An in service training course, (INSET) on ICT pedagogyin classroom instruction for the Greek primaryschool teachersSelection and use of certain theories in an effort to promoteeffectiveness of the course

Nikolaos Amanatidis

Published online: 4 October 2012# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2012

Abstract To meet the increasing demand for change in the incorporation of ICT ineducation the Greek Ministry of Education and the Institute of Educational Policy ofGreece, launched a nationwide project of in-service training (INSET) of teachers ofthe second level, training of teachers in the use and evaluation of ICT pedagogy inclassroom instruction. The main focus of the study was to evaluate the implementa-tion and effectiveness of this in-service training in the pedagogic use of ICT inclassroom-based instruction. Through the data collected and analyzed it is arguedthat a successful training course could be associated with the selection and utilizationof specific research and instruction theories. These theories tailored to the acknowl-edged different profiles of the teacher-trainees as well as the time and setting of thecourse could promote effectiveness and produce fruitful outcomes.

Keywords INSET. ICT pedagogy . Communities of practice . Distributedcommunity . Training . Primary education

1 Introduction

The western society’s shift to a new growth path from manufacturing to knowledgework generates new requirements and demands for ‘further education’ on behalf ofworking professionals, including teachers and students. The Lisbon Strategy, (i2010in Context, http://goo.gl/r7EJY, accessed 30.7.2012) clearly state that educationsystems must be modernised to make Europe a world leader in the quality of itseducation and training systems.

Educ Inf Technol (2014) 19:307–326DOI 10.1007/s10639-012-9215-y

N. AmanatidisArts and Human Sciences, London South Bank University, London, UK

N. Amanatidis (*)Ministry of Education of Greece, Amalias 30, Thessaloniki, Greece 54640e-mail: nickaman4@gmail.com

Under this scope, the Greek Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports (MNECS)(http://www.minedu.gov.gr, accessed 30.7.2012) and the Institute of EducationalPolicy of Greece (IEP) (www.iep.edu.gr accessed 30.7.2012) introduced reports ona unified framework for the implementation of ICT in education and initiated anationwide in-service training course on ICT pedagogy in classroom instruction.They both refer to the necessity of information technology use to improve teachingand learning throughout the curriculum.

This project aims to train primary and secondary teachers employed in Greekpublic schools on the pedagogic principles of effective ICT use in teaching andlearning, such as the design, production and evaluation of educational activities andlesson plans using ICT. The approach and level of the training course require theteacher-trainees to understand the innovative learning opportunities ICT may offer inclassroom-based instruction, how these resources can be effectively managed in thatenvironment and how learning could change. It calls for convincing teachers of thepedagogical benefits of using ICT in their daily practice and enabling them to useICTs to this end (Linn and Hsi 2000 pp. 311–338). The project, now in its sixthrunning course is one of the biggest training projects in Greece.

Prior research on in-service training courses in ICT indicate that certain personalelements influence the incorporation of technology in the classroom such as theteachers’ beliefs, experiences and expectations (Wood et al. 2005; Chan et al. 2006;Chen et al. 2009). Vanfossen and Waterson (2008) argue that the disparity betweenhigher order and lower order use of the Internet to support social studies teaching inthe U.S. was centered upon the core teacher pedagogical beliefs. According to Cox(2004a, b) we need to note that, acquiring, identifying and promoting primary schoolteachers’ ICT-related pedagogies will require examining teachers’ ideas, beliefs,attitudes, approaches and the thinking that leads to observable elements in practice.Tearle (2003) suggests that the INSET in ICT courses should address not only the‘how to do it’ but also the ‘why to do it’.

In order to acknowledge, understand and direct through varying phases thosebeliefs, attitudes and approaches of the teachers to a successful ICT pedagogyintegration in classroom instruction a certain theoretical context should be applied.This specific context was formulated through the employment of certain theories,(Situated Cognition as the research theory and PBL and JiTT as the training theories),that according to the researcher suited the study and led to the understanding of theparticipating teacher-trainees’ profiles, the successful handling of these personalitiesand the resultant promotion of the effectiveness of the course.

The study aimed not only to acknowledge the specific profiles of the teacher-trainees as many previous studies did but also to follow them through the differentchanging phases they adopted in relation to ICT pedagogy integration across a periodof an academic year. Thus the researcher through the theoretical context of the studyobserved and recorded a certain developing timeline of varying attitudes and uses ofICT pedagogy in classroom instruction by the particular teacher-trainees. In view ofthese facts the writer argues that the study presents originality and importance interms of the understanding of the different profiles of the teacher-trainees in an in-service training course, the changes they portray through time and practice as well asthe necessity of the implementation of the specific theoretical context in promotingefficacy of the study and of the training course.

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The main focus of the research was to evaluate the implementation and effective-ness of the in-service training in the pedagogic use of ICT in classroom-basedinstruction by identifying and recording the actual changes in identities, attitudes,classroom practice, conceptions, accreditation and approaches in the teachers’ peda-gogic use of ICT with pupils. Certain questions were addressed such as:

& Do teachers learn how to use ICT pedagogy in classroom-based instructionthrough certain training methods such as: In-class training through the expert-novice model of training, the cognitive - apprenticeship model, the SituatedCognition method(SC), the Just-in-Time Teaching and Learning method (JiTT/L) and the Problem Based Learning method (PBL).

& Do teachers’ identities change after their participation in the INSET of the SecondLevel, course?

& Do teachers, after the INSET course, actually practice ICT pedagogy in the class?And

& Do they regard ICT as a useful and effective mean of classroom teaching?

