all occuringroupsoffourteenorseveninthesixlargedivisionsindicatedbyLimburg.Withtwoexceptions,everymajordivisioninAmosisintro-ducedwith aplural imperativeof.These exceptions are1:32:16,whichisaseriesoforacles,eachbegunwith ,andthevisionreportsectionat7:18:3,whichisintroducedbyahiphilofand(1:1)superscripttheafterAmosofdivisionsseventheThus,.thepoeticproclamationofYHWHmakinghisvoiceheard(1:2),areasfollows(theopeningwordsofeachdivisionareinparentheses):

I. ( )2:161:3II. ( )153:1III.4:113( )IV.5:16:14( )V. ( )8:37:1VI.8:49:15()


Introduction 5

I. II. III. IV. V. VI.1:3^

3:1 4:3 5:3^* 7:3 8:9*1:51:6^

3:8* 4:5* 5:4^ 7:6* 8:11*1:8*1:9^

3:10 4:6 5:16^+ 7:8& 9:71:11^1:13^

3:11^* 4:8 5:17 7:15& 9:81:152:1^

3:12^ 4:9 5:27+ 7:17^ 9:122:32:4^

3:13* 4:10 6:8+ 8:2& 9:132:6^2:11

3:15 4:11 6:14+ 8:3* 9:15++2:16

KeytoDivineSpeechFormulasinAmos

plaintext

plainwithcaret

plainwithasterisk

plainwithplussign

plainwithtwoplussigns

plainwithampersand

bold

boldwithasterisk

italics

italicswithasterisk

italicswithplussign


6 Amos

Thetableaboveanditsaccompanyingkeyshowswhatformulasareusedinwhatverses.ThetableisinsixcolumnscorrespondingtothesixmajordivisionsofAmos.

From this alone one can see certain revealing patterns. Asmen-tionedabove,1:32:16hasfourteendivinespeechformulas.Amosfivetimesbeginsandendseachoftheseeightoracleswithadivinespeechformula. Ifhehad consistentlydone this for all theseoracles, therewouldofcoursebesixteen.ButheskipsthesecondformulaatTyre(1:9-10),Edom(1:11-12)andJudah(2:4-5),andheaddsathirdfor-mulaforIsraelat2:11.Thus,thetextseemstodeliberatelyaimathav-ingfourteenformulas.Moreinterestingly,everymajordivisionexceptforthelastendswithatleastone formula(seethebottomrowofthetable).Theformulaat9:15,whichuniquelyis ,saysYHWHyourGod,seemsdeliberatelysetattheendoftheres-torationprophecy(9:11-15)toreassureIsraelthatYHWHwillagainbe theirGod.Note,however, that everyother formulaof8:49:15,thelastdivisionofthebook,isa formula,whichcorrespondstothefactthateveryotherdivisionendswitha formula.Itisalsonoteworthythatjustasthe formulasdominatethelastdivisionofthebook,8:49:15,soalsoin4:1-13everyformulaisofthe kind.This suggests that thebook is in twoparts,1:34:13and5:19:15,andthisissupportedbytheoverallstructureofthebook,asdescribedbelow.Bycontrast, typeformulasaremorecommoninallotherdivisionsofthebook.Thedivision7:18:3ismorenarrativeinnature,and the formula with, thewayyiqtol verb,occurs twicethere.Themostexalted,pleonasticformulas( and )alloccurin5:16:14,andthetwofor-mulaswith botharein3:1-15.Theredoesnotappeartobeanypatterntotheusageof intheformulasexceptthatitappearsineverymajordivision.Thiscommentarywill attempt todemonstrate thateachdivision

describedabovehasinternalcoherenceandstructure(fordiscussions


Introduction 7

ofeachdivisionsstructure,seethe introductionstothemajordivi-sions).Inaddition,thereisaninternallogictothearrangementofthesixmajordivisions,withachiasticstructure,asfollows:

A. 1:32:16 Judgment on the nations, with the unexpectedinclusionofIsrael.

B. 3:1-15FirstdefenseofAmospropheticofficeagainstthosewhoassertthathehasnorighttoprophesyagainstIsrael

C. 4:1-13 First major accusation against the materialisticandreligiousarroganceoftheIsraelites.

C. 5:16:14Secondmajoraccusationagainstthematerialis-ticandreligiousarroganceoftheIsraelites.

B.7:18:3SeconddefenseofAmospropheticoffice againstthosewhoassertthathehasnorighttoprophesyagainstIsrael

A. 8:49:15FinalaccusationandverdictagainstIsrael,withtheunexpectedrevivalofIsraelandinclusionofthenationsinIsraelsglory.

Conventions of this CommentaryThroughoutthecommentary,theHebrewtextofAmosappearswithfullcantillationmarks (accents,or).WhenaHebrewwordis discussed, it iswrittenwithout the cantillationmarks, and cita-tionsofpassagesoutsideofAmosgenerallylackcantillationmarks.Whenverbsareparsed,thetraditionalstemnamesareused(qal,piel,etc.).Conjugations,however,arenamedwiththeterminologythathas become increasinglymore the standard inHebrew studies, asfollows:

qatal =perfect()yiqtol =imperfect()wayyiqtol =imperfectwithvavconsecutive()weqatal =perfectwithsimpleconjunction()weyiqtol =imperfectwithsimpleconjunction()


8 Amos

Althoughonemightdebatewhetherqatal andweqatal shouldbecon-sideredtobeseparateconjugations,inthesyntaxofthelanguage,eachofthefiveformslistedabovehasadistinctivesetoffunctions.There-fore,onecannottreat theqatal andtheweqatal simplyas thesameverbalform;theformerisgenerallyperfectiveinaspectandindicativeinmood,andittypicallydealswithpast,present,orgnomicactions.Thelatterisgenerallyimperfectiveandmaybesubjunctiveorvolitive,anditoftenisusedforafutureindicativeoranapodosis.Similarly,oneshouldneverregardtheweqatal asthesameasawayyiqtol,orfailtotakenoteoftherelativelyrarepresenceofaweyiqtol inAmos(itisusedseventimes).AmajorissueinAmosisdistinguishingprosefrompoetry.Inthis

commentary,Hebrewthatisreckonedtobeproseisprintedaswholeverses in paragraph form.After this, the prose text is analyzed onaclause-by-clausebasis,andeachclauseis individuallyprintedinasmallertypeface.Thisisdonebecause,inmyestimation,theclauseistheideallevelatwhichtoapproachtheanalysisofHebrewprose.Withintheclause,onecanseehoweachconstituentandmorphemefunctionsattheclause level,andatahigher level,onecandescribehoweachclausefunctionsinthediscourse.Colometry(orstichometry)isthedivisionofapoemintoitsindi-

viduallines.Thecolometryofapoembeingfundamentaltoitsanaly-sis,everypoeticsectionofAmosissetforthona line-by-linebasis.Thebasisforthelinedivisionsusedherearetwo-fold.First,themajordisjunctivemarksof the cantillation systemare taken into account(seeHoop2000).Inthemajorityofcases,linebreaksoccuratthesil-luq,theathnach,andthezaqeph qaton,withsomebreaksoccurringatthepashta,revia,ortifha.Asageneralrule,whenadisjunctiveaccentservestomarka linebreak, itwillhaveaweakerdisjunctiveaccentwithinitsdomain.Asisdonehere,namesofaccentsaregiveninital-icsinasimplifiedtransliteration.Insituationswherethelinedivisionsdonot,inmyview,coincidewiththemajordisjunctiveaccents,somecommentsaremadeinthediscussionofthattext.


Introduction 9

Second, indetermining the colometry of a poem, the line con-straints asdescribed inOConnor (1980) and refined inHolladay(1999) are taken into account. These constraints state that in anyHebrewlineofpoetry,theremustbe:

From 0 to 3 clause predicators.Alinemayhavenopredicator,butitshouldhavenomorethanthree.Aclausepredicatormaybeafiniteverb,aninfinitiveabsolutethatfunctionsasa finiteverb, an infinitiveconstructphrase functioningasa finite verb (e.g., an infinitive construct thathas a suffixfunctioningasthesubjectoftheaction),aparticiplefunc-tioningasaperiphrasticfiniteverb,andtheparticles andIandpredicator,aasvocativethecountsalsoOConnor.havefollowedthatrule.

From 1 to 4 constituents.Aconstituent isawordorphrasethatfillsonegrammaticalslot.Exampleswouldbeasubject,apredicate,oraprepositionalphrase.Althoughithasmorethanoneword,aconstructchainfunctioningasasubjectorvocative,forexample,isasingleconstituent.

From 2 to 5 units.Aunitisbasicallyaword,butsmallpar-ticles suchas prepositionsor or suchas donotcountasunits.Onemaydebatewhatdoesordoesnotcountasaunit.Itreat asanon-unit,andonlycount asaunitifitisabsolute.

Asanexample,wehavethefollowinglineinAmos1:9:

Because they handed over a full-scale exile to Edom.

Here,weseethatthelineendswiththedisjunctivezaqeph qaton.Thereis1predicator,.Thisinfinitiveconstructisreck-onedtobeapredicatorbecauseitworkslikeafiniteverb,takingthe


10 Amos

suffixas its subject.Therearealso3constituentsand4units.Theconstituentsaretheinfinitiveconstructphrase,thedirectobject unitsThe.phraseprepositionaltheand, are,,,and.Thepreposition doesnotcountasaunit(andnosuffixorprefixcountsasaunit).Thepresenceorabsenceofmaqqephisirrelevant.Neither thecantillationmarksnor the lineconstraints shouldbe

regardedas inviolable;occasionally thiscommentarywillpointoutlines that, inmy opinion, violate one or both of these (e.g., a lineendingwithaconjunctiveaccent,oralinewithonlyoneunit).Nev-ertheless, intheoverwhelmingnumberof instances, linesbothendwithanormalfinalaccentandalsoconformtothelineconstraints.Inmyview,otherapproachestoHebrewcolometry(suchascountingstresses,words,or syllables)producenomeaningful results andarenotvalid.Inthediscussionofthecontentofapoem,eachlineisanalyzedsep-

arately.First,everylineisdescribedintermsofwhataccentmarkstheendofthelineandintermsoftheaforementionedpoeticconstraints.Then,eachconstituentofthelineisanalyzedseparately.Sometimesthiscommentarywillspeakofdevicesthatoccurinthe

poems.Theseinclude:

Gapping (alsocalleddouble-duty),inwhichawordinonelinealsogovernsormodifiesanadjacentline.Forexample,theverb inlineBdof1:5alsogovernslineBe.

Dependence, in which a line is grammatically incompleteanddependsuponeitherthepreviousorfollowingline.Forexample,in1:3,linesAaandAcbothdependonlineAb.

