An Age of EmpiresAn Age of EmpiresRome and Han China Rome and Han China

753B.C.E.- 600C.E.753B.C.E.- 600C.E.

Rome’s Mediterranean Empire Rome’s Mediterranean Empire A Republic of FarmersA Republic of Farmers

Rome was inhabited at least as early Rome was inhabited at least as early as 1000 b.c.e. as 1000 b.c.e. According to legend it was ruled by According to legend it was ruled by

seven kings between 753 b.c.e. and 507 seven kings between 753 b.c.e. and 507 b.c.e. b.c.e.

Kingship was eliminated in 507 b.c.e. Kingship was eliminated in 507 b.c.e. when representatives of the senatorial when representatives of the senatorial class of large landholders overthrew the class of large landholders overthrew the last king and established a republic.last king and established a republic.

The centers of political power were The centers of political power were the two consuls and the Senate. the two consuls and the Senate. In practice, the Senate made laws and In practice, the Senate made laws and

governed. governed. The Roman family consisted of The Roman family consisted of

several generations living under the several generations living under the absolute authority of the oldest living absolute authority of the oldest living male, the male, the paterfamiliaspaterfamilias..

Roman women Roman women

Had relatively more freedom than Had relatively more freedom than Greek women Greek women But their legal status was still that of a But their legal status was still that of a

child child

Subordinate to the Subordinate to the paterfamiliaspaterfamilias of of her own or her husband’s family. her own or her husband’s family. Eventually procedures evolved which Eventually procedures evolved which

made it possible for some women to made it possible for some women to become independent after the death of become independent after the death of their fathers. their fathers.

Three female Roman athletes. These Three female Roman athletes. These women athletes are lifting weights, women athletes are lifting weights, throwing the discus, and running.throwing the discus, and running.

ReligionReligion

Romans worshiped a large number of Romans worshiped a large number of supernatural spirits as well as major supernatural spirits as well as major gods such as Jupiter and Mars. gods such as Jupiter and Mars.

Proper performance of ritual ensured Proper performance of ritual ensured that the gods continued to favor the that the gods continued to favor the Roman state.Roman state.

A she-wolf A she-wolf nursing Rome's nursing Rome's founders, founders, Romulus and Romulus and Remus. In the Remus. In the Roman myth, Roman myth, the god Mars the god Mars fathered the fathered the twins Romulus twins Romulus and Remus and and Remus and left them to left them to die. They were die. They were rescued and rescued and raised by a she-raised by a she-wolf, and they wolf, and they went on to went on to found the city found the city of Rome on of Rome on Palatine Hill. Palatine Hill. The original The original figures of the figures of the twins in this twins in this Etruscan Etruscan bronze were bronze were destroyed in 65 destroyed in 65 B.C.; new ones B.C.; new ones were added were added during the during the Renaissance.Renaissance.

A 2nd-century A 2nd-century A.D. marble A.D. marble statue of statue of Mercury. The Mercury. The Roman god Roman god Mercury (known Mercury (known to the Greeks as to the Greeks as Hermes) was the Hermes) was the messenger of the messenger of the gods, the leader gods, the leader of souls to the of souls to the underworld, and underworld, and the inventor of the inventor of the lyre and the the lyre and the alphabet. He alphabet. He personified personified cunning and was cunning and was a patron of roads, a patron of roads, commerce, and commerce, and invention, as well invention, as well as a protector of as a protector of travelers, thieves travelers, thieves and athletes. and athletes. Here, Mercury Here, Mercury carries a purse carries a purse indicating his indicating his role as protector role as protector of merchants and of merchants and is standing is standing beside a milepost beside a milepost called a "herm," called a "herm," similar to those similar to those used along used along Roman roads.Roman roads.

A bronze statue of Jupiter with a club, 4th-3rd century B.C. Jupiter A bronze statue of Jupiter with a club, 4th-3rd century B.C. Jupiter (known to the Greeks as Zeus) was the supreme deity in the (known to the Greeks as Zeus) was the supreme deity in the classical Greco-Roman pantheon. He was the god of weather and classical Greco-Roman pantheon. He was the god of weather and the protector of the family and the household. Jupiter continued to the protector of the family and the household. Jupiter continued to be worshipped during the Imperial period, and several Roman be worshipped during the Imperial period, and several Roman emperors identified themselves with him.emperors identified themselves with him.

