AN EVALUATION OF MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AND … Evaluation of management practices... · An evaluation of management practices and environmental . impact of Jong . ... reproduksi dan

AN EVALUATION OF MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF JONG CROCODILE FARM

SARAWAK

CORINA YONG SlAW PING

SF 5155 C75 Kota Samarahan Y55 2001 2011

Pu t Khidm Mik Akademj UNVERSnMALAY IA SARAWAf

An evaluation of management practices and environmental impact of Jong Crocodile Farm Sarawak

PiliiiiuDiiU1000235098

By

Corina Yong Siaw Ping

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master ofScience

Faculty ofResource and Science Technology UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARA W AK

August 2001

I

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgments Table ofcontents List ofTables List of maps List of Figure List of Plates Abstnlct Abslrak

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 11 Importance ofcrocodiles 12 Background information on Jong Crocodile Farm 13 Problem statement 14 The objectives

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2 I Crocodile biology 211 Distribution 212 Habitat 213 Diet and nutrition 214 Reproduction

Nest Eggs Hatchlings

215 Growth

22 Utilisation ofcrocodiles

23 Crocodile Conservation Strategies 231 Legal framework 232 Fanning of crocodiles 233 Protected areas 234 Reintroduction of captive animals

24 Management Practices 241 Incubation 242 Care of hatchlings and juveniles

25 Health and diseases

26 Warer quality

27 Problems associated with the industry 271 Type offanning system 272 Attitudes 273 Skin market

CHAPTER THREE METHOOOLOGY 31 Study area

32 Field data collection and sampling methodology

ttl

33 D

ii 34 U III

CHAP vii VI

41 Po viii

42 Mshyix 421x

XI

422 FI 1 2 2 3

423 R4 4 5 7

424 H8 9

43 Waf9 431 hi9

9 0

0

12 12 14 15

432 La16

16 17 17

18

19

19 19 20 20

21 21

21

33 Data analysis 22

34 Laboratory analytical methods 22

CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 26 41 Population data of Jong Crooodile Farm 26

42 Management practices in Jong Crocodile Farm 28 421 General 28

Fencing and security 28 Public education 28

422 Reproduction 28 Male and Female ratio 28 Egg collection 29 Monitoring embryonic development 29 locubation 30 Ha~rung 31

423 Rearing 31 Stocking density 31 Diet 32 Eliminating stress 34

424 Health and Disease 35

43 Wata quality 36 431 In situ measurements 37

Temperature 38 Conductivity 38 Total dissolved solid 38 Salinity 38 Dissolved Oxygen (00) 38 ~ ~ Turbidity 39 Ammonia 39 Nitrate and Nitrite 39

43 2 Laboratory analysis 40 Biochemical Oxygen Demand and Chemical Oxygen Demand 40 Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 40 Phosphorus 41

433 Bacteriological analysis 41 17

44 Conclusion 43 18

CHAPTER FIVE RECOMMENDAnONS 44 19 51 Management practices 44

511 Record Keeping 44 19 Stress-relatcd problems 44 19 Nwnber ofcrocodile eggs laid and hatched 44 20 512 Incubation 44 20 513 Feeding regimes 45

514 Ponds design 45 21 515 Fence maintenance 45 21 516 Public education 45

21

IV

J

52 Water Quality 45 521 Management techniques 46

BIBLIOGRAPHY 47

APPENDICES 50 Appendix A Readings of water quality and the calculation 50

of mean and standard deviation

I

j I

Table

Table 2

Table 2

Table 4

Table 4

Table4

Table

Table

Table 4

Table 4

LIST OF TABLES

Table Descriptive Title Page

Table 21 List of species of crocodilians 4

Table 22 Development ofcrocodile fann since 1945 15

Table 41 Population data of Saltwater Estuarine 26 Crocodile (Cporosus) in Jong crocodile farm From Nov 1980 10 Dec 1999

Table 42 Population data of Freshwater Malayan False 28 Ghariel (Tschlegeii) in Jong crocodile farm From Nov 1980 10 Dec 1999

Table 43 Water sampling points 37

Table 44 In situ water quality measurement 37

Table 45 Result of laboratory water quality analysis 40

Table 46 Bacteriological analysis results 41

Table 47 Proposed Interim National Water Quality Standards 42 for Malaysia

Map

Map 21

Map 22

Map31

Map 32

bull

~

LIST OF MAPS

Descriptive Title

Distribution of Crocodylus porosus in the world

Distribution of Tomisioma schlegelii in the world

Location map of Jong crocodile fann

Location of water sampling points

Page

6

6

24

25

Figu

Figure

Figure

Figurc

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

Figure 21

Figure 22

Figure 23

Descriptive Title Page

Average dry mana food conswnption in gramslcrocodilelday io warm and cool weather

Estimates of world net trade io skins for the maio Four Species ofclassic crocodilians

Growth and food consumption ofAmerican alligators io controlled environment chambers maintained at a constant 28( for most of the growing period

viii

Abstract

Plate

Plate 41

Plate 42

i

LIST OF PLATES

Page

Crocodiles compete with each other for food 34 (Taken during feeding show)

Design of the pond for transfer of water 36 from pond to pond

Descriptive Tide

IX

Trade in toIVampN

trading of jcopardismg increase the their population skins and meat

Abstract

( crocodiles population have declined in many parts of the world and this has been linked to the uncontrolled trade in their skins which took place before the implementation of CITES (Convention on Tradein Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) Since 1975 CITES has stepped in to control trading of crocodile skins with the aim to COlIserve the remaining wild crocodile population without jeopardising their conunercial values Crocodile fanning is recognised as a solution that could help to increase the crocodile population by rearing of them in captivity as a conservation measure to build up their population numbers and for oduction of offspring which arc raised for commercial production of skins and meat or live animal sales

Thc objective of this research is to evaluate the management practices of Jong Crocodile Farm and to determine the quality of the effiuents from the farm It is believed that in order to rear the crocodiles and to increase their population number it is important to have the appropriate management practices