2 Inset courses in Greece

Hatzipanagiotou (2001), looking at the Greek educational training policy framework,argues that it is not methodical since the planning of INSET courses lacks coordinationand coherence. He also claims that training in Greece is characterized by the rushedrelocation of educational models and cognition from abroad and is unsupported byacademic research. Additionally, according to Mavrogiorgos (1999) contemporaryINSET courses in Greece do not connect to the needs or demands of serving teachersand of the present educational system, since they are created without active teachers’participation. These courses also function away from teachers’ residences and as aresult, restrict teachers’ involvement. Training does not consider the teachers’ inter-ests nor take into account teachers’ ideas and propositions (Gountoura 2002). Fur-thermore, training courses are centrally designed in the Greek Ministry of Educationwithout teachers’ participation and consequently do not apply to the real needs of theserving teachers (Karalis et al. 2000). In addition, Dantis (2005) argues that trainingin Greece does not connect theory with research and practice. Therefore, as a result,this presents a difficulty in linking training programs with teachers’ professionaldevelopment.

3 The methods

The researcher’s main concern in the study was to examine and understand thedevelopment and gaining of ICT pedagogic practices and competences by differentyet related, in terms of participating in the specific training course, groups of ten to 12Greek primary school teachers, the Research Group and the Comparison Group. Theresearcher’s position was as an active observer and educational practitioner through-out the INSET courses, trying to both evaluate the effectiveness of the specificcourses and identify any changes in teachers’ ICT pedagogic practices and

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competencies. Specifically, the fieldwork ran for an academic year. The actualtraining period was 96 h spread over a period of 3 months. The INSET course wasseparated into four phases, according to the taught topics and practical activities-periods of the sessions as introduced and assigned to the trainers by the relevantorganizers. Accordingly the four phases of the course are: (Table 1)

Prior to and after the INSET training, the researcher designed, created anddistributed questionnaires. Preceding the INSET course, he disseminated the pre-INSET questionnaires. The first distribution of the specific questionnaires tookplace through the ‘pilot study’, where the researcher attempted to elucidate thedetails and unveil the overall picture of the primary school teachers’ stances andattitudes on the subject, their various degrees of ICT pedagogy use in school andat home as well as any diverse instruction modes they adopt in classroomteaching and any opinions, ideas they embrace. Through this particular ‘pilotphase’ of the study the researcher also conducted semi-structured interviews ofteachers, selected according to their individual, recorded statements on thepreviously distributed questionnaires, in an effort to trial the questionnaire andpromote understanding of the various profiles of the teachers on ICT pedagogy.The design, development and structure of the questionnaires as well as theinterviews was based on similar research and tools created and implementedearlier on the subject by previous research as well as via the trialling of thespecific research instruments in the pilot phase. Furthermore, the researcherscheduled and performed in-class observations of selected teachers, accordingto their overall stance on the subject and their diverse profiles, as they emergedthrough their recorded statements and opinions in the questionnaires and theinterviews. The observations took place during the teaching of the same subject-topic, i.e. Geography-Landscape of Greece.

The design of the research consisted of four phases, Investigational, Transi-tional, In-Class Support and the Joint Teaching, Observational and Evaluative. Thefirst phase, Investigational, deals with the issue of the teachers’ identity before thecourse, their background experiences, worries, concerns, expectations and theircorrelation with ICT and classroom instruction. During the first phase, the researcherdistributed pre-course questionnaires and also conducted pre-course interviews withthe teacher-trainees in order acknowledge any differences in beliefs, approaches andattitudes on ICT pedagogy in classroom instruction. Phase two, the Transitional

Table 1 The phases of the training course

The phases of the training course

The theoreticalphase

The practical phase The applied phase The evaluation, selectionand implementation phase

Theoreticalissues of ICT pedagogy.

Individual and groupwork activities onvarious tools.Presentation ofprojects anddiscussion

Applied knowledgethrough the designand creation ofeducational scenarioswith ICT pedagogyfor in-class utilization.

Evaluation of the propertools and resourcesas well as educationalscenarios for classroominstruction.

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Phase, dealt with the teachers’ change in identity through the course, their transfor-mation in attitudes, approaches, beliefs, conceptions and any potential gains in skillsand knowledge. With the purpose of achieving this the researcher developed atheoretical framework, based on situated cognition, communities of practice and theformation and development of specific ‘Identities’ (Wenger 1998) through the com-munity of practitioners in the course, as well as the emergence of dynamic relationsand trajectories of participative action inside the community. In this phase, theresearcher acted both as an ICT trainer and as an active observer. As an ICT trainerhe attempted to implement the training theories of PBL (Problem-Based Learning)and JiTT (Just-in-Time Teaching) in order to achieve effectiveness in training adults-teachers in the pedagogy of ICT and to promote learning outcomes. In a developingtraining environment with on-going interaction between its practitioners and theformation of dynamic practicing communities, an extended and continuous studyfocusing on the trainees’ varying profiles on ICT pedagogy throughout the course, aswell as after the training sessions seem necessary for the enrichment and reliability ofthe research. During the third phase, In-Class Support, the researcher followedteachers in their school experience and conducted participant-supportive classroomobservations in an effort to investigate and analyze the teacher-trainee’s profiles, aswell as the effectiveness of any change in their identities through the expert-novicemodel according to the research theory of Situated Cognition and cognitive appren-ticeships. The last phase of the research, Joint Teaching and Observational - Eval-uative refers to the critical retrospection and overall evaluation of the study. In thisphase, the researcher also followed teachers in their school practice, distributed post-inset questionnaires and conducted post-inset interviews of selected teacher-traineesin an effort to validate and note any changing or not identities, attitudes and practicingmodes with ICT pedagogy. He also conducted non-participatory observations of theteacher-participants potential use of ICT in the classroom in an attempt to identify andrecord whether the INSET course and the in-class reinforcement actually contributedto the trainees’ achievement, use, choice and control over their pedagogic ICTpractices.

4 The selection of the theories

Awell-designed teacher training program is essential to meet the demand of today’steachers, who want to understand how to use ICT pedagogy effectively for theirteaching. The researcher, through his preliminary study, the pilot phase, and throughprevious conversations with teachers, discovered that teachers prefer to participateand learn in collaborating, problem-based, genuine, instructional environmentsconnected to their classroom practices which acknowledge their culture, background,preconceptions, misconceptions and needs.