Expansion in Italy and the Expansion in Italy and the MediterraneanMediterranean

Rome began to expand, at first slowly and Rome began to expand, at first slowly and then very rapidly in the third and second then very rapidly in the third and second centuries b.c.e. until it became a huge centuries b.c.e. until it became a huge Mediterranean empire Mediterranean empire

Possible explanations for this expansion Possible explanations for this expansion include: include:

Greed Greed AggressivenessAggressivenessThe need for consuls to prove themselves as military The need for consuls to prove themselves as military

commanders during their single year in officecommanders during their single year in officeA constant fear of being attacked.A constant fear of being attacked.

During the first stage of expansion, During the first stage of expansion, Rome conquered the rest of Italy (by Rome conquered the rest of Italy (by 290 b.c.e.). 290 b.c.e.). Rome won the support of the people of Rome won the support of the people of

Italy by granting them Roman Italy by granting them Roman citizenship citizenship

As citizens, these people then had to As citizens, these people then had to provide soldiers for the military.provide soldiers for the military.

A map of the expansion of the Roman Empire from Augustus A map of the expansion of the Roman Empire from Augustus to Hadrian, 31 B.C. to 138 A.D. Between 268 and 31 B.C., all of to Hadrian, 31 B.C. to 138 A.D. Between 268 and 31 B.C., all of the land that bordered the Mediterranean had come under the land that bordered the Mediterranean had come under Roman control. During the first hundred years of the empire, Roman control. During the first hundred years of the empire, most of Rome?s expansion was to the north and east, with most of Rome?s expansion was to the north and east, with very little territory added after that time very little territory added after that time

In the next stages of expansion, Rome first In the next stages of expansion, Rome first defeated Carthage to gain control over the defeated Carthage to gain control over the western Mediterranean and Sicily, Sardinia, western Mediterranean and Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain (264–202 b.c.e.). and Spain (264–202 b.c.e.).

Next, between 200 and 30 b.c.e., Rome Next, between 200 and 30 b.c.e., Rome defeated the Hellenistic kingdoms to take defeated the Hellenistic kingdoms to take over the lands of the Eastern over the lands of the Eastern Mediterranean. Mediterranean. Between 59 and 51 b.c.e. Between 59 and 51 b.c.e.

Gaius Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar conquered the Celts conquered the Celts of Gaul.of Gaul.

The Romans used The Romans used local elite groups to local elite groups to administer and tax administer and tax the various provinces the various provinces of their rapidly of their rapidly expanding and far-expanding and far-flung empire flung empire

The Failure of the Republic The Failure of the Republic

As Rome expanded, the social and As Rome expanded, the social and economic bases of the Roman republic in economic bases of the Roman republic in Italy were undermined Italy were undermined

While men from independent farming While men from independent farming families were forced to devote their time families were forced to devote their time to military service, large landowners to military service, large landowners bought up their land to create great bought up their land to create great estates called estates called latifundialatifundia. .

This meant both a decline in Rome’s source of This meant both a decline in Rome’s source of soldiers and a decline in food production soldiers and a decline in food production

latifundialatifundia owners preferred to grow cash crops owners preferred to grow cash crops like grapes rather than staple crops such as like grapes rather than staple crops such as wheat. wheat.

Since slave labor was cheap in an Since slave labor was cheap in an expanding empire, Italian peasants, expanding empire, Italian peasants, driven off the land and not employed driven off the land and not employed by the by the latifundialatifundia They drifted into the cities where they They drifted into the cities where they

formed a fractious unemployed formed a fractious unemployed underclass.underclass.

As independent farming family that had As independent farming family that had been the traditional source of soldiers been the traditional source of soldiers disappeared disappeared

Roman commanders would have to build Roman commanders would have to build their armies from men from the underclass their armies from men from the underclass who tended to give their loyalty, not to the who tended to give their loyalty, not to the Roman state, but to their commanderRoman state, but to their commander

This led to generals taking control of This led to generals taking control of politics, to civil wars, and finally to the end politics, to civil wars, and finally to the end of the republican system of government.of the republican system of government.