The major problem with the management practices of the farm is the lack of record keeping on many things Record keeping is important becausc even incubation success and hatchling performance can be affected by incubation conditions by maintaining breeding and incubation records it may be possible to evaluate the performance of specific adults and to detennine whether they are above or below average Detailed record keeping and analysis of all infertile eggs are critical to an objective evaluation of reproductive success For example there is no record on number ofcrocodiles in every pond Without such information it is possible that the stock density will be high Crocodiles arc stressed when it is overcrowded and this will affect their reproduction system and immune system When crocodiles are weak they are prone to diseases In addition to that there are plenty of stress-related diseases and all of the factors will resulting in mortality The problem become worse when the water in the farm flows

from one pond to another Not only the disease will be spread to every pond the quality of the water tends to be deteriorated as they reach the last pond However the sedimentation ponds in the farm has successfully lmIted the water and retained most of the nutrients and suspended solids before discharging

the effiuents to the river consequently the impact of the pond effiuents on the Tiver is minimal

x

AhstraJc Chapter

Populasi buaya lelah merosol di banyak lempat dalam dunia ini disebabkan oleh pemiagaan kulil buaya yand lidak lerkawal sehelum perlaksanaan CITES (Convention on Trade in Endangered Species ofWild Fauna and Flora) Sejak labun 1975 CITES lelah mula mengawal pemiagaan kulil buaya dengan hasral untuk memperlihara populasi buaya liar lanpa mengecam nilai-nilai kormersialnya Penternakan buaya liar dengan cara menawannya merupakan satu cara penyelesaian yang dapal membanlu memlihara populasi buaya dan meningkatkan populasi anak-anak buaya untuk kegunaan l111i1 daging alau perjualan secara hidup

Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menilai amalan pergurusan Jong Crocodile Farm dan juga unluk menenlukan kualiti air yang mengalir dipercayai adalah penting untuk menteroak dan meningkalkan populasi buaya

Masalah ulama amalan pergurusan di kolam buaya ini ialah kekurangan penyimpan rekod dalam banyak hal Penyimpanan rekod adalah penting kerana kejayaan mengeram dan menetas akan dipergaruhi oleh keadaan penelasan Rekod-rekod pembiakan dan penelasan mungldn dapal bull digrmakan untuk menilai prestasi seekor buaya dewasa dan menentukan semada ini herada di bawah atau di alas kadar yang memuaskan Penyimpanan rekod secara lerperinci dan analisis lenlang lelur-Ielur yang tidak mudah membiak adalah kritical dalam peniloian kadar kejayaan reproduklif Sebagai conloh tidak terdapal rekod tentang bilangan buaya dalam setiap kolam Tanpa maklumat tersebut bilangan buaya dalam sesuatu kola mungldn menjadi terlalu banyak Buaya-buaya ini akan berasa tertekan apabila bilangannya lerlalu ban yak dan ini akan menjejaskan sislem

reproduksi dan immunisasinya Buaya-buaya akan mudah diserang oleh penyakil apabila mereka menjadi lemah Tambahan pula terdapal hanyakjenis penyaldt yang berkaitan dengan tekanan

Semua [akJor ini akan mempenganihi kadar kematiannya Keadaan ini menjadi lebih teruk apabila air mengalir dan satu dari satu koam masuk ke satu kolam lagi lni bukan sahaja akan I

mengakibalkan penyalot-penyaat tersebut merebak ke setiap kolam malah air kolamnya akan lercemar apabila sampai ke kolam terakhir Nalmm demildan kolam-kolom keladak di Jong Crocodile Farm lelah berjaya menapis bahan-bahan buangan dan kesan-kesan negati[ dari air yang mengalir keluar dari kolam-kolam ini ke sungai lelah diminimumkan

11 In Crocodiles predator of mechanism ecosystems maintaining waterways ( Loss ofany also represel stability anlt

The econom skins are ma commodity Guinea crot intemationaJ

Crocodile j l

several lowla poras~ are rc Some villagel mythical natu

However Crol

sjgnificant am commercial e drastic decline reptile leather America and) (Roth I 997) ~ early I96()s 1Cltl

In the I970s th general decljne difficulties of 0

attitude toward

Previously croc their ecological protection ofen Trade in Endan tile reptile-leath sufficient raw m surveys and capi

rgaan kulil

lrlgered tiagaan A-uil Ia

a wlas

juga unluk JllCmngkaliam

1rJ-I)UQIVO ini

Chapter One Introduction

11 Importance of crocodiles Crocodiles bear several important values to human as well as to our environment As master predator of the low land rivers and swamps crocodiles offer valuable links and feedback mechanisms with their environment Crocodiles play valuable roles in their wetland ecosystems by selectively preying on fish species by increasing nutrient recycling maintaining aquatic refugia for other wetland species during droughts and by keeping waterways open Crocodiles are heavily impacted by habitat loss and by excessive hunting Loss of any species of crocodilian represents more than just the end of these functions it also represents a significant loss of biodiveristy of ecosystem stability and of economic stability and of economic potential (Cox and Gombek 1985)

The economic importance of crocodiles are centered on the leather industry Crocodile skins are manufactured into the finest leather available and hence a very profitable commodity When population are properly managed such as in Australia and Papua New Guinea crocodiles contributed significantly to local industries There is also a growing international trade in by-product such as meat

Crocodile is an important part of our natural heritage and playa role in oral traditions of several lowland tribes in the world In Batang Lupar of Sarawak large adult Crocodyus porosus are respected for the revenge they can inflict if disturbed or killed by humans Some villagers claims that this living legend cannot be captured or killed due to its semishymythical nature (Cox and Gombek 1985)

However crocodiles are threatened by many human activities Foremost and the most significant among these is the destruction or alteration of wild habitat In the past commercial exploitation and indiscriminate hunting have resulted in crocodiles suffering drastic declines in population In 1920s and 1930s there was high demand from European reptile leather industry resulting in intensive hunting of crocodiles in Africa Northern America and Asia During that time crocodile hunting became highly commercialized (Roth 1997) The international trade in crocodile skins reached its peak during 1950s and early 1960s leading to rapid decline of crocodile population

Ln the 1970s the trade in crocodile skins started to decrease This was mainly due to the general decline in the wild crocodile population around the world and the resulting difficulties of obtaining skins But the decrease was also prompted by a positive change of ttitude towards crocodiles