Teacher 4: I would like to work with my colleagues on these tasks so as to getthe necessary support and ideas, practice them in my classroom and also presentthe problems that I face in front of the collaborating team so as to gain insupport, solutions as well as ideas and practical activities, effectively imple-mented in classroom teaching.

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(Each quote translated from Greek)All these prerequisites seem important and essential so as to be incorporated in the

construction of the INSET course in order to be effective. Furthermore, through thestudy the teachers reported that in previous training courses, no account was taken oftheir differing background experiences and learning needs. In addition there was noeffective communication of any trainer’s conceptions to the trainees as well as theexperiences they gained had no reference to their actual pedagogy and modes ofclassroom practices.

Teacher 7: They did not care about the knowledge level of the trainees, they justkept on saying what they have to say without understanding or taking intoaccount the teacher-trainees’ background experiences, learning needs or possi-ble ways of classroom integration of the taught activities.

Teacher-trainees suggested that for the successful implementation of the INSETcourse certain prerequisites need to be applied: training groups should be formedaccording to the trainees’ background experiences of ICT, the duration of the courseshould be extended and extra training hours in classroom practices with the use ofICT needs to be enforced (Tzimopoulos 2003 pp 85–88).

The study attempted to explore and investigate an INSET of Greek primary schoolteachers’ course in the areas of acquisition and promotion of pedagogical practicesand competencies in the use of ICT in-classroom teaching (Amanatidis 2011).

Due to the aforementioned preliminary study and the findings as well as statementsof the teachers, the writer focused on three substantial theoretical domains of researchon adult training that seem relevant, important, and central to this study.

The first was the Situated Cognition theory (Lave and Wenger 1991) whichpresents the concepts of communities of learning, legitimate peripheral participationand cognitive apprenticeships. These concepts study the development of a particularidentity by the participants, which will constitute learning through participation in aspecific social and cultural context and in a particular instructional setting.

This theory acted as the main research theory-tool, which guided the study intoacknowledging and understanding the different qualities and types of teacher-traineessuch as the various profiles, postures, beliefs and attitudes that they may present.Furthermore, the researcher employed this theory in the analysis of the findings andstudied particular outcomes so as to develop certain training strategies in an effort tosupport and engage the different profiles of the teachers through the promotion of in-course and in-school effective learning situations. In addition, the theory guided thestudy in acknowledging any shifts in the profiles of the teacher-trainees and anyprogressive adoption of certain stances and pedagogies in the effective integration ofnew technologies in classroom instruction.

The second area of focus was on the design of instructional activities for teachersin INSET environments, elaborating on the Problem-Based Learning theory, PBL(McMaster Medical School 1969). This specific theory, seemed relevant and relatedto this study as a training theory, because teachers encounter problems in theireveryday lives and practices and try to solve them. Through the problem-solvingprocess they are involved in cognitive experiences and learn from the activity.Therefore they are familiar with the learning method and through this model ofinstruction they produce significant learning outcomes. Finally, the third area of focus

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was the design of teaching and learning activities in INSET environments consideringthe preconceptions, misconceptions and background experiences of the teacher-trainees. The Just-in-Time Teaching and Learning theory, JiTT (Novak 1998) wasemployed to address issues of different learning styles, needs and cognition levels ofthe teachers and was utilized as a training theory relevant to the research.

All the aforementioned theories seemed applicable to the INSET of Greek primaryschool teachers in the pedagogic use of ICT project as adult learning theories andwere tested during and after the implementation of the course in how well theysupported its efficiency in promoting competences and learning outcomes through thecreation of specific instructional settings and by acknowledging the particular learn-ing needs, styles, beliefs, values, preconceptions and misconceptions of the teachers.

5 The theories in detail

5.1 Situated cognition (SC)

Lave and Wenger (1991), regarded as initiators in the development of SituatedCognition theory, argue that learning is a process of participation in a socially framedenvironment; a ‘community of practice’, as they call it. Collective learning results inpractices that reflect both the pursuit of enterprises and the attendant social relations.These practices are thus the property of a kind of community created over time by thesustained pursuit of a shared enterprise. These kinds of communities are calledcommunities of practice (Wenger 1998 p.45)

Learners are engaged both in the context of learning and the social world in whichthese contexts are produced. Without this engagement there is no learning and whenproper engagement is sustained, learning is more likely to occur. Successful, engagedlearners are responsible for their own learning. These students are self-regulated andable to define their own learning goals and evaluate their own achievements. They arealso energized by their learning; their joy of learning leads to a lifelong passion forsolving problems, understanding, and taking the next step in their thinking. Theselearners are strategic in that they know how to learn, they are able to communicateand collaborate with the community and thus solve problems creatively. Engagedlearning also involves being collaborative — that is, valuing and having the skills towork with others (Jones et al. 1994). Thus situated cognition theory encourageseducators to immerse learners in an environment that enables them to see theclassroom as a context in their (the learners) sense, in which their new ideas andbehaviors will be applied (Schell et al. 1997).

Learners participate in communities of practice; participation that is at first legit-imately peripheral, but that increases gradually in engagement and complexity. Bylegitimate peripheral participation (LPP) according to Lave and Wenger, we under-stand a mode of engagement of a learner who participates in the actual practice of anexpert, but only to a limited degree and with limited responsibility for the ultimateproduct as a whole. Learning in LPP environments occurs through a legitimateperipherality as well as sometimes through a centripetal participation of the studentsin the learning curriculum. That is, a movement of the students to more empowering(central) positions through learning. Becoming a full participant includes engaging

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with the technologies of everyday practice, such as participating in the social rela-tions, production processes and other activities of communities of practice. Under-standing the technology of practice is more than learning to use just tools. It is more away to connect with the history of embedded practice and to participate more directlyin its cultural life.