Semantic matching,inwhichawordorphraseinonelineissynonymousornearlysynonymouswithawordinanadja-centline.Seelinebof1:2.

Semantic parallelism,inwhichonelinemore-or-lesshasthesamemeaningasanadjacentline.Seelinesaandbin1:2.It


Introduction 11

iswidelyunderstoodtoday,afterKugel(1981),thatthelinesrarelysimplyrepeatthesameidea;usuallythesecondlineinsomewayadvancesorinsomewaymodifiesthethoughtofthefirst.

Syntactic parallelism, inwhich two adjacent lines have thesamegrammaticalstructure,asinlinescanddin1:2.

Having broken down a poem into its lines, the lines need to begrouped into meaningful collections. Unfortunately, there is littleconsistencyintheuseoftermssuchasstanzaandverse.Thiscom-mentaryadoptsthefollowingconventions.Atthehighestlevelisthepoem.Apoemismadeupofoneormorestanzas,andeachstanzaismadeupofoneormorestrophes,andeachstropheismadeofoneormorelines.ThetermverseisusedinthiscommentaryexclusivelyforthenumberedversesoftheMT.Inotherwords,verseisnotusedtodescribepoeticstructurebuttolocateatextinthebook.AsinglemajordivisionofAmosmayhaveseveralpoemsofvaryinglengthaswellaspassagesinprose.To aid in the discussions, poetic lines are tagged according to

stanza (uppercase Roman letters), strophe (Arabic numerals), andline(lowercaseRomanletters).Forexample,lineA3bwouldbethefirststanza(A),thethirdstrophe(3),andthesecondline(b)ofthatstrophe.

Ifapoemhasonlyonestanza,orifastanzahasonlyonestro-phe,thatsinglestanzaorstrophewillnotbedesignatedbyletterornumber.Forexample,line2cwouldrefertothethirdline(c)inthesecondstrophe(2)inapoemwithonlyonestanza.

Ifapoemhasonlyonestanzaandonlyonestrophe,eachlineofthepoemisdesignatedonlywithalowercaseRomanletter(e.g.,linec).


1:1-2: Profile of IntroductionTheopeningofthebook,thiscontainsaprosesuperscript(1:1)andapoemofone strophe (1:2).The superscriptgives thenameof thebooksauthoraswellasthenameoftheauthorscity.Italsostatesthetimeofcompositionbymeansofthreesynchronisms:withthenamesof the reigningkings of Judah andof Israel andwith a significantevent,amajorearthquake).Thepoemdeclaresthemajorthemeofthebook,thatYHWHhasspokeninangerandthereforethathisprophetmustproclaimGodsmessageofdoom.

1The words of Amos, who was from the shepherds of Tekoa, which he received by vision concerning Israel in the days of Uzziah, the king of Judah, and in the days of Jeroboam the son of Joash, the king of Israel, two years before the earthquake. 2And he said,

YHWH will roar from Zion,And he will give his voice from Jerusalem;And the pastures of the shepherds will dry upAnd the top of Carmel will wither.

1:1: SuperscriptThe book openswith a standard prophetic superscript naming theauthorwiththedateofhisprophecycorrelatedtocontemporaryIsra-eliteandJudeankings.

A HAnDBook on THE HEBrEW TExT of Amos

13


Prose Clause: Titleofbook;aconstructchain.Prose Clause: Relativeclauseinappositionto.Aftertherelativepronoun

-prepoais .ofsmqatal 3qalais verbthe,sitionalphrasewith (withoramong),but (shepherd)isfoundonlyhereandin2Kings3:4,whereweread, isItsheep-breeder).awasMoab,ofkingtheMesha,And) relatedto (speckled),atermusedforsheepinGenesis30:32-33,35,39;31:8,10,12, and itsmeaning isnot in any realdoubt.Also,fromUgarit,UT6(IAb)VI,55hasthetitlerb nqdm,chiefoftheshepherds.Anumberofscholars,onthebasisofitsbeingusedtodescribeaking,believethatAmoswasawell-to-dosheepbreederandnotanimpoverishedshepherd(seeHasel1991,3540,forfurtherdiscussion). isaprepositionalphrase()withapropernoun.TheTekoamentionedhere is almostuniversallyassumed tobe thesmallvillageofJudahlocatedabouttwelvemilessouthofJerusalem,althoughRosenbaum(1990,2940) argues (not convincingly) thatAmoswasfromthenorthand, followingthemedievalrabbiDavidKimchi,suggeststhatTekoamayhavebeeninthetribeofAsher.

Prose Clause:

Relativeclause(headedby)inappositionto.Theverboftheclauseis,aqalqatal 3ms.Itisoddtospeakofwordsthat he saw, but in this case means to receive amessage viaa revelatoryvision. In thepreposition maybeeither

1:1

14 Amos1:1


concerning (Ruth 2:4) or against (Judg 9:18). Three temporalphrasesthatlocateAmosministryhistoricallyfollow:

. A prepositional phrase with attached to theconstructpluralof,with thepropernoun servingastheabsolute. isinappositionto.AlthoughAmos message is primarily against Israel, the king of Judah as achronologicalindicatorprecedesmentionofthekingofIsrael.Thissuggests thatAmos considered theDavidicking tohave a superiorclaimtolegitimacy.

-coorconjunctionThe.dinatesthisconstructchainwith .Again,wehaveacon-structchainwithapropernoun.Thetwoconstructchains and areinappositionto.

-prepthewithyear)) ofdualThe.ositionalphrase isusedadverbiallyforatemporalphrase.The earthquake () was evidently of such severity that it wasrememberedforyearsthereaftersimplyastheearthquake.Itisherementionednotonly for chronologicalpurposesbut also as an allu-siontotheophanyandthedayoftheLord,asinIsaiah29:6,FromYHWHofhostsyouwillbepunishedwiththunderandearthquake....SeealsoEzekiel3:12.StatingthatAmosgavehismessagetwoyears before the earthquake, it is as though the textwere claimingthattheearthquakewereavindicationofAmosclaimthatthedayofYHWHwasabouttobreakoutagainstIsrael.Thechronologicalprecision,thatitwastwoyearsbeforetheearthquake,suggeststhatAmosgaveallofhispropheciesinthespaceofafairlyshorttime.

Aprosequotationformulaforthepoeticstanzainlinesad.Itlacksexplicit reference to the deity, and therefore is not a divine speechformula even thoughGod is obviously the speaker. is a qalwayyiqtol 3msof.

1:2

Amos1:1-2 15


1:2: Introductory ProclamationFourlines(a-d)inonestrophe.Lineaissyntacticallyandsemanticallyparalleltob(linea=X+yiqtol,andlineb= +X+yiqtol),withgap-pingof inlineb.Linecissyntacticallyandsemanticallyparalleltod(bothareweqatal clauses).Theweqatal clausesindicatethattheactionofc-disconsecutivetothatofa-b.

Line a:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare:1

predicator,3constituents,and3units..YHWHisprophecytheofwordfirstthesubject;The . thatsuggestmight inorderwordThe .

couldbetakenwith asanappellation,YHWHofZion,andasasingleconstituent.Againstthis,however,isthedisjunctivepashta inprepositionalthesuch,As.munah inconjunctivetheand phraseadverbiallymodifiestheverb andisnotboundtothenoun.

fact(theyiqtol pattern+XThe.ofsmyiqtol 3Qal .thattheyiqtol isnon-initial)suggeststhattheverbisindicativeandnotmodal.Itmaybefutureorpresentiterative.

Line b:Thecolon-markerisathnach andtheconstraintsare:1pred-icator,3constituents,and3units.

coordinationclause-levelindicatesconjunctionThe .withlinea.Theabsenceofanexplicitsubjectisgappingofthesubject,anditconfirmsthattheprepositionalphraseisboundtotheverb,andsoaffirmstheimplicationoftheaccentsin .

.ofsmyiqtol 3Qal .

abcd

16 Amos1:2


semantically phraseThesuffix.3mswithNoun .matches.

Line c:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare:1predicator,2constituents,and3units.Thislineissequentialtolinesab.

updrytoII, isThis.ofpcweqatal 3Qal .andnot I,tomourn.SeeHALOT.

Feminine . plural noun from , a greenmeadow,inaconstructchainwith.

Line d:Thecolon-markerissilluq andtheconstraintsare:1predi-cator,2constituents,and3units.Thislinehassyntacticparallelismwithandamplifieslinec.

structureparalleltheofBecause.ofsmweqatal 3Qal .oflinescd,theactionofthisweqatal isnotsequentialtothatofthepreviousline.

A . construct chain. The gentle, and usuallygreen,slopesofMt.Carmelprovideaspecificexample,afterlinec,ofapasturelandthatisparched.

1:32:16: oracles against the nationsThis,thefirstmajordivisionofAmos,isaseriesofeightpoems,eachoneanoracleofjudgmentagainstanation(1:3-5,Damascus[Syria];1:6-8,Gaza[Philistia];1:9-10,Tyre[Phoenicia];1:11-12,Edom;1:13-15,Ammon;2:1-3,Moab;2:4-5,Judah;2:6-16,Israel).SomesuggestthatAmosisgeographicallyencirclingIsrael,movingfromnortheast(Damascus), to southwest (Philistia), tonorthwest (Tyre), to south-east(Edom),tothetransjordanstates(AmmonandMoab),toJudah,and finally to Israel. Others suggest that he bases his rhetoric onethnicity,beginningethnicallydistantorunrelatedpeoples(Arame-ans,Philistines,andPhoenicians),movingtocloselyrelatednations(Edom,Ammon,andMoab)andfinallytoJudah,whowereofthesamepeopleasthenorthernIsraelites,beforeaddressingIsraelitself.