Rule of EmperorsRule of Emperors Julius Caesar’s Julius Caesar’s grandnephew grandnephew Octavian (also known Octavian (also known as Augustus) took as Augustus) took power in 31 b.c.e., power in 31 b.c.e., reorganized the reorganized the Roman government, Roman government, and ruled as a and ruled as a military dictator military dictator

After Augustus died, After Augustus died, several members of several members of his family succeeded his family succeeded him. him.

However, the position However, the position of emperor was not of emperor was not necessarily necessarily hereditary; in the hereditary; in the end, armies chose end, armies chose emperors emperors

An Urban Empire An Urban Empire

About 80 percent of the 50 to 60 About 80 percent of the 50 to 60 million people of the Roman Empire million people of the Roman Empire were rural farmers, but the empire were rural farmers, but the empire was administered through and for a was administered through and for a network of cities and towns network of cities and towns

In this sense, it was an urban empire In this sense, it was an urban empire

Living Quarters in RomeLiving Quarters in Rome

In Rome, the upper classes lived in In Rome, the upper classes lived in elegant, well-built, well-appointed elegant, well-built, well-appointed houses; many aristocrats also owned houses; many aristocrats also owned country villas country villas

The poor lived in dark, dank, fire-The poor lived in dark, dank, fire-prone wooden tenements in squalid prone wooden tenements in squalid slums built in the low-lying parts of slums built in the low-lying parts of the city the city

Ruins of the north end of the 2nd century A.D. Roman bath house at Ruins of the north end of the 2nd century A.D. Roman bath house at Chesters, England. In every part of the Empire, the Romans created Chesters, England. In every part of the Empire, the Romans created frontier fortifications as comfortable as possible for the legions. This frontier fortifications as comfortable as possible for the legions. This bath house had all the amenities that the Romans had come to bath house had all the amenities that the Romans had come to expect, even in an area so far away from home and facing hostile expect, even in an area so far away from home and facing hostile tribes. This building included a changing room, cold and steam tribes. This building included a changing room, cold and steam rooms, and hot and cold pools. The arched opening at lower right is rooms, and hot and cold pools. The arched opening at lower right is the "stoke hole" for the furnace to heat the hot dry room above.the "stoke hole" for the furnace to heat the hot dry room above.

Other TownsOther Towns

Provincial towns imitated Rome both in Provincial towns imitated Rome both in urban planning and in urban administration urban planning and in urban administration

The local elite, who served the interests of The local elite, who served the interests of Rome, dominated town councils Rome, dominated town councils

The local elite also served their communities The local elite also served their communities by using their wealth to construct amenities by using their wealth to construct amenities such as aqueducts, baths, theatres, gardens, such as aqueducts, baths, theatres, gardens, temples, and other public works and temples, and other public works and entertainment projects.entertainment projects.

Rural life in the Roman Empire Rural life in the Roman Empire involved lots of hard work and very involved lots of hard work and very little entertainment little entertainment

Rural people had little contact with Rural people had little contact with representatives of the government representatives of the government

Manufacture and trade flourished Manufacture and trade flourished under the “pax romana.” under the “pax romana.”

Early Roman AmphitheatreEarly Roman Amphitheatre

Roman TheatreRoman Theatre

Roman BathRoman Bath

AqueductsAqueducts

Grain had to be imported to feed the Grain had to be imported to feed the huge city of Rome. huge city of Rome.

Rome and the Italian towns (and Rome and the Italian towns (and later, provincial centers) exported later, provincial centers) exported glass, metalwork, pottery, and other glass, metalwork, pottery, and other manufactures to the provinces manufactures to the provinces

Romans also imported Chinese silk Romans also imported Chinese silk and Indian and Arabian spices.and Indian and Arabian spices.

The Rise of Christianity The Rise of Christianity

Jesus lived in a society marked by Jesus lived in a society marked by resentment against Roman rule, which resentment against Roman rule, which had inspired the belief that a Messiah had inspired the belief that a Messiah would arise to liberate the Jews would arise to liberate the Jews

When Jesus sought to reform Jewish When Jesus sought to reform Jewish religious practices, the Jewish religious practices, the Jewish authorities in Jerusalem turned him authorities in Jerusalem turned him over to the Roman governor for over to the Roman governor for execution.execution.

After the execution, After the execution, Jesus’ disciples Jesus’ disciples continued to spread continued to spread his teachings; they his teachings; they also spread their also spread their belief that Jesus belief that Jesus had been had been resurrected resurrected

At this point, the At this point, the target of their target of their proselytizing was proselytizing was their fellow Jews.their fellow Jews.