The concept of Situated Cognition in the researcher’s view fits interestingly intothe Greek primary school teachers’ ways of assimilating and disseminating informa-tion and cognitive experiences through common paths such as social and cultural, realworld, classroom learning environments, which are considerate of and build upontheir ideologies, values, beliefs, concepts, practices, attitudes and skills. According tothe Greek educational reform policy it is believed that teachers need to be members ofa real world classroom learning environment that provides and promotes, throughexpert teaching models and peer and mentor collaboration, an educational contextwhich is diverse, supportive, resourceful, affective, motivating, enjoyable, open, thatprovides time for critical reflection on practices and adjustable and considerate oftheir learning needs, beliefs, concepts and attitudes. Although learning occurs indiverse forms and settings and requires to be tailored to the needs and styles of thelearners, the particular situated perspective could fit for the specific teachers andcontemporary Greek educational environment. Through this perspective, teacherswill be able to gain skills and learning experiences through context-related activities,collegiate interaction, collaborative reflection and constant peer and expert support.Teachers, as learners, increase in skills, develop and form their identities throughmodes of engagement, imagination and alignment (Wenger 1998). Teachers need tobe convinced that the new skills gained and instruction models tested and adopted canbe successfully implemented into their teaching practice and will bear fruitful results.

5.2 Problem-based learning (PBL)

Traditional teacher-centered instruction, such as the typical lecture-based lessons,usually involves delivering sterile information. The lecture method was considered tobe the only way to disseminate information and has often been used for this end. Dueto the fact that students are often poor participants in the lecture, this type ofinstruction has often driven them to adopt passive roles in learning environments.Students, not knowing how to be active participants in the lecture, have relied ontranscription, memorization, and repetition for learning. In recent decades, however,we have learned a great deal from cognitive scientific research about the nature oflearning. Students construct knowledge (Piaget 1972). They do not take it in as it isdisseminated, but rather they build on the knowledge they have gained previously(Cross 1998). They benefit from collaborative work, and peer and expert support(Annis 1983; McKeachie et al. 1986). Research also suggests that students learn bestin a context of a compelling problem (Ewell 1997); they learn through experience(Cross 1999). In short, students and in particular, adult learners such as teachers andprofessionals with background experiences, approaches, beliefs, conceptions andskills learn through making cognitive connections, social and cultural connections,and experiential connections (Cross 1990). Due to the fact that they make theseconnections in different and varied ways, students do not all learn in the same unifiedmode. This relatively new information suggests that teaching is a complex activity

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and it necessitates the emergence and development of approaches to instruction thatare consistent with our conceptions on how learning occurs (Ewell 1997). This newunderstanding has given rise to the notion of a paradigm shift in education, one froma focus on teaching to a focus on learning (Barr and Tagg 1995). Pedagogiesemphasizing learning, such as project-based learning, inquiry-based learning,case-based learning, research-based learning, situation-based learning, actionlearning, and Problem-Based Learning (PBL) intimate that alternative pedago-gies may be gaining in importance and may ultimately become the dominantclassroom paradigm.

Allowing students to engage in these kinds of measures could permit teachers toassess important learning by examining and judging the students’ actual or simulatedperformance on significant tasks (Worthen 1993). The principles of effective assess-ment methods in PBL environments can help guide students. Assessment should havea clearly stated purpose, one related to learning. Thus, it should focus on comparingeducational goals and expectations with student performance. Instructors shouldbegin by knowing what they want their students to achieve and how they want theirlearners to acquire cognitive experiences and reach certain defined outcomes. Theyhave to consider that learning is a situated, multidimensional activity; includingbackground experiences and abilities as well as values, attitudes, and learning styles.This is quite important and according to the researcher aligned with the INSETproject on the pedagogical use of ICT in classroom-based instruction of Greekprimary school teachers, due to their diverse conceptions, beliefs, attitudes,approaches, learning styles and skills.

The problem-based learning strategy could be applied to INSET for teachers in thepedagogical use of ICT due to its motivational potential. Teachers’ motivation can beaccomplished through problem-based in-service training actions that create positiveimpulses for ICT-based learning (Wilhelmsen et al. 2002).

However, the researcher believes that the PBL method should take into accountcertain realities and necessities of the Greek educational system. The PBLmethod needsto be socially and culturally context specific, as adapted to the Greek educational modelof today; curriculum-oriented, as acknowledging the new teaching books implementedin the Greek primary and secondary curriculum from September 2006 and also modifiedand tailored to the infrastructure of the Greek schools and the preconceptions andbackground experiences of each teacher-trainee. Greek primary school teachers ratherprefer an INSET learning environment that is stimulating and motivating, engagingthem in genuine problem solving situations such as a real classroom teaching context,with examples and practices on effective implementation of pedagogic use of ICT invarious subjects with peer and mentor collaboration, self-assessment, considerate oftheir preconceptions, misconceptions and learning styles and, importantly, that providesa fruitful field for critical thinking and effective assimilation and dissemination of skillsand experiences. PBL consists and acts as a training theory and a teaching method thatneeds a careful design to incorporate clear and understandable tasks, an understanding ofthe learners’ abilities, learning styles and needs and, also, consistent and coherentevaluation techniques that record and illuminate the learning outcomes of each trainee.Furthermore and regarding the teachers’ preconceptions, misconceptions and back-ground experiences we will acknowledge and elaborate on another instruction model,the Just-in-Time Teaching (JiTT).

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5.3 Just-in-time teaching-learning and support (JiTT)

Gregor Novak (1998) a Professor of Physics, changed the form of the standard lecture.He broke up the course work into small, easily manageable and comprehensiblemodules and designed motivating exercises that required active student input for theirsolution. The results convinced Novak that students, even tired adults with competingpriorities, can and will learn when they are truly engaged. Gregor Novak developed JiTTtogether with Novak et al. (1999). Just-in-Time Teaching, learning and support is amethod based on the interaction of online and classroom activities that promotedynamic assessment within the classroom setting, improve personalization, engagestudents in active, meaningful learning and help the instructor teach material whenthe students need to know it and are ready to learn it, rather than only at a prescribedtime in the syllabus (Novak et al. 1999). The main component of JiTT is theadaptation of classroom activities (lectures) based on previous on-line student assign-ments. Improved personalization is realized through the ability to apply differentpedagogical strategies to the same concept domain. This means the possibility ofadaptively selecting and implementing the most appropriate pedagogical strategy forthe specific learner, irrespective of what s/he is learning and thereby effectivelyenhancing the learning outcome.