Amos1:22:16 17


Itisclear,however,thatAmosisrhetoricallyentrappingtheIsraelitesbybeginningwithGentilestatesandprogressivelymovingcloseruntilhereachesthemainobjectofhisdenunciations,Israelanditscapitalcity,Samaria.Steinmann(1992)arguesthatotherpatternsareevidentintheorderof thepoems.Forexample, the first threearedirectedagainstcity-states,thenextthreearedirectedagainstpeoples,andthelasttwoaredirectedagainstthecovenantnations.OnemayassumethattheinclusionofIsraelamongthecondemned

nationsisintendedtobeunexpectedandthereforerhetoricallyeffec-tive.Thereareseveral indicatorsofthis.Firstofall,Israel isplacedlast, after a condemnation of seven states, and the audiencemighthaveassumedthattheoracleswerefinishedatseven.Second,incon-demningGentilenations,AmoswasprobablyplayingtheroleoftheoptimisticprophetwhopredictsonlysalvationforIsraelbutdisasterforitsenemies;thepeoplemaywellhaveexpectedaprophettocon-demnforeignnations(Barton1980,5).Third,bybeginningwithacondemnationofSamariasancientrivalDamascus,Amoslulledhisaudienceintothinkingthatthiswouldbeajingoisticmessage.Formally,thefollowingcharacteristicsareevidentinthefirstseven

poems (i.e., in all but the Israel poem).Each is in two stanzas, anaccusation(oneortwostrophes)andapredictionofjudgment(alwaysone strophe).The accusation stanza always beginswith a standardthree-line formula inwhicheach linebeginswith (or).Thejudgment stanza alwaysbeginswith the formula . . .although.),..consumewillitand...firesendwillIand) thejudgmentonAmmonat1:14distinctivelybeginswith (andIwillkindlefire)insteadof .Thejudgmentstanzacanbeexpandedtosevenlines,oritmayconsistofonlythetwo-lineformulaheadedby.Three patterns are found among the first seven poems. In the

oracles onDamascus (1:3-5),Gaza (1:6-8), Ammon (1:13-15), andMoab(2:1-3),theaccusationisasinglestropheofthreeorfourlines,andthejudgmentisasinglestropheofsevenlinesdominatedbytheweqatal verb.IntheoraclesonEdom(1:11-12)andJudah(2:4-5),the

18 Amos1:32:16


accusation is intwostrophes, the first strophebeingfour lines(thefirstthreeheadedbythestandard)andthesecondstrophebeingabicolonheadedbyawayyiqtol verb.Thejudgmentstanzainthesetwopoemsisminimal,consistingofonlythebicolonheadedbythetheispoemshortesttheandpatternthirdTheformula. judgmentonTyre (1:9-10). Ithas a four-lineaccusation stanza andtheminimaltwo-line judgmentformula.Exceptforthefourth lineofthefirststanza,theTyreoraclehasonlytheminimalfeaturesfortheseoracles.Anotherfeatureofthefirstsevenoraclesisconcatenation,inwhich

oneormoreelementsinoneoraclearerepeatedinthenext.Forexam-ple,thestructureandmuchofthecontentofDamascusoracle(1:3-5)arerepeatedintheGaza(Philistine)oracle(1:6-8).Both,forexample,speakofGodremovingtheonewhosits(onthethrone)andwhoholdsthe scepter and ) ; 1:5 and 1:8). In the Philistineoracle,Godsends fireonthewallofGaza(1:7); in thenextoracle,GodsendsfireonthewallofTyre(1:10).Tyrein1:9iscriticizedfornotrememberingthecovenantofbrothers,whereasEdomin1:11pur-suedhisbrotherwithasword.Edomin1:11slaughtered (whichheremeanshischildbearers;seediscussionbelow),whereasAmmonin1:13cutopenthepregnantwomenofGilead.Ammonwillgointoexile,amidthebattle-cry(1:14),andMoabwillbedefeated-shotheofsoundthewithbattle-cry,theamid, far.In2:2,GodsaysthathewillsendfireonMoab(theregion),anditwillconsumeKerioth(theprincipalcity).In2:5,GodwillsendfireonJudah (the region), and itwill consumeJerusalem(theprincipalcity).Forfurtherdiscussionandelaboration,seePaul(1971).

3Thus says YHWH:Because of three rebellions of Damascus,And because of four, I will not revoke it;Because they threshed Gilead with the iron sledges.4And I will send fire on the house of Hazael,And it will consume the citadels of Ben-hadad;

Amos1:32:16 19


5And I will shatter the gate-bar of Damascus,And I will cut off the seated (ruler) from the Valley of AvenAnd the one who holds a scepter from Beth-eden,And the people of Syria will go into exile to Kir.Says YHWH.

6Thus says YHWH:Because of three rebellions of Gaza,And because of four, I will not revoke it;Because they carried off a full-scale exile to hand them over to Edom.7And I will send fire on the wall of Gaza,And it will consume its citadels;8And I will cut off the seated (ruler) from AshdodAnd the one who holds a scepter from Ashkelon,And I will send back my hand against Ekron,And what remains of the Philistines will perish.Says the Lord YHWH.

9Thus says YHWH:Because of three rebellions of Tyre,And because of four, I will not revoke it;Because they handed over a full-scale exile to EdomAnd did not remember a fraternal covenant.10And I will send fire on the wall of Tyre,And it will consume its citadels.

11Thus says YHWH:Because of three rebellions of Edom,And because of four, I will not revoke it;Because he pursued his brother with the swordAnd was exterminating their child-bearers.And his rage tore on and onWhile his wrath remained ever vigilant.12And I will send fire on Teman,And it will consume the citadels of Bozrah.

20 Amos1:32:16


13Thus says YHWH:Because of three rebellions of the Ammonites,And because of four, I will not revoke it;Because they split open the pregnant women of GileadIn order to enlarge their territory.14And I will kindle a fire on the wall of Rabbah,And it will consume its citadelsWith a war-signal, on a day of battle,With a wind-storm, on a day of tempest.15And their king will go into exileHe and his princes together.Says YHWH.

2:1Thus says YHWH:Because of three rebellions of the Moab,And because of four, I will not revoke it;Because they burned the bones of the king of Edom to lime.2And I will send a fire upon Moab,And it will consume the citadels of KeriothAnd Moab shall perish with clamor,With a war-signalwith a blast of a shofar.3And I will cut off a judge from the midst of it,And I will kill its princes with him.Says YHWH.

4Thus says YHWH:Because of three rebellions of the Judah,And because of four, I will not revoke it;Because they rejected the Torah of YHWH,And they did not keep his statutes,5And their lies led them astray(Lies) which their fathers followed.

And I will send a fire upon Judah,And it will consume the citadels of Jerusalem.

Amos1:32:16 21


6Thus says YHWH:Because of three rebellions of the Israel,And because of four, I will not revoke it;Because they sell a righteous man because of silverAnd an impoverished man because of a pair of sandals;7They are people who sniff at the dust of the earth after the heads of

the poorAnd stretch out the way of the weak.

And a man and his father go to the same girlIn order to profane my holy name,8And on garments taken in pledge they stretch outAlongside every altar,And they drink wine taken from people by finesAt the house of their God.

9But I destroyed the Amorite before youWhose height was like the height of cedars,And he was as strong as oaks;And I destroyed his fruit aboveAnd his roots below.10And I brought you up from the land of Egypt,And I took you through the wilderness for forty yearsTo possess the land of the Amorite.11And I raised up some of your sons as prophetsAnd some of your young men as Nazirites.Is not this in fact the case, Sons of Israel?The oracle of YHWH.12And you made the Nazirites drink wine,And you prohibited the prophets, saying:Never prophesy!

13Look! I am weighed down under you,Just as a cart is weighed down One that is full of sheaves.

22 Amos1:32:16


14And retreat shall escape the swift:A strong man will not rally his strength,And a warrior will not save his life,15And one who bends a bow will not stand,And one swift on his feet will not save (his life), And one riding a horse will not save his life,16And one mighty of heart among warriorsWill flee naked on that day.The oracle of YHWH.

1:3-5: First Oracle (Damascus)After the prose heading ) ,( the poem has two stan-zas.Thefirststanza(1:3)givesthereasonsGodwilljudgeDamascus(threelines)inwhicheachlineisheadedbythepreposition.Thesecond stanza (1:4-5) gives the punishment (seven lines), in whicheachlineisheadedbyaweqatal verb,exceptforlineBe,wherethereisgappingwiththeverb inlineBddoingdouble-duty,andlineBg,whichistheconcluding .

Prose Clause:Aprosedivinespeechformulaforthefollowingoracle.theis and,particlethewith sm3qatalqalais subjectoftheverb.

1:3b:First Stanza. Threelines.Eachisheadedby or.

Line Aa:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qatonandtheconstraintsare:0predicators,1constituent,and3units.Thislineisgrammaticallydependenton inthefollowingline.

1:3a

1:3bAaAbAc

Amos1:3 23


-regis .phraseprepositionalA . ularly used in these oracles to indicate the reasonGod is bringingdownjudgment,anditshouldbetranslatedbecause. isaconstructchainboundtothenumber.DamascuswasthedominantcityofSyria,northofIsrael.,crimeoractofrebel-lion,indicatesthatYHWHisthelegitimatesovereignovereventhisGentilestate.

Line Ab:The colon-marker isathnach and the constraints are: 1predicator,2constituents,and2units.

There . is gapping with the previous line, thephrase beingunderstoodhere.Thesignificanceoftheformula for three . . . for four inAmos is debated. In Proverbs,theN...N+1formulagenerallyindicatesthatthelatternumberisthespecificnumberofexamplesthattheteacherwillenumerate.Forexample,Proverbs6:16says,TherearesixthingsthattheLordhates,seventhatareanabominationtohim,andverses17-19goontolistsevensins.ThisisnotthecaseinAmos,whereforDamascushecitesonly one specific sin.The for three . . . for four therefore couldsimplymean,forseveral.Itisnoteworthy,however,that3+4=7,andthisisanimportantnumberforAmos.Theoraclesagainstthenationsspecify6GentilestatesplusJudah,thecovenantpeople,forsevenoraclesofjudgment(thefactthatIsraelistheeighthnationissignificant,asdiscussedbelow).Asiswellknown,thenumbersevengenerallysignifiescompletion.Thus,thepointofforthree...forfourisprobablythatDamascushasreachedthemaximumallowednumberoftransgressions.Thatis,thecupoftheiriniquitiesisfull.AmosthereforeassertsthatthenumberofDamascussinshasreachedthecriticalpoint,demandingdivinejudgment,butheonlyspecifiesoneparticularsin.

-sufsm3with ofscyiqtol 1hiphilNegated .fix.Itmarkstheapodosisofabecause...thereforeconstruction,inwhichtheprotasislinesaremarkedby.Theverbsignifiestocausetoturnbackbuthere,inajudicialcontext,meanstorevoke.

24 Amos1:3


Thethingnotrevoked(indicatedbythesuffix)istheimpliedpunish-ment.Forasummaryofalternativeinterpretationsof ,seeBarton(1980,18).

Line Ac:Thecolon-markerissilluqandtheconstraintsare:1predi-cator,3constituents,and4units.Thislineisgrammaticallydepen-dentonthepreviousline.

andsuffixpm3with ofconstructinfiniteQal .preposition.Theverbmeanstotrampleorthresh.Theprepo-sitionresumestheexplanatoryorcausalsequenceoftheprotasis.

A . prepositional phrase () in con-struct with the noun . The preposition is instrumental.Sledgeswereheavywoodenplatformsstuddedwithnailsorspikesonthebottom.Drawnbyoxen,farmersusedsuchtoolstothreshgrain.The image is ametaphorofharshmilitary conquest, ripping apartpeopleandcommunitiesjustasasledgeripsapartwheat.Thismeta-phor formilitary subjugation also appears in Akkadian texts fromTiglath-pileserIandEsarhaddon(Barton1980,19).