Christianity grew slowly for two Christianity grew slowly for two centuries, developing a hierarchy of centuries, developing a hierarchy of priests and bishops, hammering out priests and bishops, hammering out a commonly accepted theological a commonly accepted theological doctrine, and resisting the doctrine, and resisting the persecution of Roman officials persecution of Roman officials

By the late third century, Christians By the late third century, Christians were a sizeable minority in the were a sizeable minority in the Roman Empire.Roman Empire.

The expansion of Christianity in the The expansion of Christianity in the Roman Empire came at a time when Roman Empire came at a time when Romans were increasingly Romans were increasingly dissatisfied with their traditional dissatisfied with their traditional religion religion

Technology and Technology and Transformation Transformation

The Romans were expert military and The Romans were expert military and civil engineers civil engineers

Among their accomplishments were: Among their accomplishments were: bridge-building, ballistic weapons, bridge-building, ballistic weapons, elevated and underground elevated and underground aqueducts, the use of arches and aqueducts, the use of arches and domes, and the invention of domes, and the invention of concrete.concrete.

The Origins of Imperial China, The Origins of Imperial China, 221 b.c.e.–220 c.e. 221 b.c.e.–220 c.e.

China is a large region marked by China is a large region marked by significant ecological, topographical, significant ecological, topographical, biological, and climatic diversity. biological, and climatic diversity.

The two most important resources The two most important resources that supported the imperial Chinese that supported the imperial Chinese state were agricultural production state were agricultural production and labor and labor

Agricultural production in China was Agricultural production in China was intensive and was taxed by the intensive and was taxed by the government. government.

Qin and the Han governments Qin and the Han governments exploited the labor power of rural exploited the labor power of rural China by demanding that peasant China by demanding that peasant families supply men for labor and for families supply men for labor and for service in the military service in the military

A periodic census and regularly A periodic census and regularly updated records of land and updated records of land and households enabled officials to households enabled officials to collect the proper amount of taxes, collect the proper amount of taxes, labor service, and military service.labor service, and military service.

Chinese FamilyChinese Family

The family was the basic unity of society The family was the basic unity of society The family was conceived of as an The family was conceived of as an

unbroken chain of generations including unbroken chain of generations including the ancestors as well as the current the ancestors as well as the current generations generations

Ancestors were thought to take an active Ancestors were thought to take an active interest in the affairs of the current interest in the affairs of the current generation, and they were routinely generation, and they were routinely consulted, appeased, and venerated.consulted, appeased, and venerated.

Confucian BeliefsConfucian Beliefs

The teachings of Confucius were a The teachings of Confucius were a fundamental source of values for fundamental source of values for family, social, and political family, social, and political organization organization

Confucius regarded hierarchy as Confucius regarded hierarchy as natural and placed absolute authority natural and placed absolute authority in the hands of the father in the hands of the father

Family members were thought of as Family members were thought of as part of the group, not as individuals part of the group, not as individuals

Confucius also Confucius also believed that believed that people would people would properly fulfill their properly fulfill their roles if they were roles if they were correctly instructed correctly instructed and imitated good and imitated good role models role models

WomenWomen

According to the ideals of the upper According to the ideals of the upper classes, women were to cook, take care classes, women were to cook, take care of household chores, respect their of household chores, respect their parents-in-law, and obey their husbands parents-in-law, and obey their husbands

Lower-class women may have been less Lower-class women may have been less constrained. Marriages were arranged, constrained. Marriages were arranged, and a new wife had to prove herself to and a new wife had to prove herself to her husband and to her mother-in-law her husband and to her mother-in-law through hard work, obedience, through hard work, obedience, devotion, and by bearing sons.devotion, and by bearing sons.

The First Chinese Empire, 221 – The First Chinese Empire, 221 – 201 b.c.e. 201 b.c.e.

After the Warring States Period (480–221 After the Warring States Period (480–221 b.c.e.), the state of Qin united China. b.c.e.), the state of Qin united China.