The core element of JiTT is the interactive lecture linked to the learning commun-ity’s ideas, preconceptions, background experiences, aspirations, beliefs and differentindividual approaches to learning and the assimilation and construction of cognition.Students do World Wide Web-based preparatory assignments, which are availableonline, a short time before class begins. The instructors then organize and form thelesson according to students’ responses. This is quite important because through this,instructors acknowledge the students’ background experiences and use their answersas inputs for class discussion. Tutors are trying to promote skills and learning throughengaging students in critical thinking, elevating estimation and problem-solving skillsin a supportive teaching and learning environment as well as emphasizing teaminteraction, community development, on-line and in-class, collaborative learningand effective communication. As Pascarella and Terenzini (1991) state:

The greater the student’s involvement or engagement, the greater his or herlevel of cognition gain and general cognitive development. (Pascarella andTerenzini 1991, p. 616)

However the model of JiTT needs to be modified in order to effectively fit into Greekprimary school teachers’ INSET courses in the pedagogical use of ICT in classroom-based instruction. The specific courses, according to the initial design, do not supporton-line activities, only a standard classroom instruction in a properly equipped, com-puter lab. The instructor could, through an informal discussion, a pre-test or a question-naire submitted at the beginning of the course, identify the learners’ preconceptions,misconceptions, beliefs, approaches, attitudes and background experiences and thusadjust his/her instruction modes to their specific learning needs and styles. Through thismethod and assimilating the information gained from the discussion, the pre-test or thequestionnaire, it is feasible to create a tailored-to-the-learner, stimulating and motivatingenvironment that promotes critical thinking, brainstorming, collaboration, group andexpert synergy and the effective sharing of information and ideas. Greek primary school

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teachers have different attitudes, concerns, approaches, preconceptions and also manymisconceptions and learning needs and styles under the influence of a certain cultural,educational and working context, that need to be effectively addressed in order tosuccessfully assimilate and disseminate new knowledge. The JiTT learning environ-ment, through its ability to identify and understand background experiences, learningstyles, preconceptions and misconceptions and also by applying different pedagogies,tailored to the various learning styles and needs of the teacher-trainees, could act as atraining paradigm that fits in the Greek educational context and may effectively engagethe trainees in the participation and learning process, producing fruitful results andleading to an effective integration of new technologies in classroom instruction.Teacher-learners aim to become members of a learning community, engaged in genuineproblem solving situations that are stimulating, motivating and in accordance to theirbackground experiences and their social and cultural contexts of practice. Moreover,there is an increasing trend of participation among Greek primary school teachers inonline communities, chat rooms and forums for an exchange of views and also in on-linelearning courses through the Greek school-net web portal (http://www.sch.gr, accessed30/7/2012) which could promote and develop the Just-in-Time Teaching, Learningand Support environments.

6 The in-course applied theories

6.1 PBL

Through the training course, the researcher, as an ICT trainer, implemented thetraining theories of PBL and JiTT in order to achieve effectiveness in training adultteachers in the pedagogy of ICT and promote learning outcomes.

The researcher-trainer aimed at the creation of an educational environment in theresearch group, which promoted learning through the encouragement and distributionof certain practical educational activities and the construction of a set of problem-based teaching and learning scenarios with the use of ICT, seeking ideas, criticalthinking, planning and solutions in the pedagogic use of ICT. Subsequently, certainspecific examples that were employed in the research group, which were initiated andintroduced by the researcher-trainer and practiced and accomplished by theparticipant-trainees, which illustrate PBL training activities will be presented.

On the 5th of September 2008, the researcher-trainer introduced to the trainees aproblem-based learning activity regarding the history and monuments of the city ofThessaloniki. The activity was titled as follows: “In which way could you bestpresent, with the use of the PowerPoint application and the new educational technol-ogies, the subject of the historic monuments of Thessaloniki enhancing the learningof pupils in the subject”.

The task involved a search over the Internet and the selection and download ofphotos and articles portraying relevant historical information regarding the specificmonuments of the city. All the particular selected files had to be inserted into aPowerPoint application and also presented to the group. The activity required work ingroups. The task challenged the trainees with the issues of specialized search forcertain files and articles on the historic monuments of the city of Thessaloniki.

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Furthermore, and most importantly, the task required a critical evaluation and selec-tion of the presented information from the on-line articles, as well as the creation of aset of criteria on which the selection of appealing, quality photos of the monumentswill be based. The trainees, according to the researcher’s field notes managed tocollaborate, exchange ideas and succeeded, in some cases with the help of the trainer,in finding the relevant web sites as well as in selecting and downloading the properfiles. The teacher-trainees created the PowerPoint presentations and portrayed them inthe class. Additionally, they compared, commented and evaluated the work, designand creation process among all the groups in the course.

On the 8th of September 2008, the researcher-trainer introduced to the traineesanother PBL activity. The task was titled: “How could you teach the subject ofGeography regarding the islands of Greece using the new educational technologiesand create an educational scenario”.

The teacher-trainees through work and collaboration in groups had to design andcreate an educational scenario through evaluating, selecting and finally implementingcertain educational websites and software titles in the specific subject of the Geog-raphy lesson. The majority of the teacher-trainees used the “Google Earth” applica-tion (http://earth.google.com, accessed 30/7/2012) the Wikipedia web site (http://www.wikipedia.org, accessed 30/7/2012) as well as several other educational soft-ware titles and applications for the project such as the educational software for thespecific subject created and disseminated by the Hellenic Pedagogical Institute,(http://e-yliko.gr/Lists/List40/DispForm.aspx?ID0137 accessed 30/7/2012) . At theend of the task, all groups presented their work, and evaluated each others’ efforts.

Many new ideas came to light and according to the observed and recorded datafrom the training sessions; everyone seemed have gained in knowledge as well as innew instruction methods. Gain in knowledge and novel teaching methods wasfeasible through the design, creation and presentation of different educational scenar-ios with a use of a variety of selected ICT applications.