The . direct object. Gilead, east of the Jordan,wasdisputed territory thatwasat timesheldbyIsraelandat timesbyDamascus.TheOmridekingsofIsrael foughtaseriesofbattlesagainstDamascusinanattempttomaintaincontrolofGilead.Theconquestalludedtoheremaybe thatcarriedoutbyHazael (2Kgs10:32-33).SeeBarton(1980,2631)forasurveyofthehistoryoftheconflictbetweenDamascusandIsrael.

1:4-5: Second Stanza. Sevenlines.Eachlineisheadedbyaweqa-tal exceptwherethereisgapping(lineBe)andinthefinalline.Thesevenlinesofdivinejudgmentcorrespondtotheseven(3+4)sinsofDamascusin1:3.

1:4

1:5

BaBbBc

Amos1:4-5 25


Line Ba:The colon-marker is athnach and the constraints are: 1predicator,3constituents,and4units.

significantweqatal isThe.ofscweqatal 1Piel .fortworeasons.First,itcontinuestheapodosisbegunby .Second, thisandall subsequentweqatal formsconstitute themain-lineframeworkofananticipatory(futuretense)narration.Fivespe-cificcalamitiesarepredictedforDamascus,asrepresentedbythefiveweqatal verbsinlinesBa,Bb,Bc,Bd-e,andBf.

theofdestructiontheconnoteshereFireobject.directThe .city.

withconstructin()phraseprepositionalA .thepropernoun.Thepreposition islocative,butitalsoindi-cates the secondaryobject.Hazael, likeBen-hadad,was apparentlya throne-name; the history ofDamascus is difficult to reconstructbecausemanykingsareidentifiedbythesamename(itappearsthatat least three different kings ofDamascus are calledBen-hadad intheBible).ThefamousHazaeloftheBible(2Kgs812;latterpartoftheninthcentury)wasascourgetoIsrael,inflictingseveredefeatsuponthem,althoughIsraelrecoveredafterhisdeath.ThehouseofHazael refers to the dynastic succession of rulers overDamascus.Notallmembersoftherulinglinewererelated;Hazaelhimselfwasausurper.ButtheentirelineofDamascuskings,thetextsays,willcometoanend.

Line Bb:Thecolon-markerissilluq andtheconstraintsare:1predi-cator,2constituents,and3units.

.alineoffiretheissubjectThe.ofsfweqatal 3Qal .

BdBeBfBg

26 Amos1:4-5


,objectdirectThe . a construct chain.Thedestruction of the citadels of a city inAmos is formulaic for thedestructionofthatcityandfortheendofthatstate.Theword maymeanpalace,but it is also construedas fortified, suggestingthat anEnglish termsuchas citadel is appropriate. It could refertotheacropolisaroundwhichmostancientcitieswerebuilt,asthatpositionwasmosteasilydefendedandwouldalsooftenbetheloca-tionforapalaceortemple. istheotherthronenameusedinDamascus;itisaHebrewversionoftheAramaicBir-Hadad,sonof(thegod)Hadad.HazaelandBen-hadadformamerismindicatingthattherewillbenomoreArameankingsofDamascus.

Line Bc:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare:1predicator,2constituents,and3units.Despitetheversenumber-ing,thiscontinuesthestrophebeguninv.4.

mainlinethecontinuesThis.ofscweqatal 1Qal .predictionbeguninthepreviouslines.

-synbyDamascus,ofbarTheobject.directThe .ecdoche,representsthegateofthecity,whichinturnrepresentsitsdefenses.Thepointisthatallofthecitysdefenseswillfail.

Line Bd:Thecolon-marker iszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare:1predicator,3constituents,and3units( isregardedasapropernameandthereforeas1unit).

.ofscweqatal 1Hiphil .inhabitantmean,couldthis,ofsmparticipleQal .

andrefertoallthecitizens.However,itispairedwiththeonewhoholdsascepterinlinee(semanticmatching)andthereforeitreferstoapersonwhosits(uponathrone);thatis,totheking.

theoflocationThe.withphraseprepositionalA .ValleyofAvenisunknown,butthetitleisprobablyacacophemism(atermofdisparagement)ratherthantheactualnameofaplace,asitmeansvalleyofiniquity.ItprobablyreferstothevalleyareanorthofGalileebetweentheLebanonandAnti-Lebanonmountains.

Amos1:4-5 27


Line Be:The colon-marker isathnach and the constraints are: 0predicators, 3 constituents, and 3 units.There is gapping, in thatthislineisgovernedby fromlined.Takingintoaccountthegapping,linesdandesyntacticallyparalleloneanother,eachhavingaparticipleorparticipialphrase( and )followedbyaprepositionalphraseinwhichatwo-wordpropernameisgovernedby.ThegappinghereindicatesthattherulerfromtheValleyofAven and of the scepter-holder fromBeth-eden are conceptually asingleperson.Probablytherulerofeachplaceisoneandthesameman,thekingofDamascus.

Theconjunction.with ofsmparticipleactiveQal .participleissubstantival.

.ofobjectdirectThe . knownisBeth-eden.withphraseprepositionalA .

asBit Adini inAssyriantextsandwaslocatedontheEuphratesRiverabout 200miles northeast ofDamascus.With theValley ofAven,apparentlyinthesouthwest,thisindicatesthatthekingsofDamascuswill losepoweroveralloftheirterritory,fromthesouthwesttothenortheast.

Line Bf:Thecolon-markeristifha.Theconstraintsare:1predica-tor,3constituents,and4units.If weretreatedaspartofthis line, therewould be toomany constituents and units. SeveraltimesinAmosatifha willmarkalinebreakbeforeadivinespeechformula.

fiveofseriesainlasttheisThis.ofpcweqatal 3Qal.mainlinepredictionsmarkedbytheweqatal.

-foreAmossubject.theasservingchainconstructA .seesamassdeportationoftheArameanpeople.

islocationKirs.directiveawithKir,name,properA .notcertain,butIsaiah22:6suggeststhatitwasintheareaofElam,east of southernMesopotamia. Amos 9:7 indicates that this is theoriginalhomelandof theArameans,and that textasserts thatGodbroughtuptheArameansinanexodusfromKir.Now,hesays,their

28 Amos1:4-5


exoduswillbereversed.SeeAmos2:10,wheretheimplicationisthatIsraelsexodusfromEgyptwillalsobereversed.

Line Bg:Thecolon-markerissilluq andtheconstraintsare:1predi-cator,2constituents,and2units.

-terformulaspeechdivineThe.ofsmqatal 3Qal .minatesthepoem.

.subjectThe .1:6-8: Second Oracle (Gaza)

Aftertheproseheading( ,stanzastwohaspoemthe,( eachasinglestrophe.Thispoemisstructurallyidenticalto1:3-5.Thefirststanza(1:6)givesthereasonsGodwilljudgeGazaandthePhilis-tinesinthreelines,witheachheadedbythepreposition.Thesec-ond(1:7-8)givesthepunishmentinsevenlines,witheachlineheadedby aweqatal verb, except for lineBd,where there is gappingwiththeverb inlineBcdoingdouble-duty,andlineBg,whichistheconcluding .Scholarshavenotedthatthisoracleincludes every city of the Philistine pentapolis exceptGath (Gaza,Ashdod,Ashkelon,andEkronareallmentioned).ItappearsthatGathwasrelativelyinsignificantbythetimeofAmos.ThelastknownkingofGathwasAchish(mentionedin1Kgs2:39-40,fromtheearlypartofSolomonsreign),andGathisabsentincuneiformsourcesfromthistime(forfurtherinformation,seediscussionat6:2).

See1:3.1:6b: First Stanza. Three lines.Each isheadedbymatching

or.

1:6a

1:6bAaAbAc

Amos1:6-8 29


Line Aa:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare:0predicators,1constituent,and3units.This lineisdependentonthefollowingline.

-repretheasherementionedisGaza . sentativecityofthePhilistineseitherbecauseitisthesouthernmostPhilistinecity(andthusisattheextremesoutheastcornerofAmosmapofcondemnednations,oppositeDamascus),orbecauseitwasthemostpowerfulofthecity-states,orbecauseitsplacealongthecoastaltrade-routemade it an important junction in the slave trade (Paul1991,56).BythelateeighthcenturyGazawasunderthedominationofAssyria.GazagavetributetoTiglath-pileserIIIofAssyria(ruled745727)accordingtoanAssyrianbuildinginscription(ANET 282).Thereafter rulers ofGazawere tributary vassals ofAssyria and arementionedassuch intextsconnectedwithSennacherib(704681),Esar-haddon (680669) and Ashurbanipal (668633); see ANET 288,291,294.


.causallyused withphrasePrepositional . -sufsm3with ofscyiqtol 1hiphilNegated .

fix.Line Ac:Thecolon-markerissilluq andtheconstraintsare:1predi-

cator(,(4constituents,and5units. withsuffixpm3withconstructinfinitiveHiphil .

.causallyused is wordTheobject.directThe . acognate

accusativewith. Theword is adjectival, giving themeaningacompleteexile.Itmayrefertoraidingvillagesandtakingtheirentirepopulationsascaptivestosellintoslavery.

ahereisIt.with ofconstructinfinitiveHiphil .complementto.On,see1:9.

30 Amos1:6


asregardedbemaywhich,withphrasePrepositional .bothdirectionalandasadativeofadvantage.Edomismentionedhereandin1:9astherecipientofalargenumberofpersonskidnappedforslavery.Edomapparentlyeitherservedasamiddlemanfortransport-ingslavestoArabiaoritselfusedtheslavesinitscoppermines.

1:7-8: Second Stanza. Sevenlines.Theinitialweqatal verbsconsti-tuteamainlineseriesoffutureevents.FourlinesendwithreferencestonamesofPhilistinecities (Gaza,Ashdod,Ashkelon,andEkron),oneline(Bb)endswith (her[Gazas]citadels),andoneline(Bf)endswith -Philistheofremainderthe) tines).Inshort,thefirstfivelineseachdescribethedestructionofaPhilistinelocation,andthesixthbroadlystatesthatallPhilistiawillbedestroyed.


As.fromscweqatal 1Piel . in1:4,theweqatal forms here continue the apodosis and give amainline sequence offutureevents.

.objectdirectThe . YHWHtimesThree.withphrasePrepositional .

sendsfireonthe (wall)ofacity(1:7,10,14). isadefen-

1:7

1:8

BaBbBcBdBeBfBg

Amos1:7-8 31


sivewallaroundacity,building,orvineyard.Themoregeneraltermforawallis (Hammershaimb1970,31),and isaninternal,structuralwall(seeAmos5:19).


.fromsfweqatal 3Qal . .(is(antecedentsuffixsf3withobjectDirect .

Line Bc:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare:1predicator,3constituents,and3units.

