An Affluent Society1953-1960

The Golden AgeA Changing Economy

• “Golden Age” of capitalism and “Family values”. Standard of living rose consistently from 1947-1973, and 60% of Americans called themselves” Middle Class”

• Consumerism stronger than ever - begin to define ourselves by what we own. Greater acceptance of big government- even without a crisis, after 20 years it’s an expectation

• Generally an era of conformity (which feels good after so many years of uncertainty) Establishes modern version of “family values”

• The last decade of our industrial age- we begin shift towards a service based economy rather than manufacturing. Number of salaried (rather than hourly) workers rose by 60%- now you have a “career”, rather than a “job”

A Suburban Nation

• By 1960 America has 40% of the world’s wealth- and 6% of the world’s population

• Housing boom- by 1955 60% of Americans own their own home (30% at turn of century) By 1960 25% of all homes in America less than 15 years old. Home ownership becomes strongly tied to “American Dream”

• Levittown: most famous suburban development

10,000 homes on 1,200 acres priced for the

“Average” family

Sunbelt vs Frostbelt

Air-conditioning invented in 1920s, but becomes cost effective and popular in 1950s…. Begins population booms in the SW (CA has largest pop in nation by 1963) Changes demography.

Cold War (Military) spending a big part of this- West builds aircraft, missiles and radar, South has large numbers of military bases and builds ships.Northeast does submarines- but for 1st time they are losing population

The Growth of the West

• Cities that grew in the 50s were different from the eastern centers of gilded age America. Rather than a large downtown- cities like LA, Phoenix, and Houston were “decentralized” – clusters of suburban neighborhoods linked by highways rather than public transportation

• Life centered around the car- people drove to/from work, did shopping at malls/plazas. 1/3 of California was covered with pavement, and grass becomes the most “cultivated” crop in US

Consumer Culture

• “The luxuries of today are the necessities of tomorrow” (Macys) Never before had products been more available, and a booming economy mean more and more people were involved- and freedom became about choices.

• Consumerism replaced economic independence as the goal of Americans. Attitudes towards debt continued to change- credit cards become common

• And it is a weapon in the cold war- an indicator that we are “winning” if our standard of living is higher.

The TV World

• An important agent of conformity

etc… came into homes and showed

an “idealized”,, but seemingly attainable, lifestyle. Squeaky clean, white, and WASPy. (some variations, like I love Lucy, which featured a multi-ethnic family)

• By the end of the 50s, 90% of Americans have a TV and NBC, CBS and ABD (soon to be C) are thriving networks.

• Advertising drives consumerism

A New Ford

• Had become important during the 20s- but really help define the culture of the 50s. By 1960 80% of Americans have a car (but only 14% have more than 1)

• Transforms demographics, where we live, work and shop. Drive ins, and fast food chains born

• Eisenhower’s highways made travel easier- more people travel for vacation (national parks)

Women at Work and Home

• Women had been key part of workforce during war- but there was a backlash of “proper” sphere once again- with “doctors” and “scientists” saying that women could only find true “fulfillment” as homemakers.

• Dr Benjamin Spock wrote the best selling “Book of Baby and Childcare” (1st to be widely read on the subject – the idea that one plans for how to raise a kid is new) emphasized that children cannot be well raised without a mother’s primary influence. Women married younger, (average age 20) Divorced less frequently, and had more children (average 3.2 per family). ANOTHER thing that separates us from communists- where many women work

A Segregated Landscape

• Suburbia has never been as uniform as either it’s champions or critics claim. There are “upper class” suburbs, “working class” suburbs etc- but the lack of racial diversity was real. As late as the 1990s- 90% of suburban whites lived in communities with less than 1% non white population – a legacy of de facto segregation. Discrimination in housing sales is supposed to be illegal – but that is REALLY hard to enforce.

• 800K units of public housing built in 50s- but not in the suburbs (they fought and blocked) so it become associated with “inner city”.