Previously crocodiles were regarded solely as undesirable but from the late 1960s onwards their ecological role and its value started to be appreciated This in turn led to international protection of crocodiles in 1974 under provision of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) At the same time the concern of the reptile-leather industries in Europe the USA and Japan about the future availability of sufficient raw material for reptile-leather production was growing It caused promotion of surveys and capital investments into farming of crocodiles in many countries (Roth 1997)

Farming method such as rearing crocodiles in ponds for commercial purposes was under taken in South East Asia During 1980s in some countries such as in Australia the wild crocodile population had increased again as the result of farming It was concluded that crocodile farming has made a significant contribution to crocodile conservation (Peucker 1998)

12 Background information on Jong Crocodile Farm The Jongs family business started when the grandfather accidentally met an Indonesian with 18 juvenile crocodiles in a coffee shop about 50 years ago Out of sympathy the late Mr Jong decided to purchase all the crocodiles His sons Melvin and Johnson were interested in setting up the first crocodile farm in Kuching Since then they went to crocodile farms in Thailand and Australia to study the farm operation and the management practices It took eight years of experiment to achieve the first successful incubation of crocodile eggs Jong Crocodile Farm became the first in Malaysia to start captive breeding operation and the first in Sarawak to be registered under the Conventian on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) Under CITES regulation Jong Crocodile Farm is allowed to export and import crocodile and its products

There are currently two Jong Crocodile Farms in Kuching The first farm was established in 1963 with total area of243 ha and consisted offour breeding ponds and 26 rearing ponds However the old farm is not big enough to house the current population of about 1500 crocodiles so a farm located about one kilometer was established in 2000 The total area of the new farm is around 1053 ha and consisted of six breeding ponds and 25 cemented rearing ponds Most of the crocodiles have been moved to the new farm since June 2000 but there are a few old crocodiles in the original farm as it still belongs to the Jongs family The original farm is now closed to public

It is the late Mr Jongs dream to have a farm that can offer more than just a crocodile farm or wildlife park He was hoping to tum the current crocodile farm into a major tourist attraction well known nationally and internationally so that tourists can come to visit Sarawak and subsequently helps to boost tourism industry in the State Apart from that he was hoping to offer a place where the whole family could come and enjoy a wide variety of recreational and social activities The other objective is that they are hoping to increase the crocodile population in captivity by increasing the number of ponds

13 Problem statement

In order to be breeding and information are not available much needed

Hence this

14 Tbe 1 To evaluate 2 to detennine

enviro[llD1cm~

Modem crocodile farm is an intensive business enterprise similar to livestock farming High concentration of animals in an area of land are bound to have an impact on the environment especially on the soil and the water system It is critical to detect this possibility The reason is that if the farm has negative impacts to our environment this form of land use will be considered as unsustainable in the long term It is essential to recognise that in trying to save the remaining crocodile population in Malaysia it is equally important not to j eopardise our environment On top of that if we could detect the impact at early stage it is possible to minimise or mitigate the impact(s)

In order to be sustainable as a business enterprise a crocodile farm needs information on breeding and reproduction nutritional and general management practices These infonnation are important to increase the productivity of the farm These information are not available locally at the moment and long Crocodile Fann is a potential source of these much needed management information

Hence this research will focus on the management aspects of long Crocodile Faml to evaluate whether their management practices are suitable and appropriate for the environment as welI as and the well being of the crocodiles

14 The Objectilcs I To evaluate management practices of a crocodile farm and 2 to detennme the quality of the pond water in the farm and whether it complies with the

environmental regulation

3

has never

Chapter Two Literature Review

21 Crocodilian biolog) Biological characteristics of crocodilians give the potential of great resiliency to some crocodilian populations especially those that are at the stage of becoming extinc If their biological characteristics can be understood then it is possible to recover the crocodilians from population depletion For example crocodilians have an unique biological characteristic which is known as Temperature Dependent Sex Detennination (TSD) whereby a very small difference in incubation temperature (05 - ldege) during critical early stage of incubation detemlines the sex of the hatchlings (Ferguson and Joanen 1982 Ferguson 1985 Lang and Andrews 1994) This is essential for captive breeding programs to ensure the correcl sex ralio or 10 produce faster growing males for farming purposes (hupwwwfJmnhufJedulcnhccsp_cporhtm)

Table 21 List of the species of crocodilians after King and Burke (1989)

Order Crocodylia Family A1ligatoridae

Alligator mississippiensis (American alligator) Alligator sinensis (Chinese alligator) Caiman erocodillis (caiman) includes Cerocodillis erocodilus CaimanlatilYJstlis (broad-snouted caiman) i I

bull 11 bull Caiman yaeare (yacare ) ~ ~ MelaTlosllehlls palpeblYJslIs (black caiman) ~ t I Paleosuehus palpeblYJsus (dwarf caiman) ~ al Paleosllehus lligonatus (smooth-fronted caiman)

t o middot

Family Crocodylidae

FamU~

Subfamily Crocodylinae Croeodylus aculus (American crocodile) Croeodylus eataphraetus (slender-snouted crocodile) Croeodyills inlermedius (Orinoco crocodile) Crocodylus johnstoni (Australian freshwater crocodile) Crocodvlus midorensis (Philippine crocodile) Crocodylus morelelii (Morelets crocodile) Croeodylus lIilotieus (Nile crocodile) Crocodylus lIovaeguineae (New Guinea crocodile) Crocodylus polustlis (mugger) Croeodylus porosus (saltwater crocodile) Croeodylus rlrombifer (Cuban crocodile) Crocodylus siamellsis (Siamese crocodile) Croeodylus tetras pis (dnmf crocodile) Subfamily Tomistominae Tomisroma sehlegelii (tomistoma)

Gavialidae Cavialis gangetiells (gharial)