.ofscweqatal 1Hiphil .representswordthis1:5inAs.ofsmparticipleQal .

theruler,onewhositsonathrone,andnotanordinaryinhabitant.Itismatchedby inBd.

Prepositional . phrase with . The eighth-centurycityofAshdodsufferedtwoconflagrations.Itwassubduedinaround760byUzziah(2Chr26:6)andthenin712bytheAssyrianSargonII (721705B.C.). It is thereaftermentionedas a tributary stateofAssyria(seeANET 288,291,294).

Line Bd:The colon-marker isathnach and the constraints are: 0predicators,2constituents,and3units.Thereisgappingoftheverb.Bclinein

-conjuncwith ofsmparticipleactiveqalA .tionandinconstructwith,anobjectivegenitive.Theparticipleissubstantival.

locatedwasAshkelon.withphrasePrepositional .ontheMediterraneancoastbetweenGazatothesouthandAshdodtothenorth.Tiglath-pileserIIItwiceconfrontedAshkelon,amemberofananti-AssyriancoalitionledbyDamascus,whilecampaigningintheLevant.SeeABD,Ashkelon.

Line Be:Thecolon-markerisrevia andtheconstraintsare:1predi-cator,3constituents,and3units.

32 Amos1:7-8


weqatal 1Hiphil . c s of. The verb, with thedirect object and the preposition,means, Iwill send backmyhandagainst(seeIsa1:25).ElsewhereinAmos12,thehiphilof.judgmentarevoketomeans

.objectdirectThe .Prepositional . phrase with . Ekron was located

more toward the interior and further from the coast, making it abordercitybetweenJudahandPhilistia.CurrentlyidentifiedatTelMiqne, it, too, cameunderAssyriandomination in the late eighthcentury. Inhis campaignof 701, Sennacherib assaultedEkron andkilled its leading citizens, impaling them about the city wall; seeANET 28788).

Line Bf:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare:1predicator,2constituents,and3units.

weqatal completesfinalThis.ofpcweqatal 3Qal .themainlineseriesandindicatesthecompleteendofPhilistinecivi-lization.

theofremainderthechain,constructThis .Philistines,acknowledgesthattherewereotherPhilistinecitiesandvillages, includingwhat remainedofGath.Thepoint is that allofPhilistiawillbesweptaway.

Line Bg:Thecolon-markerissilluq andtheconstraintsare:1predi-cator,2constituents,and3units.

.ofsmqatal 3Qal . lordsmyliterally) ofadditionTheSubject. .

butusedfrequentlyasanhonorificforYHWHandsimplytranslatedaslord),overagainst theshorter ,1:5in illustrates thekindofminorvariationAmosfrequentlyemploys.

1:9-10: Third Oracle (Tyre)Aftertheproseheading( .stanzastwohaspoemthe,( Thefirststanza(1:9)givesthereasonsGodwilljudgeTyreandthe

Amos1:7-8 33


Phoenicians.Thesecond(1:10),inatruncatedfashion,describesthecalamitiesthatwillbefallTyre.TheabbreviatedjudgmentclausedoesnotindicatethatTyrewillexperiencealessseveretrauma.AlthoughAmosemploysrepetitionthroughouthisfirsttwochapters,heavoidsthe tediumof structuring everypoem in exactly the samemanner.Asdescribedabove,onlytwoelementsarerepeatedverbatimineverypoem. First, every poem employs the same opening in three lines.Second,inthepronouncementofjudgment,everyoracleexceptthatonIsraelhasthetwolines... and....TheoracleonTyreisuniqueinthatithasonlytheserequisitefivelinesplusoneadditionalline,Ad.

Prose Clause: See1:3.1:9b: First Stanza. Fourlines.Eachisheadedby or,except

thatthefourthline(Ad)isheadedby .ThislineisexpositiononAc,indicatingtheespeciallyheinousnatureofthisactofkidnap-pingpeopleforslavery.


Tyre . was the dominant Phoeniciancityintheeighthcentury,SidonatthistimebeinginvassalstatustoTyre(Paul1991,59).

1:9a

1:9bAaAbAcAd

34 Amos1:9




fix.Line Ac:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare

1predicator,3constituents,and4units.This line is theconcaten-ouslinktoasimilaraccusationleveledagainstGazain1:6,butasiscommoninAmos,thereisminorvariationinthewording(seelineAcin1:6).

-sufpm3with ofconstructinfinitiveHiphil .fixandacausalpreposition.Theinfinitivehereservesasapredi-cator;bycontrast,in1:6, isthepredicatorand isitscomplement.But themeaningofboth lines isessentially thesame.handtomeansithiphiltheinbutshuttomeansqalthein (arefugee)overtoapursuerorenemy.TheusageinDeuteronomy23:16(E15)isparticularlyapropos.

,whole) adjectiveTheobject.directThe . complete)suggeststhatanentirecommunitywasseizedandcarriedoffintoslavery.

Prepositional . phrase with . As in 1:6, Edom is therecipientofthecapturedslaves.Itisperhapsnoteworthythatplacesfromwhichtheseslavesweretakenisnotindicatedinthetext.OnemightassumethattheyaresnatchedfromIsraelorJudah,butthetextdoesnotsaythis.Theimportantpointisthatthesenationsengagedinthecrimeofseizingpeoplestosellasslaves.WhetherornotthepeopletheyseizedwereIsraeliteissecondary.

Line Ad:Thecolon-markerissilluq andtheconstraintsare:1predi-cator,2constituents,and3units.Withintheaccusationstanzasoftheoraclesofthispoem,thelinesheadedby mayberegardedasmainline elementsof theprotasis, listing theprincipal reasons thatGodsjudgmentiscoming.This +qatal clause,asisnormallythe

Amos1:9 35


case,isoffline,anditherecommentsontheaccusation.Inthiscase,theactofattackingvillagesandtakingpeopletosell intoslaveryismadeallthemoreheinousbythefactthatthepeoplestheyattackedweretreaty-alliesandthusshouldhavebeenundertheirprotection.

usedis termThe.ofpcqatal 3qalNegated .forremembering(i.e.,forabidingbythetermsof)acovenant,asinGenesis9:15andExodus2:24.

A . construct chain serving as the direct object.The covenant alluded to heremay be the treaty relations betweenIsraelandTyre.SuchatreatywasmadebetweenDavidandHiramofTyre(2Sam5:11),anditwasmaintainedunderSolomonandHiram(1Kgs5:1-12).TherewasalsoamarriageallianceinvolvingAhabofIsraelandJezebeldaughterofEthbaalofSidon(1Kgs16:31).Again,however, the lack of specificity is important. The crime ofTyre isnotthattheyactedagainstIsrael,butthattheykidnappedpeopleforslaveryandviolatedtreatiesinordertodoso.Brothers()isintheancientNearEastatechnicaltermfortreatypartners(see1Kgs9:13).SeePriest(1965).

1:10: Second Stanza. Twolines.Bothareheadedbyweqatal verbs,indicatingthatthisstropheistheapodosis.Asdescribedabove,thesetwolinesconstitutetheminimalconfigurationforajudgmentstanzainthefirstsevenpoems.


.fromscweqatal 1Piel . .objectdirectThe . .chainconstructaon withphrasePrepositional .

1:10BaBb

36 Amos1:9-10


ThedestructionofTyre represents the endofPhoenician indepen-denceandofitshegemonyoverthenorthernLevant.


.(issubjectthe) fromsfweqatal 3Qal . 3Theobject.directThe . f s suffixhasTyre as its

antecedent;citiesareconstruedasfeminine.

1:11-12: Fourth Oracle (Edom)After theprose , thepoemhas twostanzas, the firsthavingtwostrophesandthesecondhavingone.

See1:3.1:11b-c: First Stanza. Twostrophes.Thefirstisastandardaccusa-

tionstrophe,but thesecondisconjoinedto itwithawayyiqtol andgivesasecondaryaccusation.

1:11b: First Strophe.4lines.Eachisheadedby or,exceptthatthelastline(1d)isheadedbytheweqatal .

Line A1a:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare:0predicators,1constituent,and3units.This lineisdependentonthefollowingline.

1:11a

1:11bA1aA1bA1cA1d

Amos1:10-11 37


,Edom . locatedsouthoftheDeadSea,wasanationwhosepeopleweremostcloselyrelatedtotheIsrael-itesbutwhooftenweretheirmostbitterenemies.Edomismentionedfourtimesinthesepoems,twiceastherecipientofslaves(1:6,9),onceasthevictimofacrime(2:1),andhere,whereEdomistheobjectofdivinejudgment.

Line A1b:Thecolon-marker isathnach andtheconstraintsare:1predicator,2constituents,and2units.


fix.Asusual,itmarkstheapodosis.Line A1c: The colon-marker is pashta and the constraints are: 1

predicator,3constituents,and3units.Theuseofpashta attheendofalineisunusual,butfortworeasonsthislineshouldterminatehere.First,if wereaddedtothisthelinewouldbetoolong(fiveconstituents).Second,theparallelism,with correspondingto andwith correspondingto,suggeststhat .lineseparateais

Qal . infinitive construct of with 3m s suffixandpreposition usedcausally.Thisservesasthepredicatorofthisline.

isswordThe.instrumentalwithphrasePrepositional .metonymyformilitaryaction.

-repreherecouldbrother1:9,inAsobject.directThe .sentatreatypartner,butinthiscaseitprobablyrepresentstheracialkinship between Edom and Judah, their neighbors to the north.Again,thefactthatJudahisnotexplicitlynamedindicatesthatitisthenatureofthecrime,notthefactthatJudahwasthevictim,thatis the focus.Becauseof thecondemnationofEdomin thebookofObadiah,setapparentlyatthetimeoftheexile,somesuggestthatthisoracleisalaterinsertioncondemningEdomfortheroleitplayeddur-ingthefallofJerusalemtoNebuchadnezzarII(in586).Thisconclu-

38 Amos1:11


sionisunnecessary.TherewerenodoubtmanyincursionsandbattlesalongtheborderofEdomandJudahthroughouttheirlonghistory,andAmosprobablyhadanincidentinmindthatwehavenospecificknowledgeof.Thisappearstohavebeenanespeciallyviciousattack,however;itwasanattempttocarryoutapolicyofgenocideagainstJudah.

Line A1d:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare:1predicator,2constituents,and2units.