According to the session recordings, the teacher-trainees managed to work ingroups, achieved collaboration, promoted evaluation techniques, understoodcritical examination and appreciated the value of exchanging ideas andthoughts. A representative participant statement supporting the aforementionedarguments follows:

Teacher 3: We are a great group and worked really well together on theactivities, finding solutions to the problems, creating interesting presentations,examining critically the facts and most importantly, promote learning, ideas andnew instructional techniques.

In addition to previous occasions, the specific observations were recorded onseveral other instances and from both the research groups, on the 15th of September2008, in the design and creation of web logs and educational web pages, the 19th ofSeptember 2008, in the comic creation session, as well as on the 13th of October2008, in the use and evaluation of the “Arts” software. According to specific fieldnotes and the in-course observations, the researcher-trainer could argue that theteacher-trainees eventually found solutions to the problem oriented activities andmanaged to create educational situations and lesson plans which promoted ICTpedagogy in classroom instruction.

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Teacher 4: Although we had a hard time at first to understand the task andfinally design and create the activity, through discussion, ideas and search forthe right tools, we managed to produce and present a really interesting activitythat I believe will apply to the class and the pupils and promote fruitfuloutcomes even for hard to control students.

The changing role of the teacher from the sole source of information to thefacilitator and coordinator of a learning situation was a hard task in the beginningof the course for some of the trainees, as recorded in the field notes of the researcher’sdiary of events on the 5th and the 8th of September 2008. Through a set of teachingactivities such as group work, selection and evaluation of resources, as well aspresentation of projects and the promotion and distribution of cognitive experiencesand practicing examples of interesting tasks, teacher-trainees started to embrace thenew model and adopted the new role in their learning and teaching activities,according to field notes taken on the 15th and the 22nd of September 2008.

Teacher 6: It is quite hard for me after all these years of teaching to change mystyle and instead of lecturing to start coordinating the students.

However, in order to succeed and produce significant learning outcomes from thetrainees, the researcher-trainer had to adjust the problem-based training to the con-temporary educational reality of the Greek school system. The examples, activitiesand training tasks, which included problem-based situations, had to be related andspecialized to the current Greek educational system. As evidenced in the previouslypresented training activities, the subjects as well as the software titles and relevantweb sites had to be suitable for the Greek educational curriculum and the Greekschool learning environment and infrastructure in general. Furthermore, the strategywas to promote and create a problem-based teaching and learning environment,respectful and considerate of the culture, necessities and local context of educationin the city of Thessaloniki.

PBL consists of training methods that need careful design of clear and under-standable tasks, understanding of the learners’ abilities, preconceptions and miscon-ceptions, learning styles and needs as well as consistent and coherent evaluationtechniques that record and illuminate the learning outcomes of each learner. Addi-tionally, and in consideration of the teachers’ preconceptions, misconceptions andbackground experiences, the researcher-trainer acknowledged and adopted anotherinstruction model in the INSET in ICT pedagogy course, the Just-in-Time Teaching(JiTT).

6.2 JiTT

The researcher-trainer, through the distribution of the pre-INSET questionnaires, theearly days in-course discussions, exchange of ideas and thoughts and initial assign-ments, identified the teacher-trainees’ level of ICT competence, computer use andlearning style. That was valuable information for the creation and promotion oftailored pedagogic strategies to the skill level and learning methods of the specificteacher-trainees. Certain examples of JiTT methods are illustrated in the followingparagraphs.

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On the 3rd of September 2008, the researcher-trainer distributed pre-INSET ques-tionnaires in an attempt to identify the competence level of the teacher-trainees in termsof volume, variety and level of computer use, in class and at home. Following theanalysis of the data, on the 5th and the 8th of September 2008, the researcher-trainerinitiated a discussion on the issues of skill level and volume of use of ICT pedagogywiththe teacher-trainees in the schools, in accordance to the school’s infrastructure and alsosupport and degree of collaboration with colleagues and the head teacher of the school.Subsequent to the discussions, the trainer introduced to the teacher-trainees a test taskincluding the creation of an educational PowerPoint presentation on the topic oflanguage learning and in particular on the letters of the Greek alphabet. The informationpresented and recorded in all the activities determined the training methodology and thetasks’ design. Thus, issues of the level of difficulty, as well as the variety of methods oftraining such as group organization, support provision and guidance to the trainees inaccordance with their cognitive level, confidence and competence in ICT pedagogy inclassroom instruction were considered. Furthermore, certain issues were regarded asimportant in organizing the mode of training and of the tasks such as context and localityof the teacher-trainees, the schools’ infrastructure, and curriculum, number of studentsand different levels of ICT skills and competence of the teacher-trainees.

Teacher 2: I find the consideration of our level of competence on ICT as well asthe conditions that exist in our schools quite important and very thoughtful bythe trainer so as to feel confident in order to proceed with the tasks and producesomething of value. It is quite important for a training course to acknowledge allthese unique factors for each participant.

The model of JiTT had to be modified in order to effectively fit into Greek primaryschool teachers’ in-service training course in the pedagogic use of ICT in classroom-based instruction. Through the selection of the relevant resources and educationalscenarios, the researcher adjusted training methods to the cultural and educationalreality of the trainees. Respectful of the educational conditions, infrastructure ofschools, level of support and degree of cognitive experiences of the trainees, a certainteaching and learning environment was created and promoted.

As a result the trainer was able to focus on adjusting the cognitive experiences inthe course through specific strategies and tasks to the students’ learning needs andlevel of competence, thus increasing the instruction’s value and keeping traineesinterested, engaged and motivated. Greek primary school teachers have differentattitudes about teaching, concerns, approaches, preconceptions and also many mis-conceptions and learning behavior that needs to be effectively addressed in order tosuccessfully assimilate and disseminate new ideas, teaching and learning roles andpedagogy. It is argued that the JiTT learning environment through its ability toidentify and understand background experiences, learning styles, preconceptionsand misconceptions and also by applying different pedagogies, tailored to the diverselearning styles and needs of the trainees, could effectively engage students in thelearning process. According to the researcher’s field notes, on the 26th and the 29th ofSeptember 2008, from the training sessions, over variable tasks, pedagogic strategiesand practicing examples tailored to the learners’ level of competence and ability,motivation and engagement were enhanced and a fruitful field for promotion of acollaborative and participating environment was formed and sustained.