Table 2 1 r

predators as they gro are metabo lana where their powe

Among the ~ be present Tschlegelii regularly wH

category as I

traditional li~ consumption Ordinance (1

211 Dill Map I show distributed 01 throughout 5 Guinea and I Islands the I (httpwww

Map 2 showl Indonesia dOt beat

Pu t Khidm I lum Akadcmik U lVE TI MALAYSIA AKAWAK

Table 21 lists the 23 species of crocodilians that currently exist in toe world Extant crocodilians are represented by three families (Alligatoridae Crocodylidae and Gavialidae) seven genera (Alligator Caiman Melanosuchus Paleosuchus Crocodylus Tomistoma and Gavialis) and 23 species (Table 2 ) The term crocodile refer to the members of the genus Crocodylus

There is a wide diversity of size habitat feed preference reproductive behavior and many other aspects ofbiology among the 23 species of crocodile However despite of the differences crocodiles do have basic biological simi1arities AU of them are aquatic predators At smaUer sizes they often eat aquatic insects small fish and crustaceans and as they grow larger they tend to eal more vertebrates and mammals All crOcodilians are metabolically efficient and have fast reflexe$ and effective locomotion ability on land where they walk on erect legs and in tbe water where they swim rapidly driven by their powerful tails

Among the 23 species listed cporosus Csiamensi~ and Tschlegeii were thought to be presented in Borneo although within the last ten years only cporosus and TschJegelii have been sighted cporosus has been reported for attacking humans quite regularly whiJe very little is known about Tschlegelii (Sebastian 993) Csiamensis has never been recorded in Sarawak to date

Crocodiles still occur in most of the rivers in Borneo but in lower densities (Sebastian 993) The estuarine crocodile is listed as a protected species in Sarawak This category as opposed to the totally protected species allows native rural residents of traditional lifestyle who legitimately need to hunt these animals for their own consumption to hunt this species without a licence as stated in Wild Life Protection Ordinance (I998)

211 Distribution Map shows tbe distribution of Crocodylus porosu They are the most widely distributed of the crocodilians ranging from the southern India and Sri lanka throughout Southeast Asia and the Indo-Malay Archipelago to the Philippines New Guinea and northern Australia Isolated populations are also known from the Solomon Islands the Banks Islands (Vanuatu) and on Palau (Caroline Tslands) (httpwwwtlnmhuf1edulnatscilherpetologyact-planlcporohtm)

Map 2 shows the distribution of TschJegeJii in the world They cart be found in Indonesia Malaysia poSSlbly Vietnam and possibly extirpated in Thailand where it has not been seen since 1970 (httpwwwftmnhufIedulcohctcsp_tschhtm)

5

Map 1 DiItribatIaIl fill C - tile

Map1 Distribadoar To- ill die wedd (bttpJIwwwf1mnbuftedulcnhc1c8usclUth_DllPbbn)

6

freshwater s Messel and related to to seek one changes in s breeding ani

For many ce throughout damaging 1985) C cporosus clear

(httpwwwtbnnhuftedulcnhcIcst_cpoI_dIl_lDIphaD)

In West 1979) ~ 1979) Ho many rive Batang Sa crocodiles 2001) Th( two decad villagers Ii 1072ooI J

It is belie more deel habitat ca Whitaker ( Saraak

The status both specie becoming immediate 1993) The (Sebastian

212 Ha As its name brackish wa

In West Malaysia cporosus is rare and considered essentially extinct (King et al 1979) A few C porosus may remain in Berd Lake and the Pahang River (King et al 1979) However the situation in Sarawak is different Crocodiles have been spotted in many rivers such as Sarawak river Rajang river Niah river Sibu river and places such Batang Sadong and Matang mangrove reserve (Engkamat 1999) Most of the crocodiles are found in Batang Lupar and its tributaries (International Times 12-7shy200 I) TIle crocodile population densit) in Batang Lupar has increased within the paS two decades (Sapuan percomm) A rare sighting of 2m crocodile was reported by villagers living along the Sarawak River bank near the Satok Bridge in July 200 I (Star 10171200 I )

It is believed that Sarawak may be the laS region for T schlegelii in Malaysia The more developed and heavily populated Peninsula 11ltts vcry little remaining natural habitat capable for supporting viable population of such large predator Whitaker and Whitaker (1989) estimated that there were between 500-1000 wild T schlegelii left in Sarawak

The status of crocodilian in Malaysia is definitely of concern 1n Peninsula Malaysia both species have reached seriously low population levels and are in danger of becoming extinct particularly T schlegelii In East Malaysia Cporosus is not in inunediate danger of extinction with viable population in certain areas (Sebastian 1993) TIle T schlegelii occurs in much lower densities even in its ideal habitat (Sebastian 1993)

212 Habitat As its name implies C porosus have high tolerance to salinity They mainly inhabit brackish water and tidal sections of the river but are also found further inland in the freshwater sections of the rivers inland lakes swamps and marshes (Webb et al 1987 Messel and Vorlicek 1989) Seasonal movements of crocodiles between habitats are related to drought and crocodiles may travel considerable distances from dried habitats to seek one that stiU has water Non seasonal movement appears to be related to changes in salt tolerance as well as displacement of young crocodiles by larger breeding animals

For many centuries human and their activities have been concentrated more or less throughout lowland Sarawak in habitats shared by crocodiles Fishing is especially damaging to crocodiles when creeks and tributaries are cross-nested (Cox and Gombek 1985) C porosus nesting habitats appear particularly disturbed by human activities cporosus is widely but sparsely distributed throughout lowland in Sarawak and no clear pattern emerges

Freshwater crocodiles typically occupy in habitat such as freshwater lakes rivers and swamps They seem to prefer vegetation cover and slow-moving waterways Both C porosus and T schlegelii prefer muddy river banks and flood plain area but not on sandy or rocky banks However very little is known genertlly

7

edge As they get older they prey on small vertebrates such as fish frog lizards snakes small turtles rats bats and birds Older and larger crocodiles develop a hunting strategy whcreby thcy sight prey fTom a distance dive swim towards it underwater emerge and lunge at it The diet includes birds other crocodiles turtles snakes mud crabs fish domestic pets cattle and even human being Crocodiles at this age will also seek out dead prey and once attracted by the smell will crawl considerable distance from water to retrieve it