,destroytomeansverbThe.ofsmweqatal 3Piel .ruin, or exterminate. The use of theweqatal for the past tense isunusual and demands attention. Amos 12 has a large number ofweqatal verbs,butalmostallrepresentamainlinefuturetenseexposi-tion,asiscommon.Normallyaconjoinedpasttenseactionisexpressedwiththewayyiqtol,buttheuseofthewayyiqtol herewouldsuggestaseparate,sequentialaction.Theweqatal suggeststwothings.First,asmentionedabove,theactionofthisline(A1d)issimultaneouswiththatofthepreviousline,A1c.Second,theactionisimperfective(andhewasexterminating)andnotperfective(andheexterminated).Thelatterwouldberepresentedbythewayyiqtol.

orcompassionforabstractlyusedis wordThe .pity,andthusmostversionstakethislineashedestroyedhispity,understanding that tomean that he showedno compassion.How-ever,asShalomPaulstates,suchaninterpretationisamakeshiftoneandistotallyunattested(Paul1991,64).Variousinterpretationsfornotionunconvincingtheincludingproposed,beenhavehere thatitreferstotreatypartners(seeFishbane1970and1972;Coote1971;Barr1985).Itismorelikelyherethat (womb)isusedbymetonymyforwomenespeciallyintheircapacityaschild-bearers.SimilarusageappearsinJudges5:30:

Amos1:11 39


Wont they find [and] divide plunder? A womb, two wombs, for the head of each warrior?

Here,thesexuallanguageisquitegraphic.Womentakeninplun-deraredescribedaswombsforthehead(i.e.,forthesexualorgan)of each soldier. In Amos, the women are similarly the victims ofenemysoldiers,andagaintheyarebymetonymyreferredtoas becauseitistheirsexualcapacitythatisinview.InAmos,however,thewomenarerepresentedaschildbearersandarenotobjectsofrapebutofslaughter,becauseEdomsobjectiveisgenocide.Theterm inUgariticalsocanmeanwoman,asitisusedinparallelwithbtlt,virgin(CTA 6:ii:2627;citedinPaul1991,65).Inaddition,thecon-catenationpatterndescribedforthispoemindicatesthattheslaughterofwomenisinview,sincetheprincipalcrimeoftheAmmonitesin1:13isthattheycutopenpregnantwomen.Ontheotherhand,thefactthat meanscompassionisnotlostonAmos.Makingawordplayonthetwosensesofthewordaschild-bearersandcom-passion,hespeaksofhowtheEdomitesgavefullexpressiontotheirrageinthenextstrophe(2a-2b).Theantecedentofthe3mssuffixon-refercollectiveabrotherAsline.previoustheinbrotheris encetothepeopleofJudah,thesuffixcanbetranslatedastheir.

1:11c: Second Strophe. Two lines. The lines are plainly parallelThebicolon.aconstituteand,(with and,with )initialwayyiqtol isusedhereandin2:4tointroduceasecondaryaccu-sation.

Line A2a:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare:1predicator,3constituents,and3units.

-wayythenarrativeproseIn.ofsmwayyiqtol 3Qal .iqtol typicallygivesthemainlinestructureforahistoricalsequenceof

1:11cA2aA2b

40 Amos1:11


events.Thistext,however,althoughpasttense,isnotstrictlyanar-rativebutanaccusation.Thewayyiqtol isnottemporallysequentialbutitissecondary,beinganadditionalaccusation.Theverb (totear)isoftenemendedto (toguard)onthegroundsthatitisabetterparallelto inline2b,andalsobecauseoftheusageinJer-emiah3:5, (Willheguard[hisanger]forever?Willhekeep[it]continually?).Thisemendationisappealingandmaybecorrect,butonecanmaintaintheMTasitstands.

theandfuture,ortimelastingmeans nounThe .idiom meanspermanently.

-subtheasconstruedbetoisthiswhethercertainnotisIt .jectorobjectoftheverb,butsincehetorehiswrathisunclearandactually suggests thathedestroyedhiswrath (i.e., brought it to anend),itismorelikethatthat isthesubject,hiswrathtore.

Line A2b: The colon-marker is silluq and the constraints are: 1predicator,3constituents,and3units.

-subtheiswordthiswhetherunclearisit,withAs .jectorobjectoftheverb.Theparallelwiththepreviousline,however,suggeststhatitisthesubject.

withsmqatal 3Qalabetoappearsthisstands,itAs .3 f s suffix, but without the normalmappiq (such forms are rarebutattested; seeGKC 58g). If this iscorrect, thesuffixmustbearesumptivepronounreferringbacktothedirectobject.Thisconstruction(hisrage,hekepther)isquitepeculiar,andsomesim-plyemendtheverbto,droppingthesuffix.AnalternativeistorepointtheverbasasimpleQalqatal 3fs,,aminoremenda-tionthatleavestheconsonantaltextintact.Sounderstood, isthesubjectratherthantheobjectoftheverb.Adifficultyhereisthatthisrequirestaking inanintransitivesense,astocontinueorremainvigilant,althoughitalmostalwaysistransitive,toguardorkeepsomething.Itispossiblethatwehaveanintransitiveusagein2Samuel11:16,wheretheinfinitiveconstructof seemstomeantokeepwatchormaintainvigilance(eventhere,however,there

Amos1:11 41


isanindirectobject).Nevertheless,itappearsthatreading asaqatal 3fsusedintransitivelywith asthesubjectisthebestoption.Theuseofthe +[X]+qatal patternafterthewayyiqtol hereindicatesthatthetwolinesdescribeasingleaction.Twolinesheadedbywayyiqtol verbswouldsuggesttwoseparate,sequentialactions..endlesslyadverb,anasand,durationmeansThis .1:12: Second Stanza. Two lines.This is the standard judgment

stanzainitsshortestform.


.fromscweqatal 1Piel . .objectdirectThe . theofnamethewasTeman.withphrasePrepositional .

regionofnorthEdom.Line Bb:Thecolon-markerissilluq andtheconstraintsare:1predi-

cator,2constituents,and3units..fromsfweqatal 3Qal . -Bozobject.directtheandchainconstructA .

rahwasthechiefcityofEdom;itwasaboutthirtymilessoutheastoftheDeadSea.

1:13-15: Fifth Oracle (Ammon)Aftertheheading( ,( thepoemhastwostanzas.ThestructureofthispoemisthussimilartotheoraclesonDamascus(1:3-5)andPhilistia(1:6-8).

1:12BaBb

1:13a

42 Amos1:11-13


See1:3.1:13b: First Stanza. ItgivesthereasonsGodwilljudgeAmmonin

fourlines,inwhicheachlineisheadedbythepreposition exceptforlineAd,whichisapurposeclausedependentonlineAc.


This . indictmentuniquelyhassonsofAmmon,thenameofthepeople,ratherthanthenameofaterritory(suchasMoab)or leadingcity(suchasTyre),asthedesignationfortheaccusedstate.



fix.Line Ac:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare:

1predicator,2constituents,and3units.-infiniQalais ;causalis prepositionThe .

tiveconstructof,witha3mpsuffixservingasthesubjectoftheaction.

adjectivetheobject;directaschainconstructA . secondtheisThissubstantively.usedandpfhereispregnant)) timeGilead ismentionedas theobjectofaggression(see1:3).This

1:13bAaAbAcAd

Amos1:13 43


atrocity,rippingopenpregnantwomen,issequentialtotheslaughterofchildbearers(1:11)intheconcatenousstructureofthepoem.

Line Ad:Thecolon-markerissilluq andtheconstraintsare:1predi-cator,2constituents,and3units(taking asaunit).

infinitivehiphila,withclausepurposeA .constructof (enlarge).

The . direct object.TheAmmonites desiredmoreLebensraum;togainthistheywerewilling,asweretheEdomites,toslaughterpregnantorchildbearingwomen.

1:14-15: Second Stanza. Thisisanotherseven-linedescriptionofpunishment.LinesBa,Bb,andBeareeachheadedbythestandardweqatal verb.LinesBcandBdareprepositionalphrasesdependentonBb.LineBfhasgapping,with inlineBegoverningbothlines.LineBgisthestandardconcluding .

Line Ba:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare:1predicator,3constituents,and4units.

inunusualisrootThis.fromscweqatal 1Hiphil .thatinallofitsinflectedforms(Qal,Niphal,andHiphil),itfollowsthemorphologyoftheI- root(suchas),inwhichthefirstradicalassimilates toanddoublesthesecond.This is theonlyplace inthefirstsevenoracleswherethejudgmentstanzabeginswith

1:14BaBbBcBdBeBfBg

1:15

44 Amos1:13-15


insteadof .Weprobablyshouldnotmaketoomuchofthisvariation;throughouttheoracles,Amosusesformulasandrepeti-tionwithoutrigidlyadheringtofixedpatterns.

.objectdirectThe . Rabbah.prepositionwithchainconstructA .

waslocatedatthesiteofthemoderncapitalofJordan,Amman.InHellenistictimesitwascalledPhiladelphia.IntheIronAge,itwasthecapitalcityoftheAmmonites.

Line Bb:The colon-marker isathnach and the constraints are: 1predicator,2constituents,and2units.

.fromsfweqatal 3Qal . isantecedentwhosesuffixsf3withobjectDirect .

.Line Bc:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare:

0predicators,2constituents,and3units.Thislinerelatestothepre-viouslineadverbially,describingcircumstances.

Prepositional . phrase with for attendant circum-stances.

withchainconstructaonphrasePrepositional . . Asyndeton (lack of conjunction) here indicates that this phraseand areunderstoodtobeinapposition,simultaneous,anddescriptiveofasingleevent.

Line Bd:Thecolon-markerissilluq andtheconstraintsare:0predi-cators,2constituents,and3units.Thislinegrammaticallymatchesthepreviousbutisnotsemanticallyequivalent,althoughitmetaphor-icallytreatsthesamecircumstances.

-cirattendantforusedhere,withphrasePrepositional .cumstances.

,withchainconstructaonphrasePrepositional . usedtemporally.Asyndetonagainindicatesthatthisphraseand areunderstoodtobeinapposition,simultaneous,anddescriptiveofa

Amos1:14-15 45


singleevent.Thestormorwhirlwindismetaphoricalforthechaosanddestructivenessofbattle,thussuggestingametaphoricalratherthanliteralsemanticunitywiththepreviousline.

Line Be: The colon-marker is athnach and the constraints are: 1predicator,3constituents,and3units.

.ofsmweqatal 3Qal . The . subject, with a 3mp suffix. SeveralGreek

recensions readMelxomhere, and thus somebelieve that thiswordshouldbe read as Milcom, godof theAmmonites.However, thesubsequent lineandalsothetendencyofAmostospeakofsendingrulersintoexile(1:5,8)indicatethatthisreferstothekingandnottothegod.Theremaybe,however,awordplayonMilcominAmosuseoftheterm insteadofthetermformonarchsthatheusesabove,.

-attendescribetohereused,withphrasePrepositional .dantcircumstancesasacomplementto.