• 7 million white Americans move to the suburbs during the 50s- and 3 million nonwhites move to cities. A new group are 500k Puerto Rican immigrants. (West Side Story)

• Only 12% of Blacks were in “White Collar” jobs – compared to 45% of whites

Religion and Anticommunism

• Communists are generally (officially) atheists- and we want to be the opposite of communists- so there is an upswing in church attendance. Over 50% of Americans belonged to a church or synagogue, the highest % in modern history.

• Added “under God” to pledge, and “In God We Trust” to $$ in 1957

• Combo ideology from Protestants, Catholics, and Jews into one size fits all “Judeo-Christian” heritage (after all, there are a LOT of the same ideas in there). We were now PROUD of our religious pluralism (makes us different from the Nazis) and religious discrimination declines significantly.

Prosperity and Politics

• After years of deprivation and postponement in depression and the war- American consumers had saved $$ and were ready to spend, and demand for consumer products exploded.

• Middle class expanding- by 1953 60% of non farm workers are “middle class” (with incomes between $4000-7500)

• Those benefiting from this new prosperity wanted to maintain their wealth, and became more interested in conservative policy rather than gov’t spending. Republican party shifts focus from party of business to representing interests of the “forgotten man” – hardworking citizens who don’t like high taxes to pay for gov’t agencies

that don’t pay benefits to middle class

New Conservatism

• Libertarians: Want to make government MUCH smaller- b/c they say gov’t automatically limits freedom

• Milton Friedman: an economist who challenged Keynes. He says that virtually all gov’t functions should be privatized so they are more efficient- and that minimum wage restricts the marketplace.

• New Conservatives thought of freedom and morality as intertwined (family values etc) They generally wanted gov’t LESS involved with economy, but MORE involved with regulating behavior, and ensuring morality in a world that made them nervous. (didn’t like New Deal arts and alternative lifestyles etc.)

The Eisenhower Era

• 1952 was 1st “open” (no incumbent) election in quite some time.• Eisenhower had been ”wooed” by both parties, he had never been political, he

had never even voted in an election! But he chose republican and “I like Ike” was an incredibly successful slogan.

• In both 52 and 56 Democrats ran Adlai Stephenson (gov of IL, an intellectual) made military focus of campaign issues- eliminate the draft, and ban nuclear testing in the atmosphere (we end up doing both) But Ike is popular, and wins by a landslide 2x

• Ike is fairly moderate as a politician, VP Richard Nixon is known for strong anti-communism, and faintly shady campaigning (Checkers speech).

Election of 1952

Presidential Rankings: C-Span Survey, 2009

1. Abraham Lincoln2. Franklin Roosevelt3. George Washington4. Theodore Roosevelt5. Harry Truman6. John Kennedy7. Thomas Jefferson8. Dwight Eisenhower9. Woodrow Wilson10. Ronald Reagan11. Lyndon Johnson12. James Polk13. Andrew Jackson14. James Monroe

15. Bill Clinton16. William McKinley17. John Adams18. George H.W. Bush19. John Quincy Adams20. James Madison21. Grover Cleveland22. Gerald Ford23. Ulysses Grant24. William Taft25. Jimmy Carter26. Calvin Coolidge27. Richard Nixon28. James Garfield

29. Zachary Taylor

30. Benjamin Harrison

31. Martin Van Buren

32. Chester Arthur

33. Rutherford Hayes

34. Herbert Hoover

35. John Tyler

36. George W. Bush

37. Millard Fillmore

38. Warren Harding

39. William Harrison

40. Franklin Pierce

41. Andrew Johnson

42. James Buchanan

Modern Republicanism

• Eisenhower described his policy as “conservative when it comes to $$ and liberal when it comes to people”. Wanted to balance the budget- or at least get it closer…. (hadn’t been done since 20s) Sometimes called Dynamic conservatism – he called it Modern Republicanism. Wanted to sever the party from mistakes of 20s.