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6.3 Situated cognition

The teachers developed and revealed their identities through a certain interaction,created among the trainer and the trainees in authentic learning environments, realteaching situations and activities in a specific context as well as through the exposureand expression of certain qualities, such as trust and support. The particular theory,Situated Cognition, (Lave and Wenger 1991) and Communities of Practice (Wenger1998) employed as a research theory, enabled reflection and acknowledgement of theteacher-trainees’ different characteristics and posture on the subject. Through thecommunities of practice which were formed and developed in the course, theresearcher identified certain profiles of the trainees. These profiles were related toparticipatory trajectories, language as in the voicing of specific words and phrases,cognitive experience, gain, competence, alignment and development of awareness onissues regarding ICT pedagogy and the desire to understand the effective function-ality and successful integration of new technologies in the classroom. Moreover therewere also noted other particular profiles’ associations to non-participation, marginal-ity as well as unwillingness to learn new skills and new instruction activities with ICTthrough the utilization of certain educational scenarios and the adoption of specificteaching methods and practices. The concept of Situated Cognition in the researcher’sview fits interestingly into the Greek primary school teachers’ ways of assimilatingand disseminating information and cognitive experiences through common pathssuch as social and cultural, real world, classroom learning environments, which areconsiderate of and build upon their ideologies, values, beliefs, concepts, prac-tices, attitudes and skills. The design and running of an effective trainingcourse appear essential in the identification of the different profiles of theteacher-trainees, the categorization according to their diverse characteristicsand the successful handling of these personalities in an effort to promoteefficiency in acquiring competences and implementing successful and sustainedICT pedagogy in the class.

Furthermore, the creation of an online group (http://groups.google.gr/group/1o-esperino-lykeio, accessed 30/7/2012) and the promotion of web based activitiesbetween the trainees, through exchange of files, ideas and participation in discussionforums helped them in developing a sense of community, collaborative activities anda critical dealing with the issues of ICT pedagogy according to recorded activity onpostings and files’ exchange between the participant-trainees in the web-based group.Teachers promoted teamwork and support through online activities and the creationof a digital library with all the relevant articles and subjects concerning the trainingcourse. The task was initiated by the researcher-trainer at the early days of the trainingcourse and quickly all the trainees joined and contributed through a variety ofactivities, such as downloading and uploading educational material in relation tothe training course, related articles, educational scenarios, PowerPoint presentationsof a variety of teaching subjects or any other digital content associated with theprogram.

Teacher 8: We finally managed to work in groups and collaborate in the courseas well as online. We were unfamiliar with this kind of training but proved to beuseful in many instances through the design and creation of the tasks.

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In addition and according to the researcher’s diary of events and data submitted onthe specific web based group, the participant-trainees initiated discussion topics,exchanged ideas and opinions and cultivated a sense of partnership and collaborationin the field of effectively implementing ICT use in classroom instruction.

6.4 The distributed community

The researcher documented and assessed any possible use or non-use of ICT peda-gogy in classroom-based instruction and also attempted to identify any potentialfactors and reasons influencing the teachers’ different profiles and decisions on theuse or not of the new technologies in classroom instruction through the formation of adistributed community of practice (Pea and Gomez 1992), in which the teacher-trainees after the end of the training course split up and rejoined with the researcher intheir school environment through in-class supportive sessions and observations. Theteacher-trainees carried their identities and developed them further through in-classand in-school interaction with the trainer during practical activities, argumentativediscussion sessions, as well as exposure of weaknesses and strengths of the traineesvia authentic teaching environments and real classroom practices with ICT pedagogy.

Through a distributed community of practice (Pea and Gomez 1992) the ‘On theJob’ training model and the ‘Membership Associations’ (Wenger 1998) between theresearcher-trainer and the participants, the researcher attempted to follow the traineesin their school environment and record any potential shift in practices with ICTpedagogy, any progress, stability or decline as well as any transition in profiles,attitudes and behavior through time. In order for the researcher to reveal anddocument the varying profiles of the trainees it is important to continue to unveilthe overall picture of the participants. That could be achieved through the recordingof characteristic statements, the volume and level of practices with ICT pedagogy aswell as the various instruction methods adopted. The process was based on aconsistent set of descriptors: successful learning, behavior, creativity and curriculum.It could be argued that the identification of the changing identities could not beachieved through only one field trip but rather by numerous field trips and over anextended period of time. A detailed study through time and the continuous recordingof the trainees’ statements and behavioral modes could contribute to the creation of amore clear and thorough portrait of the trainees’ profiles, as well as the extensivemapping of the influencing factors, on the issue.

7 Conclusions, reflections and the teacher-trainees

Regarding the main objective of the research evaluation of the implementation andeffectiveness of the INSET of the second level project in the pedagogic use of ICT inclassroom-based instruction byGreek primary school teachers in the city of Thessaloniki,and also trying to answer the research questions:

Do teachers learn how to use ICT pedagogy in classroom-based instructionthrough certain training methods such as: participation in specific communitiesof practice, in-class training through the expert-novice model of training, the

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cognitive apprenticeship model, based on the Situated Cognition theory (SC),the Problem-based Teaching and Learning method (PBL) and the Just-in-TimeTeaching and Learning model (JITT)?