In short young crocodiles tend to wait for the food to come to them but as they get older they will start to hunt for food However they normally do not require large amounts offood as most of the time they will stay inactive As fIgUre 21 indicates the average dry matter consumption by crocodiles at different live weight kept in captive breeding program is less than I SOg of food in a day and it eats less food during cool weather than in warm weather

200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30

CROCODILE IIV-WEIGIIT IN KILOS

bull C porosus - warm

bull C roroslIs - told

bull C 110 atgulOcae - warm

Cl1oaeguincae cold

Average dry matter food consumption ill gramscrocodileday in warm and cool weather (Source Turton undated)

8

1987) I

N st Both s from a built on freshwa ~ ~

213 Diet and nutrition All crocodilians are carnivorous and C POroSIiS and r S(hlegelll are opportunistic feeders The nature and size of the prey taken varies with age and habitat (Webb 1977) Feeding occurs during the day and night or when the food is available Crocodiles have stones in their stomachs These appear to be eaten deliberately and they act as gastroliths - physically breaking down food in the stomach They also act as ballast and help to keep the body submerged while the head is on the surface

Young crocodiles feed mainly by laying in shallow water at the edge of the bank and snap at small moving objects such as shrimps prawns crabs and insects at the water

2bull 4 Crocodi will rea (Webb mOlllhs breedin coincide

lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30

2IA Reproduction Crocodiles are polygamous animal mostly one male to man) female crocodiles They will reach sexual maturity at around 16 ycars for males and 10 years for females (Webb et al 1977) The grouping behavior shown by hatchling is losl al aboul 8 months and territorial behavior begins at age of 25 years several years before first breeding The time of nesting varies between localities and species but often coincides to some extent with the annual wet season (Webb et a 1917 and Lang 1987) Nesting may be spread over a 3-5 months period and females at a given locality nest asynchronously (Lang 1987)

Nest Both species in Sarawak are mound nestors The nest is nonnally being constructed from a variety of vegetable debris including leaf litter reeds and grasses Nests arc built on muddy and swampy areas (Webb et a 1977) Freshwater swamps or banks of freshwater bodies are preferred sites for making nest because hatchling cannot SUIy jve in saltwater Only female crocodile build nest and this is for laying her eggs The egg chamber is usually located about 20 cm below the top of the nest (Webb et al 1977)

Eggs Size of the eggs vary between nests but remarkably constant in a given clutch The eggs weigh 91- 132 g are 72-8 1 cm long and 47-54 cm wide (Webb et al 1977) Captive crocodiles can lay two clutches of eggs about 40 days apart alUlUally Each clutch usually contain 25-40 eggs (Whitaker and Whitaker 1989) In the ild it is unlikel that crocodile will lay more than one clutch per year This is because egg laying building and guarding nest represent a heavy expenditure of energy protein and calcium for a female crocodile (Lance 1989 Wink and Elsey 1986 Wink et al 1987) Each egg including the egg shell contains about 50-70 g of protein and 3-5 g Calcium (Wink eta 1987)

Crocodiles also have a refractory period after ovulation which prohibits double nesting and attempts to induce double nesting might cause premature aging (Lance 1989) In the wild therefore crocodiles normally lay a few to 80 eggs per year in a single clutch

Hatchlings The normal incubation period for crocodile egg is 80-90 days (Webb et a1 1977 Whitaker 1987) but this may be 10ngcI at lower temperature (Webb 1990)

Because crocodilians lack sex chromosomes the sex of the hatchlings is determined by temperature A small difference in incubation temperature (05 - 1degC) during critical early stages of incubation detennines the sex of the hatchling (Ferguson and Joanen 1982 Ferguson 1985 Lang and Andrews 1994) Temperature that is below 31degC and above 33degC will produce female hatchlings while temperature of 32degC will produce male hatchlings However temperature that is higher than 33degC is not recommended as it viii produce wmcalthy hatchlings or kill t11em

Upon hatching vocalisations made by the hatchlings induces the female to assist the hatchling to emerge TIle mother will excavates the nest and may assist in the hatching process by rolling the eggs between tongue and palate before carrying the hatchlings to the water For the first few weeks the youngsters remain close to the mother commonly basking on her head and back as she floats

9

Despite this maternal care a very large proportion of eggs and hatchlings are lost in the wild Flooding of nests as well as predators is known to be a major factor in many localities After hatching the young crocodilians are eaten by a different array of

Eur pe repti le-lei invest me

predators including storks predatory fish and larger crocodilians Only a tiny percentage of hatchling are likely to reach maturity

The first c

establishe

215 Growth Saltwater crocodiles grow slowly The average males reaches maturity at about 16 years of age while the average female reaches maturity at about 12 year of age In captivity where there is an abundant food supply age to maturity can be halved TIley may live as long as 70 years of age The size at maturity are 33m for males and 23m for females

time ther the wild occur in I

commerc cheap fee again as t cconomi

t I

Growth rates vary accordingly to species feeding regimes and climatic conditions Some may grow to 090-100 meters in 12 months and 13 - 14 meters in 18 months but the majority will only reach 15 meters in 24 months or longer (Hutton and Webb 1992)

crocodili which all crocodile

~Figure

22 Utilization of crocodiles Crocodilians have been used by hurnan for centuries either as protein or in more recent times for their skins as a source of revenue In the past exploitation of crocodiles from the wild was directed to obtaining as many skins as possible by the most efficient

that has in trade in c populatiOi ofcrOGodi

means available This practice had the obvious resulted in depletion of most wild populations Species that possessed commercially superior skins were hunted more intensively Populations of these species were depleted to a much greater extent than those with less valuable skins

The increasing demand from European reptile leather industry in the 1920s and 1930s resulted in even more intensive hunting of crocodiles in Africa Northern America and Asia Crocodile hunting became highly commercialized (Roth 1997) If a particular species of crocodile in any particular area became depleted intensive hunting will be shifted to other areas or target alternative species This pattern is particularly well documented for South America where first the American crocodile then the Orinoco crocodile and finally the different caiman species were exploited to near extinction (Meden 1981 and 1983)

The international trade in crocodile skins reached its peak during 1950s and early I960s when there were tremendous drain of crocodile during this period of indiscriminate over-exploitation