• Cut budgets, but kept many New Deal programs (social security, farm subsidies) Raised federal minimum wage, built more low income housing.

• Most important long term contribution federal funding for an interstate highway system- begun in 1946, would eventually complete 42,500 miles of roads

The Social Contract

• New Deal had strengthened unions, but while Republicans held congress in 1946 they passed the Taft- Hartley Act to curb the power of unions. Truman vetoed- overridden

• AFL and CIO merged in 1955 into an organization representing 35% of workers. Signed long term agreements that left many decisions to management, and to prevent “wildcat” strikes. In return, corporations stopped trying to eliminate unions, and made pensions, health insurance, and automatic pay adjustments common.

• Union workers shared in prosperity of 50s – though some businesses moved south where unions were weaker

Massive Retaliation and Brinksmanship

• Ike is our 1st president since Grant to have legit military experience- and he was hesitant to send troops overseas. (actually reduced size of army by ½) Sec of State, however, is John Foster Dulles- who took policy of containment to the next level. Promised that any Soviet attack would be met with “Massive Retaliation” – and that the US needs to maintain a military capable of total devastation. But Ike likes a more balanced budget- so Dulles says we can let allies handle the troops- and we should focus on missiles, we go from 1,000 warheads in 1953 to 18,000 in 1960.

• The trick is, we aren’t the only ones who can deliver destruction- and any issue could be the one that “ends it all”. Both would go to the edge (Brinksmanship) it’s chicken on a global scale

World Affairs During the Eisenhower Administration

• Stalin died in 1953- New leader Nikita Krushchev seemed more moderate (Secret speech) but you never know…. And things tended to swing back and forth between looking better and looking worse with relations between US and USSR

• Tensions heightened when Soviets launched Sputnik in 1957- moving the nuclear threat beyond airplane to a Space Race (1st time Russians have EVER had a technology 1st, and BOY are they excited!) Scared gov’t – they started putting big $$ into STEM education, and Research and Development of new technology

• As Decolonialization proceeded in “3rd World” there is competition to “align” new nations- who often aren’t sure they want to choose sides.

Hungarian Uprising

• 1956. Hungarian nationalists staged huge demonstrations calling for democracy and independence- hoping the US would step in and help.

• Soviet tanks and soldiers moved in to CRUSH- and US never showed up

(IKE didn’t want a world war over Hungary)• Though it heightened tensions temporarily, actually

calmed Soviet fears, showed IKE was more moderate than they might have thought.

Conflict in the Middle East

• US/USSR were more than willing to “jump in” if we felt our interests were threatened- but if a country is clever, it could try to play both ends for their own gain.

• 1956 Egypt is independent, but Britain still controls Suez canal. Pres. Nasser asks for permission (and $$) to Dam the Nile for hydro power and flood control. We agree- but around same time, Nasser recognizes Communist China (which we have told people NOT to do)

• So we cut off the $$... And Nasser “nationalized” the Suez Canal- and takes his case to the UN, which supports.

• Eisenhower Doctrine: Dulles says we will give $$ to any middle eastern country fighting communism or Arab nationalism(biggest chunk goes to Lebanon)

Iran

• Nationalist leader Mohammed Mossadegh overthrown in a coup d’etat engineered by CIA in 1953. He had been elected democratically (and legally) but we worried about his “communist tendencies” after he nationalized the oil industry and said he would give share of profit to all citizens

• Installed Shah as leader- and he’s not a super friendly dude when it comes to his citizens- but he promises us to keep the oil flowing and cheap. This whole thing will bit us in the Backside later on….

Summit Diplomacy

• Despite Brinksmanship of Dulles, Ike wanted to make sure we had support for our actions- and created the ideas of having period meeting of world leaders – allies and adversaries, to talk about policy etc…

• 1st held in 1954: attended by US, Britain, France, Canada, Australia and South Africa. Created International Atomic Energy Agency (peaceful uses)

• 1955 Ike invited Khrushchev to meet in Geneva Switzerland to talk about international conflict

• Important b/c we are setting precedent for talking before we fight- going back to Congress of Vienna style

U2 Incident

• A big setback….• May 1960 a US spy plane was shot down

deep in soviet territory. The pilot, Gary Powers, was captured.