It seems that participation and engagement in the practicing community of thecourse, as well as gains in confidence, skills and cognitive experiences are highlyconnected and affected by a specific approach, the risk-taking, open and flexibleposture, on the issues of ICT pedagogy integration in classroom instruction by theparticular teacher-trainees. Throughout the course certain participants have changedand shifted from inactivity and marginality to an active engagement in the practicingcommunity and the production of interesting and applicable educational scenariosand outcomes with the utilization of ICT tools and resources whilst others did not.Effie and especially Evridiki,(The names of the specific participant teacher-traineeshave been altered) although portraying peripherality to the course’s tasks and aims atthe start of the course, from the midterm sessions of the program and since theintroduction of practical activities connected to the PBL training theory, they shifted,presenting change,[ to a significant degree for Evridiki] and adopted an inbound,participatory trajectory into the community of practice.

Effie: The applications are quite interesting and I believe could effectively workwith my children in the school I would like to learn how to utilize any new toolson the subject and to practice them in classroom teaching. I am also open tosuggestions and ideas from the course.

Evridiki: I seem now to understand the methods of integrating ICT pedagogy inclassroom instruction and the fruitful ways to utilize these tools in everydayteaching and learning. I can now feel able to employ these new instructionmodes, implement the appropriate tools in my class and promote learning.

They portrayed a willingness to take risks, an openness, engagement in theprojects, imagination with using the various applications of new technologies inclassroom teaching and learning, as well as an alignment to the course’s aims andteaching modes. It is interesting to note that an influencing factor for the promotion ofchange, along with others, was the researcher’s modification of the course’s topics,based on the JiTT training theory, in order to meet the prior experiences of thespecific teacher-trainees, Effie and Evridiki, as well as the particular requirementsin terms of their classroom needs such as the introduction of specific tools andinstruction modes. Petros portrayed a positive and open stance to the course’s aimsfrom the very beginning of the program. He further progressed through the sessions,gaining in knowledge and exhibited an active and contributing stance in the practic-ing community and the projects.

Petros: I would like to offer my students new ways of learning through theutilization of quality ICT tools and increase their knowledge via the productionof interesting projects designed and created through collaboration of the wholeclass.

Petros presented imagination, a willingness to take risks as well as collaborativequalities from the very first sessions of the course. Qualities recognizable through theSituated Cognition research theory applied in the session by the researcher. He

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constantly took initiatives and effectively participated in the active core group of thecommunity with the other trainees of a similar stance from the beginning of thetraining course, also exhibiting additional qualities such as imagination in using thelearning products and a continuous alignment to the course’s aims. Petros portrayedan expected progress throughout the study, adopted successful instruction modes withICT pedagogy as well as designed and created interesting and applicable educationalscenarios for teaching with the new technologies through the utilization of a variety ofICT tools and resources.

Conversely, when studying Antoni’s profile, according to his statements and thediary of events, the researcher noted that he adopted a marginal, closed , risk averse,inflexible and inactive stance from the beginning of the course and remained ratherstatic throughout the study. He embraced a peripheral stance and showed someparticipatory activity only when interesting [according to his view] tools and resour-ces were introduced in the sessions. He remained non-collaborative and did not alterhis mode of work so as to engage in group activities within the community. Inaddition he did not change his teaching style in the in-class supporting and evaluatingsessions and he expressed a series of concerns regarding lack of infrastructure,awards, support and the need for extra time and effort in order to effectively integrateICT pedagogic strategies in classroom teaching and learning.

Antonis: Most of the tools seem rather inappropriate for in classroom instruc-tion. The new teaching modes are not suitable so as to properly control mystudents. The already known lecturing method and the in-class dialogue seemmore suitable for the particular pupils.

It seems that neither the tools nor the methods seemed appropriate for thisparticular teacher-trainee. Perhaps a different approach through more supportiveactivities, linked to Antoni’s classroom needs would prove more effective.

It could be argued that it is evident that the engineering of an effective in-servicetraining course, producing optimal results in the integration of ICT pedagogy inclassroom instruction could be achieved under certain prerequisites. The selectionand employment of a research theory, Situated Cognition (Lave and Wenger 1991) aswell as the training theories of Problem-based Learning, PBL (McMaster MedicalSchool 1969) and the Just-in-Time Teaching, JiTT (Novak 1998) proved to be incertain cases and in the particular educational context and time and setting effective inunderstanding the trainees’ needs, as well as the formation and development of thedifferent profiles on the subject. Exposure of the trainees’ stances, as well as theidentification and documentation of the shifting profiles achieved through the dis-cussions, recorded statements, exchange of thoughts and ideas as well as the variedparticipation modes and the noted learning outcomes of the teachers in the specificcommunity. A detailed study of the daily diary of events from the four differentphases of the training course, and the documentation and indexing of certain behav-ioural stances, such as specific volumes of participation, diverse degrees of contri-bution in the course, various levels of confidence and competence on the subject aswell as the shifting trajectories of the teacher-trainees, lead the researcher into theacknowledgement and categorization of the profiles as well as the shifting identitiesof the trainees. The post course, ‘On the Job’, evaluation, support and instruction

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research study, through a Distributed Community (Pea and Gomez 1992) provided afruitful field for a further development of the trainees’ identities through authenticlearning situations and interaction with the trainer and colleagues in the school.Through the in-class, post course, support and evaluation study using authenticactivities commitment and collaboration in accordance with previous studies (Grangeret al. 2002) the trainer noted specific characteristics and changes.

Authentic learning (i.e. Learning in which the activities represent thevaried types of complex tasks performed by and scenarios encounteredby professionals rather than de-contextualised, content-based activities)and the development of critical thinking, time management and planningskills. (Juwah 2001, p. 2)

Enriching previous research on the issue, Rogers (1995) the teachers developedand revealed their shifting identities through a certain interaction, created among thetrainer and the trainees in authentic learning environments, real teaching situationsand activities in a specific context and culture, as well as through the exposure andexpression of specific qualities, such as trust and support.

The co-functionality of the aforementioned theories through interrelated learningactivities, considerate of different learning needs and background experiences of thelearners, operating in socially and culturally structured communities of practice,could contribute to the creation of challenging and diverse teacher training learningenvironments that accounts for learners’ beliefs and attitudes and tailors the learningcontext, so as to promote deep learning.

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