In the 1970s the trade in crocodile skins started to decrease This vas mainly due to the general decline in the wild crocodile population around the world and the resulting difficulties of obtaining skins But the decrease was also prompted by a positive change of attitude towards crocodiles Previously crocodiles were valued only for their skins but from the late 1960s onwards their ecological role and value started to be appreciated This in tum led to international protection of crocodiles in 1974 under provision of CITES At the same time the concern of the reptile-leather industries in Europe the USA and Japan about the future availability of sufficient raw material for reptile-leather production was growing It caused the promotion of surveys and capital investments into fanning of crocodiJes in many countries (Roth J 997)

10

official sta registered trade stati crocodiles

200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22

the most efficient most wild

hunted more ex1ent than

industries in raw material for

and capital

Europe the USA and Japan about the future availability of sufficient raw material for reptile-leather production was growing h caused the promotion of surveys and capital investments into farming of crocodiles in many countries (Roth 1997)

The first commercial crocodile farm was probably that at Samur Prakan near Bangkok established in 1950 Alligator farms existed in the USA during the 1960s During that time there was widespread interest in trying to increase stocks by collecting eggs from the wild so that incubation and rearing could be achieved without the losses which occur in Ilature (Bolton 1997) Farming method such as rcaring crocodiles in ponds for commercial pUflloses was under taken in South East Asia using fish and chicken as cheap feed During 1980s wild crocodile populations in some countries had increased again as the result of conservation measures This and the growing awareness of the economic potential of crocodiles led to international pressures to liberalize the trade in crocodilian products Thus a resolution was adopted by the parties to CITES in 1985 which allowed limited quotas of skins to be exported and resulted in an increase of crocodile trade worldwide as indicated in Figure 22

~ Figure 22 shows that crocodiles suffer the same fate as with other groups of animals that has important economic value Its economic importance was well reflected by the trade in crocodile skins After the trade peaked in 1950s and 1960s the crocodile population has declined rapidly due to over exploitation However substantial numbers of crocodile skins from wild populations of Crocodylus porosus are not recorded in the official statistics whereas skins produced in farms are likely to be always officially registered Therefore utilization of wild crocodiles is suggested to be more than the trade statistics have suggested However it is predicted that the product from wild crocodiles will further decline in favour of farming

wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989

-A- Anllss -+- Coil _+- Ccov _ cpor -4- Tou

Figure 22 Estimates of world net trade in skins for the main four species of classic crocodilians (Source Luxmoore (992)

11

l

being ma particular CITES status that the producing country has Most crocodiles species are that cnab listed in Appendix I of CITES and international trade in their products is not allowed To achiC1 Only after the country has successfully applied for the transfer to Appendix II can parties ar skins and meat be legally trJded If they are derivcd rrom brecding operation then they co mmere qualified right away Crocodile producers in non-CITES countrics will find it very written te difficult to market heir products because most of the traditional reptile-leather been app tanncries or manufacturers are located in CITES countries and thus arc not allowed to exhibit hi legally receiving such products (Roth 1997) for their

International marketing of crocodile products to a large extent dcpends on thc

Bccause of the over-exploitation of thc crocodile which has been sevcrcly dcpleted the TIle captl

crocodile population both the skin tradcrs and conservationists realizcd that there is a extended need to promote conservation and to enhance sustainable use of crocodiles 1111 middotsis iPJ

species SlI abundant

L sustainab 231 Legal framework ruml and ~ 23 Crocodile Consenation Strategies

CITES plays the most important role in conservation of crocodilcs Following a resolution adopted at the 1972 United Nation Conference on Environment and Malaysia Dcvelopment (UNCED) meeting in Stockholm a Plenipotentiary Conference was held species I in Washington DC in 1973 to conclude the Convention on Intenlational Trade in (1972) of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) There was considerable is vcry re concern that the wild crocodilian resource was unable to sustain the ICel of andNatw

international skin trade that had been experienced As a consequence all species of crOCOdili4i

crocodiles and alligators were listed in either Appendix I or Appendix 11 economic their surv

Although there have been amendments to the specific listings of crocodilians on the (WhitakeJ

Appendices to CITES since the 1973 Washington Conference no species has been removed from the Appendices and all species continue to be su~jected to the BothC p

proisions of the Convention Schedule the schedl

During the twenty years of its implementation CITES has undoubtedly been a positive Protectio~

force in conbibuting to efforts to conserve wild population of crocodilians Species considered in 1973 to be in danger of imminent extinction were listed in Appendix I In Sarawa

and commercial trade in wild harvested specimens was prohibited During the earJy wildlife f formative years of CITES species were listed to Appendix I in order to stop issuepem international trade in wild-amght specimens This Appendix I species became the Resour~

the fannfocus of research designed to provide tlle basis of managing them as a renewable resource accordingly to the requirements of an Appendix II-listed species As a result decides 01

species (or populations thereof) have been transferred to Appendix II from Appendix I Departme

to permit regulated international trade Park and the Wild I licensed e The convention provides for commercial trade in specimens of Appendix I species that enforcem(represent the progeny of closed system eaptive breeding operJtions on the basis that farms aresuch tradc can be conducted in isolation of the wild population The effect of this

management prescription has been to remove pressure from the wild population to enhance its potential for recovery

In 1981 the third meeting of the conference of the parties to the convention acknowledged that some species of wildlife (or population thereoO ean benefit from

12

the being managed for commercial purXgtses Resolution Conference 315 was adopted that enabled Appendix I species (or Xgtpulation thereof) to be managed by ranching To achieve the support of parties to CITES for this forlll of management proponent partics are required to satisfY particular critcria including demonstration that commercial ranching confers a conservation benefit on the wild resourcc Although wrillen to apply generally to certain Appendix I species in practice this resolution has been applied exclusively 10 crocodilians 10 pennit eggs andor juveniles life stages Ihal exhibit high natural moralities to be harycstcd and grown wlder controlled conditions for their skins