• Eisenhower forced to admit he had ordered missions- Khrushchev demanded a public apology at Paris Summit of 1960- Ike refuses, summit cancelled

Origins of Vietnam

• The French were trying to hold on to “Indochina” (which included Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia) and the Vietnamese were fighting for freedom under a nationalist leader named Ho Chi Minh….

• French are low on resources –so we start sending in $$, by 1954 we are paying 4/5 cost of war, but Ike refuses to send troops, when the French ask for them after defeat at Dien Bien Phu – but before the French leave they install a new gov’t under a dictator- Ngo Dinh Diem

• Peace Conference divided the country North (Ho) and South (Ngo) and said have elections to determine eventual leader. But communists would win that election….

• US starts pouring $$ into South Vietnam to prop up dictator (again) – b/c at least he’s not a communist…

Critics of Mass Society

• Conformity and consensus were the hallmarks of the 50s at home- but there were occasional dissenting voices to be heard. Some wondered if the celebration of affluence and strength obscured the ways in which the US was still falling short of the ideals of freedom (esp in Civil rights, we will come right back to that)

• Organization man: Represents the shift in norms. Business is bigger, and while more people are middle class- they are cogs in a different kind of machine than the industrial workers of the past.

• “Tyranny of the Majority”/ The Lonely Crowd. people are “hostages to prevailing opinion”. People evaluate their lives not by how they feel about themselves, but by how others perceive them. Criticizes American thinking as based on conformity and mass media rather than making our own choices

Rebels without a Cause• Thanks to the baby boom- by the end of the 50s, a

significant % of society is entering their teen years- and while the clean cut stereotype of poodle skirts and sock hops represented the majority of teens- there was dissent in youth as well (which would explode in the 60s)

• JD Salinger ‘s Catcher in the Rye (1951) and Films like Rebel without a Cause (1955) highlighted the alienation some teens felt from expectations of society- and spurred a panic about “Juvenile Delinquency”

• And then there is Rock and Roll being born…. (though it is still pretty darn clean in the 50s- Elvis was as “racy” as things got)

The Beat Generation

• Not everyone was willing to fall into the crowd. A precursor to the rebellion of the 60s was already underground- a groups of artists and intellectuals centered in NYC

• Took name from “Beatitude” a state of Zen, but more commonly called “Beatniks” as a derogatory term, describing their “alternative“ lifestyles (associated with rise of rock etc…)

• Nonconformists- disliked the pressures of middle class stereotypes and expectations

• Alan Ginsberg (Howl), Jack Kerouac (on the road)

The Freedom Movement

A Segregated Landscape

• 1950s America was a segregated, unequal society. ½ of Black families lived in poverty. European ethnic groups mixed in the suburbs- but minorities did not. 90%of all suburbs had less than 1% non-white population. While discrimination in home sales was illegal….it happened….a lot. (Raisin in the Sun)

• In the south- evidence of inequality was everywhere- in the entrances, train cars, drinking fountains etc.

• Even Black “celebrities” had to use separate facitilites – Sammy Davis Jr was famous in Las Vegas, but couldn’t stay at any hotel in town.

Civil Rights Movement

• 14th Amendment had guaranteed African Americans civil rights- but Plessy v Ferguson had interpreted it very narrowly (sep but equal) and kept the focus on “Separate”, example: schools. 40% of American students studied in legally segregated schools in 17 states, and many others allowed it to be a local decision.