Factors that enabled Qin to accomplish Factors that enabled Qin to accomplish reunification may include: reunification may include:

The ability and ruthlessness of the Qin ruler, The ability and ruthlessness of the Qin ruler, Shi Huangdi and his prime minister, Li Si Shi Huangdi and his prime minister, Li Si

Qin’s location in the Wei valley with its Qin’s location in the Wei valley with its predominantly rural population of predominantly rural population of independent farming households independent farming households

Qin’s experience in mobilizing manpower Qin’s experience in mobilizing manpower for irrigation and flood-control projects, for irrigation and flood-control projects, which had strengthened the central which had strengthened the central government government

Upon uniting Upon uniting China, the Qin China, the Qin established a established a strong centralized strong centralized state on the state on the Legalist model Legalist model

Shi Huangdi and Li Si Shi Huangdi and Li Si

Suppressed ConfucianismSuppressed ConfucianismEliminated rival centers of authorityEliminated rival centers of authority Abolished primogeniture and slaveryAbolished primogeniture and slaveryConstructed a rural economy of free Constructed a rural economy of free

land-owning/tax-paying farmersland-owning/tax-paying farmers They standardized weights and They standardized weights and

measures measures Knit the empire together with roadsKnit the empire together with roads Defended it with a long wall Defended it with a long wall

The oppressive nature of the Qin The oppressive nature of the Qin regime and its exorbitant demands regime and its exorbitant demands for taxes and labor led to a number for taxes and labor led to a number of popular rebellions that overthrew of popular rebellions that overthrew the dynasty after the death of Shi the dynasty after the death of Shi Huangdi in 210 b.c.e.Huangdi in 210 b.c.e.

The Long Reign of the Han (206 The Long Reign of the Han (206 b.c.e.–220 c.e.) b.c.e.–220 c.e.)

Liu Bang, a peasant Liu Bang, a peasant who defeated all who defeated all other contestants other contestants for control of China, for control of China, established the established the Han dynasty Han dynasty

The Han The Han established a established a political system political system that drew on both that drew on both Confucian Confucian philosophy and philosophy and Legalist techniques Legalist techniques

Han Territorial ExpansionHan Territorial Expansion

After a period of consolidation, the After a period of consolidation, the Han went through a period of Han went through a period of territorial expansion under Emperor territorial expansion under Emperor Wu (r. 140–87 b.c.e.) Wu (r. 140–87 b.c.e.)

During the Western Han period (202 During the Western Han period (202 b.c.e.–8 c.e.) the capital was at b.c.e.–8 c.e.) the capital was at Chang’an. Chang’an.

During the Eastern Han (23–22 c.e.) During the Eastern Han (23–22 c.e.) the capital was at Luoyang.the capital was at Luoyang.

Chang’an was an easily defended walled city with easy access to good arable land. The population in 2 c.e. was 246,000. Other cities and towns imitated the urban planning of Chang’an

Living in Chang’ anLiving in Chang’ an

The elite of Chang’an lived in elegant multistoried houses arranged on broad, well-planned boulevards

They dressed in fine silks, were connoisseurs of art and literature, and indulged in numerous entertainments

The common people lived in closely packed houses in largely unplanned, winding alleys

The Emperor in Chang’anThe Emperor in Chang’an

The emperor was supreme in the state and in society

He was regarded as the Son of Heaven, the link between heaven and the human world

Emperors were the source of law. But anything that went seriously wrong

could be interpreted to mean that the emperor was guilty of misrule and that he was losing the Mandate of Heaven

Emperors lived in seclusion, Emperors lived in seclusion, surrounded by a royal retinue surrounded by a royal retinue that included wives, family, that included wives, family, servants, courtiers, and officialsservants, courtiers, and officials

Central GovernmentCentral Government

The central government was run The central government was run by two chief officials and by two chief officials and included a number of included a number of functionally specialized ministersfunctionally specialized ministers

Local officials collected taxes, Local officials collected taxes, drafted men for corvée labor and drafted men for corvée labor and military service, and settled local military service, and settled local disputesdisputes

Most people had no contact with the Most people had no contact with the central government.central government.

Local officials were supplied by a Local officials were supplied by a class of moderately wealthy, class of moderately wealthy, educated local landowners whom educated local landowners whom historians refer to as the “gentry.” historians refer to as the “gentry.”

The gentry adopted Confucianism as The gentry adopted Confucianism as their ideology and pursued careers in their ideology and pursued careers in the civil servicethe civil service