Line Bf:Thecolon-markeristifha andtheconstraintsare:0predica-tors,1constituent,and3units.Theuseoftifha foracolon-markerisunusual,butseveraltimesintheseoraclesaweakdisjunctiveprecedesa formulaofdivine speech,which shouldbe regardedas a separateline.Thelinehasgapping,with inthepreviouslinegoverningthislinealso.

secondarilyis verbtheofsubjectThe . expandedtoincludethekingshighofficials.Thisisthusacompoundsubjectandthereforeasingleconstituent.Rhetorically,thissuggeststhatnooneinleadershipwillescape.

Line Bg:Thecolon-markerissilluq andtheconstraintsare:1predi-cator,2constituents,and2units.Anotherdivinespeechformula.

.ofsmqatal 3Qal ..subjectThe .

46 Amos1:14-15


2:1-3: Sixth Oracle (Moab)Aftertheheading( Thestanzas.twohaspoemthis,( firststanza(2:1)givesthereasonsGodwilljudgeMoab(threelines)inwhicheachlineisheadedbythepreposition.Thesecond(2:2-3)givesthepunishment(sevenlines),inwhicheachlineisheadedbyaweqatal verb,exceptforlineBd,wherethereisgappingwiththeverbbyBelinetotiediswhichBf,linedouble-duty,doingBclinein achiasticstructure,andlineBg,whichistheconcluding .ThestructureofthispoemisavariationonthepatternfoundwithDamascus (1:3-5), Philistia (1:6-8) and Ammon (1:13-15). Barton(1980,3335)hasagoodsurveyofpossiblehistoricalbackgroundsforthewarfarealludedtointhisoracle,butheconcludesthatitisnotpossibletoknowwithcertaintywhatincidentAmosherealludesto.

See1:3.2:1b: First Stanza. Three lines.Each is headedby causal or

.

Line Aa:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare:0predicators,1constituent,and3units.This lineisdependentonlineAb.

andJordantheofeastlocatedMoab, . northofEdom,isaccusedofviolencetowarditssouthernneighbor.


2:1bAaAbAc

2:1a

Amos2:13 47



fix.Line Ac: The colon-marker is silluq and the constraints are: 1

predicator,3constituents,and5units.-infiniQalais ;causalis prepositionThe .

tiveconstructof with3mpsuffixservingasthesubjectoftheaction.

.objectdirectasservingchainconstructA . ItisnoteworthythatEdomisthevictimofMoabsatrocity,indicatingthatitisthenatureofthecrimeitselfandnottheidentityofthevic-timthatisAmosconcern.Inotherwords,nationsarenotcondemnedsimplyforbeingopposedtoIsrael.

withphrasePrepositional . servingarticledefiniteand as a complement to theverb.The significanceofburningbones tolime()isdisputed.Thereisnoevidencesupportinganalterna-tivetranslationfor oranemendation.Somesuggestthatburn-ingbonestolimeissimplydisregardforhumandignity,butofitselfthisoffenseseemsratherpaltrycomparedtothecrimesattributedtotheothernations.Otherssuggestthatthisisareligiousactandthatburningtheboneswasmeanttopreventthedeceasedfromattainingresurrection(Stuart1987,314).Thereis,however,noevidencefromIronAgeLevantinestatesofawidespreadbeliefthattheboneshadtobepreservedinordertoinsurearesurrection(indeed,wehavenoreasontobelievethatpeopleineitherMoaborEdombelievedinaresurrectionatall).ReverenceforthebonesofthedeadisnotafeatureofIronAgeburialsitesintheLevant.ItisbesttofollowtheTargum Jonathan onAmosinitsassertionthatthebodywasburnedtolimeinorder tomakeplaster for thewalls of a room.That, after all, iswhatlimeiswasusedfor.WemaysuggestspecificallythatthelimewasusedtowhitewashthethroneroomofthekingofMoab.SuchapracticewouldbeanalogoustotheAssyrianpracticeofdecoratingthewallsof theirpalaceroomswithscenesdepictingtheirvictories

48 Amos2:1


over their enemies and even of displaying proudlyAssyrian atroci-tiesagainsttheirenemies.ThenorthpalaceatNineveh,forexample,hasareliefshowingAshurbanipalandhistroopssackinganElamitecity.MoresignificantforbiblicalscholarsaretheLachishreliefsfromSennacheribspalaceatNineveh,showingnotonlyhistakingofthecitybuttheAssyriansimpalingoftheirprisoners.Moabsburningofbonestolimecouldberegardedassimilargruesomecelebrationoftheirownviolenceonthewallsoftheirpalace.Itthusimpliedthattheyhadbecomeinhumanintheirviciousness.

2:2-3: Second Stanza. Sevenlinesinonestrophe,followingwithminorvariationthestructureofthejudgmentstanzasagainstDamas-cus,Gaza,andtheAmmonites.

Line Ba:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare:1predicator,3constituents,and3units.

.fromscweqatal 1Piel ..objectdirectThe . ,nationorregiontheagainstsentbetosaidisfireHere, .

Moab,insteadofagainstthecapitalcity.ButthenextlinementionsthecityKerioth.

Line Bb:The colon-marker isathnach and the constraints are: 1predicator,2constituents,and3units.

2:2

2:3

BaBbBcBdBeBfBg

Amos2:1-3 49


.fromsfweqatal 3Qal . .objectdirectaasusedchainconstructA .

KeriothwasoneoftheprincipalcitiesofMoab,anditismentionedinJeremiah48:24aswellasinline13oftheMeshaStele(alsoknownastheMoabiteStone),whereitissaidtohavebeenthesiteofatempletoChemosh,theprincipaldeityofMoab.

Line Bc:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare:1predicator,3constituents,and3units.

.ofsmweqatal 3Qal .-attenforadverbiallyused withphrasePrepositional .

dant circumstances. from) ;II Isa 17:12). The worddescribesaloudnoise,oftenonemadebyacrowdofpeople(Isa5:14;13:4;24:8;Hos10:14;Ps74:23),butalsothenoiseoftheocean(Isa17:13;Ps65:8[E7]).Herethesourceofthenoiseisnotdisclosed,butitprobably includes theburningof thecity, the lamentationof theinhabitants,andthewar-criesandbattlesignalsoftheattackers.

.diewillnationentireanRemarkably,subject.The .Line Bd:Thecolon-markerissilluq andtheconstraintsare:0predi-

cators,2constituents, and3units.This line is structurally identicaltolineBcinthepreviouspoem(1:14),withwhichitisaconcatenouslink.

Prepositional . phrase with for attendant circum-stances(adverbialof inthepreviousline).

.chainconstructaon withphrasePrepositional . Thisphrasecouldbestrictlyappositionalwith,identifyingthenoiseofbattleasashofar,butitisprobablycitedasanexampleofoneofthenoisesofbattle.

Line Be: The colon-marker is athnach and the constraints are: 1predicator,3constituents,and3units.

.ofscweqatal 1Hiphil . withassonanceofsaketheForobject.directThe . ,

50 Amos2:2-3


Amosemploys ratherthantermshehasusedpreviously,suchas. As is common, connotes a ruler rather than simplysomeonewhojudgesinlegalproceedings.

Thesuffix.sf3theand withphrasePrepositional .antecedenttothefemininesuffixistheimplied ,thelandofMoab.

Line Bf:Thecolon-markeristifha andtheconstraintsare:1predi-cator,3constituents,and3units.

.suffixsf3withchainconstructobjectdirectA .refers toahighofficial; theolder translationprince ismisleadingsincea isnotnecessarilyroyalty.

Qal . yiqtol 1c sof.The sequenceweqatal withadirectobjectinlineBefollowedbyadirectobjectwithyiqtol inBfimplies that the slayingof the judge () andall theofficialsaofpartconceptuallyarebutsequentialnotare() singleevent.Thereisaninversionhere,withlineBehavingaverb,object,andprepositionalphrasewhilelineBfhastheobject,thentheverb,andthenaprepositionalphrase.

-antethesuffix;sm3aand withphrasePrepositional .cedentis.

Line Bg:Thecolon-markerissilluq andtheconstraintsare:1predi-cator,2constituents,and2units.Thisisanotherdivinespeechfor-mula.

.ofsmqatal 3Qal ..subjectThe .

2:4-5: Seventh Oracle (Judah)Thispoem,withminor variation, follows thepatternof theEdomoracle(1:11-12).

2:4a

Amos2:3-4 51


See1:3.2:4b: First Stanza. Twostrophes.Thefirstisastandardaccusation

strophewithlinesheadedby,butthesecondisconjoinedtoitwithawayyiqtol andgivesasecondaryaccusation.

2:4b: First Strophe.Fourlines.Eachlineisheadedby or exceptforthefourth,line1d,whichisboundtoline1cbyachiasticstructure.


areJudahagainstaccusationsThe . notgeneralcrimesagainsthumanity,aswasthecase intheaccusa-tionsagainsttheGentiles,butconcerncovenantviolations.



fix.Line A1c:Thecolon-markerisrevia andtheconstraintsare:1predi-

cator,2constituents,and3units. suffixpm3with ofconstructinfinitiveQal .

(theimpliedantecedentisthepeopleofJudah)andthepreposition usedcausally.Thisinfinitivefunctionsasapredicator.

.objectdirectThe .

2:4bA1aA1bA1cA1d

52 Amos2:4


Line A1d:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare:1predicator,2constituents,and2units.Thislineformsachiasmuswiththepreviousline.

-paralitconjunction;andsuffixsm3withobjectDirect .lels .issuffixthetoantecedenttheand,

.ofpcqatal 3qalNegated .2:4c: Second Strophe.2lines.AsintheEdomoracle,thisstrophe,

headedbyawayyiqtol,constitutesasecondaryaccusation.


with ofpmwayyiqtol 3Hiphil . a3mp suffixreferringtothepeopleofJudah.Thewayyiqtol isherelogicallysec-ondarytothepreviousaccusationbutitisnottemporallysequential.ItisbothasecondaryaccusationandanexampleofhowJudahwentaboutabandoningthelawofYHWH.

(lie) nounThesuffix.pm3ahasitsubject;The .hereprobablyreferstoidols.

Line A2b: The colon-marker is silluq and the constraints are: 1predicator,3constituents,and4units.

. . . relativeA . clausewhose antecedent ispronounpm3resumptivethetoboundis relativeThe.suffixin.Literally,whichtheirfatherswentafterthem,itmeans,afterwhichtheirfatherswent.Relativeclausesconstituteaspecialproblemindelineatingtheconstituentsofalineaccordingtotheconstraints, sinceelementsof therelative,ashere,maycomeatthebeginningandendoftheclause,withotherconstituentsinsertedbetweenthetwoparts.

2:4cA2aA2b

Amos2:4 53


qatal 3Qal . c p of (walk).The verb here con-notesbelievinginsomethingandengaginginthepracticesassoci-atedwithit.

isantecedentwhosesuffixpm3ahasitsubject;The .theimpliedpeopleofJudah.

2:5: Second Stanza. Two lines. This is the standard judgmentstanzainitsshortestform.