• NAACP spent 30s chipping away at discrimination through court cases- began to have success- Sweatt v Painter (1950) ruled that University of Texas was discriminatory b/c black law students weren’t allowed to attend classes in the same building with white students

• 1953 Ike appointed Earl Warren chief Justice of Supreme Court- and he would play a key role in Civil Rights

Brown vs. Board of Ed 1954

• Schools in Topeka KA were segregated. Linda Brown (age 8) prevented from enrolling in her neighborhood school- saying that she was required to attend the “black school” on the other side of town.

• NAACP (through Browns and 5 other families in 4 states) sued with the argument (By Thurgood Marshall- who will eventually be a justice as well) that separate was by its nature NOT equal, it instills a sense of inferiority, and court agreed, and said segregation was unconstitutional

• Class action suit- so verdict applies not only in Topeka, but in other states as well, and signals a seminal shift in gov’t policy

The Montgomery Bus BoycottThe Daybreak of Freedom

• A decision like Brown sets Precedent. If it is illegal

to segregate schools, what about other public

facilities? Parks, theaters, libraries etc…?• 1955 Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat on a

segregated bus - and a movement is born. Hundreds of blacks refused to ride until given equal treatment. For 381 days they walked.And they won- November 1956 Court ruled segregation on public transportation illegal

• Turning point – showed effedtiveness of non violent non cooperation, which helped them gain support. And led to the emergence of Martin Luther King

The Leadership of King

• A minister in Montgomery AL, inspired by Thoreau and Gandhi, advocated Civil Disobedience. King invited others (specifically ministers) work with him in the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and CORE. A truly great speaker- he called for justice and forgiveness towards those who tried to “deny us our freedom”.

• Death threats followed “If I die tomorrow I would die happy because I’ve been to the mountain top and I’ve seen the promised land, and it is going to be here in Montgomery.” Used language of Freedom to argue for black rights –stressing their devotion to the nation and desire to be a part of it.

Eisenhower and Civil Rights

• Eisenhower did not oppose white southern groups

upset by Brown decision. They formed citizen groups

to use econ coercion rather than physical violence

Southern Manifesto: 101 southern congressmen

signed a protest of Brown decision as “an abuse of

Judicial Power” and states refused to comply, not

1 southern state integrated in 1956• Eisenhower might not have felt strongly about Civil Rights, but he did feel

strongly about the law…. And the 14th /15th Amendment was law. Created a Commission to investigate discrimination and why Blacks didn’t vote. Lacked Teeth, but a step towards later legislation

Crisis in Little Rock Arkansas

• Federal Court ordered the integration of the Central HS in Little Rock Arkansas (9 black students were to be allowed to attend) Gov Fabus called up National Guard (who actually serve at the discretion of the Governor of any state) to PREVENT integration.

• Eisenhower VERY offended that Gov was circumventing a federal court, sent in 1000 troops, and nationalized the Guard to take them from the governor. Gov Fabus himself went to the school to block the entrance with state troopers, but was forced to back down

• Sends a clear message- president will back the law. Gov Fabus closes schools for months rather than allow integration, but eventually it happens, and other states begin to follow suit

The Election of 1960• One of the tightest races in American History. VP Richard

Nixon vs a relatively unknown senator from Massachusetts, who was a Catholic (gasp) with a rich and controversial father.

• Televised Debates key in the election. Interesting, those who heard on radio gave edge to Nixon- but on TV he looked nervous and sweaty.

• Both Kennedy and Nixon were ardent cold warriors- pointing out Sputnik and Soviet development of ICBMs as proof we needed to ramp up efforts rather than calm down. ….

End of the 1950s

• As Ike left office, he gave a farewell address that harkened back to George Washington’s – warning us that the “military industrial complex” could lead the US where we didn’t necessarily want to go.

• By the end of the 50s, problems that had always been under the surface of conformity were starting to break through– Environmental issues: Leaded gas, Chlorofluorocarbons, pesticides etc (most

of that will hit in 70s)– Civil Rights is getting more vocal, and militant– Women’s rights– Protests from those unhappy with mass society

• We were heading into our most turbulent decade- the 1960s.