The captive breeding and ranching prOisions of CITES have been adopted and extended to apply for species of crocodilians such as American alligator A l1Iississippiensis and C crocodylus which they were never initially intended HoweeL species such as tlle North American Alligator and Spectacled CaimarL which have abundant wild Xgtpulations are more appropriately managed by implementing sustainable wild hanest whereby hanest benefits are distributed more evenJy among rurnl and indigenous communities situated in crocodilian habitat

Malaysia as a party to CITES is obliged to controllhe exXgtrt and imXgtrt of listed species Both C porosus and T schlegel arc protected under Wildlife Protection Act (1972) of Malaysia and both are listed in CITES Appendix I so that by necessity trade is very restricted CITES and IUCN (lntemational Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) both recognjse the successfuJ efforts of countries to conserve crocodilians in connection with ranching and farming In fact developing an economic role based on exXgtrt trade for crocodiles may be the only way to ensure their survival while their aesthetic and scientific value remains unappreciated (Whitaker 1984)

Both C porosus and T schlegelii are listed as Protected Animals in Part II of First Schedule in Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1998 However species that is not listed in the schedule but listed in CITES Appendix I and II are protected in Sarawak (Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1998)

In Sarawak a few agencies regulate commercial wildlife farms Pennissions for wildlife fanns in Sarawak come under different institutions The Forest Department issue pennits to run a commercial wildlife fann and to sell its products The Natural Resources and Environmental Board (NREB) decides on the environmental impact of the fann The Agriculture Department controls health regulations and local councils decides on zoning regulations All applicants are encouraged to approach the Forest Department flTSt since their requiremenl arc Iikel) 10 be the most stringent (National Park and Wildl ife Division 1998) During the first two years from the effective date of the Wild Life Protection Ordinance 1998 the Forest Department was working with licensed existing fanus to ensure that they meet the requirement of the law and that all enforcement and monitoring capacities carefull~ in place This is essential before new fanns are established

13

Pu t Khidm Mik Akademj UNVERSnMALAY IA SARAWAf

An evaluation of management practices and environmental impact of Jong Crocodile Farm Sarawak

PiliiiiuDiiU1000235098

By

Corina Yong Siaw Ping

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master ofScience

Faculty ofResource and Science Technology UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARA W AK