.fromscweqatal 1Piel . .objectdirectThe . againstsenthereisfireMoab,againstoracletheinAs .

thenation,Judah,insteadofagainstthecapitalcity;butasin2:2,thenextlinementionstheprincipalcityofthenation,Jerusalem.


.fromsfweqatal 3Qal . ofmentiononlytheisthis1:2,fromApart .

JerusaleminAmos(although6:1referstoZion).Strikingly,1:2rep-resentsJerusalemastheabodeofYHWH,theplacefromwhichheroars,whereasthisversedescribesfirefromYHWHconsumingthecitadelsofJerusalem.

2:6-16: Eighth Oracle (Jerusalem)Theeighthstanzadramaticallybreaksfromthepatternsetinthefirstseven.After thenormalproseheading( ,( ithas fourstanzasandatotalofeightstrophes.Onlythefirstthreelinesofthe

2:5BaBb

54 Amos2:4-5


firststrophehavethestandardpatternofaccusationsheadedbythepreposition.Also,thestandardjudgmentbicolonusedinthesevenpriororacles(with ,etc.)isnotemployedintheeighth.Thereisalargeaccusationstanzaintwostrophes,followedbyastanzadescribinginfourstrophesGodshistoricalactsofgracetoIsraelandtheir response. This is followed by a metaphorical description ofYHWHsgrief(thethirdstanza[asinglestrophe]),andconcludedbyalengthyportrayaloftheIsraelitearmyroutedinbattle(thefourthstanza[asinglestrophe]).

See1:3.2:6-8: First Stanza. Thisisformedfromtwostrophesofsixlines

each.2:6b-7a: First Strophe.Six lines (A1a-f).Eachof the first three

linesisheadedbythenormal or.Onemighttreattheopeningtwolinesof2:7asaseparatestrophe,buttwofactorsspeakagainstthis.First,theparticiple (thefirstwordof2:7)functionsasarelativeclausehavingasitsantecedentthepronounsuffixon from2:6,suggestingthat,despiteappearances,itispartofthesamestrophe.Astheheadofanewstrophe hangsintheairquiteawkwardly.Seealsotheuseof in3:10,whichbeginsalinebutclearlybelongswiththeprecedingstrophe.SimilarexamplesofapluralparticipleusedinthiswayareatAmos3:10;4:1and5:6-7.Also,aftertheformulaictwolinesthatintroducethestanza(A1a-b)thefollowingfourlines(A1c-f)areboundbyfournounsdescribingthevictimsofabuse: (A1c), (A1d), (A1e),and (A1f).Thisstrophe,therefore,ismarkedbyhavingtheabuseofthepoorasitscentralaccusation.

2:6a

2:6bA1aA1b

Amos2:6-8 55



used withphrasePrepositional . causally on a construct chain.Amos at last comes to the principalobjectofhisprophecy,Israel.



fix.Thisservesastheapodosistothephraseswith.Line A1c:Thecolon-markeriszaqeph qaton andtheconstraintsare:

1predicator,3constituents,and3units. suffixpm3with ofconstructinfinitiveQal .

andpreposition usedcausally. ;somethingofpricethemarksoften prepositionThe .

seeHALOT definition17.Itcouldalsoexpressthecauseorreasonforsomething(HALOT definition19).

-righpersontheissensewhatinButobject.directThe .teous,andhowishesoldforsilver()?Thereareatleastthreepossibilities.(1)Heissoldintotoslaveryforasetpriceofsilver,andslaveryintosoldisHe(2)this.deservenotdoeshethatindicates becauseheowessomemoney,and againindicatesthathedoesnotdeservethisandthatthepenaltyistooharsh.(3)Heismetaphori-callysoldoutinthelawcourtswhensomeonebribesthejudgesfor

2:7a

A1cA1dA1eA1f

56 Amos2:6-7


anamountofsilver,and indicatesthatheisinnocentorintherightinthecaseatlaw.

Line A1d:Thecolon-markerissilluq andtheconstraintsare:0pred-icators,2constituents,and3units.Thereisgappinghere,with inthepreviouslinegoverningbothlines.

toparallelisThisconjunction.withobjectDirect .inthepreviousline.Thethreepossibleinterpretationsdescribedabovefor applyhere aswell, except that stresses the victimspovertyinsteadofhisinnocence.

phraseprepositionalthisline,abovetheinAs . couldmeanforthepriceofapairofsandalsoronaccountofapairof sandals.Shouldsandalsberegardedas somethingofhighvalueorassomethingthatisverycheap?Clothingcouldbeofhighvaluebecauseoftheintensivelaborrequiredinweavingcloth,anditcouldbeusedascurrency(e.g.,Judg14:13).Butsandalsareneverspokenofinthisway,andSirach46:19explicitlytreatssandalsassomethingofverylittlevalue.Thisshouldruleouttheideathatthispersonwassoldforthepriceofapairofsandals;whateverhisoppressorthoughtofhim,hewouldwanttogetasmuchmoneyforsellinghimaspos-sible. It also seemsodd that the judges in a courtwould accept sosmallabribeasapairofsandals,althoughAmoscouldbemakingthepointthatthejudgesaresolackinginintegritythattheywillpervertjusticeforeventhecheapestofbribes.Still,theideaofbribingsome-onewithsandalsseemsveryodd,andifbriberyincourtisthepointhere,itmaybebettertoemendthetextto,ahidden(bribe),assuggestedbyseveralscholars(Paul1991,78).Suchanemendationispurelyconjectural,however.Therefore,thebestsolutionistoassertthatthepooraresoldintoslaveryforaverysmalldebtthattheycan-notpay,suchasforthepriceofapairofsandals.

Line A1e:The colon-marker is zaqeph qaton and the constraintsare:1predicator,3constituents,and5units.Theparticiple isnotsubstantivalbutservesasapredicatorwithinaparticipialrela-

Amos2:6-7 57


tiveclause.Itcouldbetakentobeperiphrasticandtranslatedwithafiniteverb.

iswordThisarticle.definitewithpmparticipleQal .afamousconundrum;itmeanstopantorsniffandsoseemstomakenosenseincontext.Someinterpreterssaythattheoppressorsaresokeentogetwhattheycanfromthepoorthattheyevensniffatthedustontheirscalps,butthismakesforsuchabizarremetaphorthatitcannotpossiblyberight.Anumberofinterpretersemendthetexttotheroot orsuggestthat hereisaby-formof.Theytake tomeantrample,andtranslatetheline,thosewhotrampletheheadsofthepoorintothedustoftheearth(Paul1991,7980).Thereare threereasonsthat this is impossible.First, if theverbmeans trample, the line literally reads, who trampleon thedustoftheearthattheheadsofthepoor.Thisisaveryawkwardandunnaturalsentence,anditcannotmeanthattheytrampletheheadsof the poor into the earth. Second, does notmean trample.TheverbappearsinGenesis3:15(twice),Psalm139:11,andJob9:17.WhilethefirstoccurrenceoftheverbinGenesis3:15mightbetakentomeantrample,thesecondcannotmeanthat,anditisbesttotakebothinstancestomeantostrike.SoalsoinJob9:17,whereis usedinparallelto ,andhemultipliesmywounds,itisbesttakentomeantostrike.The inPsalm139:11appearstobeahomonymmeaningcoverorhide,butitclearlydoesnotmeantrample.Third,theproposalthat isaby-formof isnotpersuasive.ShalomPauloffersthreeanalogiesforthis(Hos10:14;2Sam19:5;Zech14:10),buttheseareallqatal orweqatal formsthathavethe asanorthographicfeature(e.g.,inHos10:14writing for)andnotasa trueby-form,as thempparticiple wouldbe.Therefore, astosniffremainsourbesttranslationoption,asthatmeaningiswellattested(seeHALOT ).

Prepositional . phrasewith.What sniffs atthedustof theearth?Theanswer isadogwhenit ishunting.Theoppressorsaremetaphoricallyrepresentedasapackofhuntingdogs

58 Amos2:6-7


seekingtheirprey.IfSamarianaristocratsenjoyedhuntingwithdogsinthemanneroftheir18thcenturyEnglishcounterparts,thiscouldbeadeliberaterecastingoftheirsport.Theyhuntedforpeoplewiththesamerelishthattheyhuntedforanimals.

.chainconstructaon withphrasePrepositional .Theprepositionmarkstheobjectandcouldbetranslatedasafter.Thetermheadcanbemetonymyforthewholeperson(seeHALOT -metahuntingthecontinuesthisthatpossibleisIt5).definition phor.Didancienthuntersdisplaytheheadsofanimalstheyhadkilledastrophies,asmodernhuntersdo?Wedonotknow,butwedoknowthathumanheadscouldbedisplayedastrophies(1Sam17:54).Thepointhereisnotthattheyliterallyhuntedthepoorandmountedtheirheadsastrophies,butthattheirtreatmentofthepoorwasequallyasruthless.

Line A1f:Thecolon-marker isathnach and theconstraintsare:1predicator,2constituents,and3units.Aninclusionstructure,withthepredicatingparticiple as the firstwordof the lineA1e and theverb asthelastwordoflineA1f,suggeststhatthesetwolinesaretwoaspectsofasingleactionratherthanbeingsequentialorlogicallydistinct.

-followtheofobjectdirectandchainconstructA .ingverb.

isverbthisoftranslationThe.ofpmyiqtol 3Hiphil .notoriouslydifficult, as itsmeanings include to stretchout, twist,bend, extend, spread out, steer away from, guide away, deceive, ordivert.Job24:4, thefrompoortheturnthey, way,meansthatthepoorareshovedoutoftheroadasasignofnorespectfortheirpersons.ButthisisafalseparalleltoAmos2:7;here,itisnotthepoorbutthe itselfthatistheobjectoftheverb.Prob-ably herecombinestheideasofextendanddivertortwist,andthemeaningisthatthepaththatthepoortakeismadelongandtwisted.Thismaycontinuethehuntingmetaphor; thepoor,as thequarryoftherich,mustfollowanextended,evasiveroutetoescape

Amos2:6-7 59


capture.Themetaphorsuggests that the livesof thepoorare filledwithcontinualharassmentanddangerfromtheupperclass.

2:7b-8: Second Strophe. Six lines.This unity of this strophe isthatitprimarilyfocusesuponreligiousoffenses,althoughitsecond-arilycontinuesthethemeoftheoppressionofthepoor.LinesA2b,A2d,andA2feachendwithreferencetoreligiousmatters( [A2b], [A2d],and [A2f].Furthermore,thesub-jectof inA2c(2:8)isnotanundefinedtheybutisthefatherandsonfromlineA2a.Thisfurtherindicatesthattheselinesareasinglestropheandshouldnotbefurtherdivided.


Documents

Amos: a Handbook on the Hebrew Text