August 2001

I

TABLE OF CONTENTS





215 Growth





26 Warer quality




ttl

33 D

ii 34 U III

CHAP vii VI

41 Po viii

42 Mshyix 421x

XI

422 FI 1 2 2 3

423 R4 4 5 7

424 H8 9

43 Waf9 431 hi9

9 0

0

12 12 14 15

432 La16

16 17 17

18

19

19 19 20 20

21 21

21

33 Data analysis 22












44 Conclusion 43 18




21

IV

J


BIBLIOGRAPHY 47



I

j I

Table

Table 2

Table 2

Table 4

Table 4

Table4

Table

Table

Table 4

Table 4

LIST OF TABLES











Map

Map 21

Map 22

Map31

Map 32

bull

~

LIST OF MAPS

Descriptive Title





Page

6

6

24

25

Figu

Figure

Figure

Figurc

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

Figure 21

Figure 22

Figure 23





viii

Abstract

Plate

Plate 41

Plate 42

i

LIST OF PLATES

Page



Descriptive Tide

IX

Trade in toIVampN


Abstract






x

AhstraJc Chapter









Crocodile j l


However Crol



attitude toward


rgaan kulil


a wlas


1rJ-I)UQIVO ini














Hence this


enviro[llD1cm~






3

has never







t o middot

Family Crocodylidae

FamU~



Table 2 1 r



category as I











5



6














7



200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30





Cl1oaeguincae cold


8

1987) I





lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13

I

TABLE OF CONTENTS





215 Growth





26 Warer quality




ttl

33 D

ii 34 U III

CHAP vii VI

41 Po viii

42 Mshyix 421x

XI

422 FI 1 2 2 3

423 R4 4 5 7

424 H8 9

43 Waf9 431 hi9

9 0

0

12 12 14 15

432 La16

16 17 17

18

19

19 19 20 20

21 21

21

33 Data analysis 22












44 Conclusion 43 18




21

IV

J


BIBLIOGRAPHY 47



I

j I

Table

Table 2

Table 2

Table 4

Table 4

Table4

Table

Table

Table 4

Table 4

LIST OF TABLES











Map

Map 21

Map 22

Map31

Map 32

bull

~

LIST OF MAPS

Descriptive Title





Page

6

6

24

25

Figu

Figure

Figure

Figurc

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

Figure 21

Figure 22

Figure 23





viii

Abstract

Plate

Plate 41

Plate 42

i

LIST OF PLATES

Page



Descriptive Tide

IX

Trade in toIVampN


Abstract






x

AhstraJc Chapter









Crocodile j l


However Crol



attitude toward


rgaan kulil


a wlas


1rJ-I)UQIVO ini














Hence this


enviro[llD1cm~






3

has never







t o middot

Family Crocodylidae

FamU~



Table 2 1 r



category as I











5



6














7



200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30





Cl1oaeguincae cold


8

1987) I





lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13

33 Data analysis 22












44 Conclusion 43 18




21

IV

J


BIBLIOGRAPHY 47



I

j I

Table

Table 2

Table 2

Table 4

Table 4

Table4

Table

Table

Table 4

Table 4

LIST OF TABLES











Map

Map 21

Map 22

Map31

Map 32

bull

~

LIST OF MAPS

Descriptive Title





Page

6

6

24

25

Figu

Figure

Figure

Figurc

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

Figure 21

Figure 22

Figure 23





viii

Abstract

Plate

Plate 41

Plate 42

i

LIST OF PLATES

Page



Descriptive Tide

IX

Trade in toIVampN


Abstract






x

AhstraJc Chapter









Crocodile j l


However Crol



attitude toward


rgaan kulil


a wlas


1rJ-I)UQIVO ini














Hence this


enviro[llD1cm~






3

has never







t o middot

Family Crocodylidae

FamU~



Table 2 1 r



category as I











5



6














7



200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30





Cl1oaeguincae cold


8

1987) I





lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13

J


BIBLIOGRAPHY 47



I

j I

Table

Table 2

Table 2

Table 4

Table 4

Table4

Table

Table

Table 4

Table 4

LIST OF TABLES











Map

Map 21

Map 22

Map31

Map 32

bull

~

LIST OF MAPS

Descriptive Title





Page

6

6

24

25

Figu

Figure

Figure

Figurc

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

Figure 21

Figure 22

Figure 23





viii

Abstract

Plate

Plate 41

Plate 42

i

LIST OF PLATES

Page



Descriptive Tide

IX

Trade in toIVampN


Abstract






x

AhstraJc Chapter









Crocodile j l


However Crol



attitude toward


rgaan kulil


a wlas


1rJ-I)UQIVO ini














Hence this


enviro[llD1cm~






3

has never







t o middot

Family Crocodylidae

FamU~



Table 2 1 r



category as I











5



6














7



200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30





Cl1oaeguincae cold


8

1987) I





lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13

LIST OF TABLES











Map

Map 21

Map 22

Map31

Map 32

bull

~

LIST OF MAPS

Descriptive Title





Page

6

6

24

25

Figu

Figure

Figure

Figurc

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

Figure 21

Figure 22

Figure 23





viii

Abstract

Plate

Plate 41

Plate 42

i

LIST OF PLATES

Page



Descriptive Tide

IX

Trade in toIVampN


Abstract






x

AhstraJc Chapter









Crocodile j l


However Crol



attitude toward


rgaan kulil


a wlas


1rJ-I)UQIVO ini














Hence this


enviro[llD1cm~






3

has never







t o middot

Family Crocodylidae

FamU~



Table 2 1 r



category as I











5



6














7



200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30





Cl1oaeguincae cold


8

1987) I





lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13

Map

Map 21

Map 22

Map31

Map 32

bull

~

LIST OF MAPS

Descriptive Title





Page

6

6

24

25

Figu

Figure

Figure

Figurc

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

Figure 21

Figure 22

Figure 23





viii

Abstract

Plate

Plate 41

Plate 42

i

LIST OF PLATES

Page



Descriptive Tide

IX

Trade in toIVampN


Abstract






x

AhstraJc Chapter









Crocodile j l


However Crol



attitude toward


rgaan kulil


a wlas


1rJ-I)UQIVO ini














Hence this


enviro[llD1cm~






3

has never







t o middot

Family Crocodylidae

FamU~



Table 2 1 r



category as I











5



6














7



200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30





Cl1oaeguincae cold


8

1987) I





lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

Figure 21

Figure 22

Figure 23





viii

Abstract

Plate

Plate 41

Plate 42

i

LIST OF PLATES

Page



Descriptive Tide

IX

Trade in toIVampN


Abstract






x

AhstraJc Chapter









Crocodile j l


However Crol



attitude toward


rgaan kulil


a wlas


1rJ-I)UQIVO ini














Hence this


enviro[llD1cm~






3

has never







t o middot

Family Crocodylidae

FamU~



Table 2 1 r



category as I











5



6














7



200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30





Cl1oaeguincae cold


8

1987) I





lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13

Abstract

Plate

Plate 41

Plate 42

i

LIST OF PLATES

Page



Descriptive Tide

IX

Trade in toIVampN


Abstract






x

AhstraJc Chapter









Crocodile j l


However Crol



attitude toward


rgaan kulil


a wlas


1rJ-I)UQIVO ini














Hence this


enviro[llD1cm~






3

has never







t o middot

Family Crocodylidae

FamU~



Table 2 1 r



category as I











5



6














7



200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30





Cl1oaeguincae cold


8

1987) I





lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13

Abstract






x

AhstraJc Chapter









Crocodile j l


However Crol



attitude toward


rgaan kulil


a wlas


1rJ-I)UQIVO ini














Hence this


enviro[llD1cm~






3

has never







t o middot

Family Crocodylidae

FamU~



Table 2 1 r



category as I











5



6














7



200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30





Cl1oaeguincae cold


8

1987) I





lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13

AhstraJc Chapter









Crocodile j l


However Crol



attitude toward


rgaan kulil


a wlas


1rJ-I)UQIVO ini














Hence this


enviro[llD1cm~






3

has never







t o middot

Family Crocodylidae

FamU~



Table 2 1 r



category as I











5



6














7



200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30





Cl1oaeguincae cold


8

1987) I





lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13

rgaan kulil


a wlas


1rJ-I)UQIVO ini














Hence this


enviro[llD1cm~






3

has never







t o middot

Family Crocodylidae

FamU~



Table 2 1 r



category as I











5



6














7



200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30





Cl1oaeguincae cold


8

1987) I





lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13







Hence this


enviro[llD1cm~






3

has never







t o middot

Family Crocodylidae

FamU~



Table 2 1 r



category as I











5



6














7



200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30





Cl1oaeguincae cold


8

1987) I





lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13





3

has never







t o middot

Family Crocodylidae

FamU~



Table 2 1 r



category as I











5



6














7



200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30





Cl1oaeguincae cold


8

1987) I





lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13

has never







t o middot

Family Crocodylidae

FamU~



Table 2 1 r



category as I











5



6














7



200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30





Cl1oaeguincae cold


8

1987) I





lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13








5



6














7



200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30





Cl1oaeguincae cold


8

1987) I





lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13



6














7



200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30





Cl1oaeguincae cold


8

1987) I





lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13







7



200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30





Cl1oaeguincae cold


8

1987) I





lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13



200

__ e

o ~==-------------------------------------------~----~ o

Figure 2 t

6 8 10 12 1-1 1(j I 20 22 24 26 28 30





Cl1oaeguincae cold


8

1987) I





lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13

lrnrhlfJday in

- __ -A

26 28 30








9




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13




The first c

establishe




t I



~Figure







10


200

LSO

50

o 1983

Figure 22




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13




and capital




wor-------------------------~~~~~~~~

150

1 ~ 100 rshy

A

50

o~=_----~------~--------~--------~~--~--~--~ 1983 1984 19amp5 1986 1987 1988 1989



11

l





















12






13

l





















12






13






13

Documents

AN EVALUATION OF MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AND … Evaluation of management practices... · An evaluation of management practices and environmental . impact of Jong . ... reproduksi dan