Chapter 50An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere

50.2: Interactions between organisms and the environment limit the distribution of species

• Ecologists have long recognized global and regional patterns of distribution of organisms within the biosphere

• Many naturalists began to identify broad patterns of distribution by naming biogeographic realms

LE 50-5

Tropic

of Cancer

(23.5°N)

Equator

(23.5°S)

Tropic of

Capricorn

Neotropical

Ethiopian

Australian

Oriental

Nearctic

Palearctic

Many naturalists identify broad patterns of distribution by naming biogeographic realms

LE 50-6

Dispersallimits

distribution?

Species absentbecause

Behaviorlimits

distribution?

Area inaccessibleor insufficient time

Yes

No

Yes

No

Biotic factors(other species)

limitdistribution?

Habitat selection

Abiotic factorslimit

distribution?

Predation, parasitism,competition, disease

Yes

No

Chemicalfactors

WaterOxygenSalinitypHSoil nutrients, etc.

Physicalfactors

TemperatureLightSoil structureFireMoisture, etc.

Biogeography - Provides a good starting point for

understanding what limits geographic distribution of species

Dispersal and Distribution• Dispersal is movement of individuals away from centers

of high population density or from their area of origin

• Dispersal contributes to global distribution of organisms

Natural Range Expansions

• Natural range expansions show the influence of dispersal on distribution

Species Transplants• Species transplants include organisms that are

intentionally or accidentally relocated from their original distribution

• Species transplants can disrupt the communities or ecosystems to which they have been introduced

Behavior and Habitat Selection

• Some organisms - do not occupy all of their potential range

• Species distribution - may be limited by habitat selection behavior

Biotic Factors

• Biotic factors that affect the distribution of organisms may include:• Interactions with other species• Predation• Competition

• A specific case of an herbivore limiting distribution of a food species

Figure 50.8

W. J. Fletcher tested the effects of two algae-eating animals, sea urchins and limpets, on seaweed

abundance near Sydney, Australia. In areas adjacent to a control site, either the urchins, the limpets, or both were removed.

EXPERIMENT

RESULTS Fletcher observed a large difference in seaweed growth between areas with and without sea urchins.

100

80

60

40

20

0

Limpet

Seaurchin Both limpets

and urchinsremoved

Onlyurchinsremoved

Only limpets removed

August1982

February1983

August1983

February1984

Control (bothurchins andlimpets present)

Seaw

eed

co

ver

(%)

Removing bothlimpets andurchins orremoving onlyurchins increasedseaweed coverdramatically.

Almost noseaweed grewin areas whereboth urchins andlimpets werepresent, or whereonly limpets wereremoved.

Removing both limpets and urchins resulted in the greatest increase of seaweed cover, indicating that both

species have some influence on seaweed distribution. But since removing only urchins greatly increased seaweed growth while

removing only limpets had little effect, Fletcher concluded that sea urchins have a much greater effect than limpets in limiting

seaweed distribution.

CONCLUSION

Abiotic Factors•Abiotic factors affecting distribution of

organisms:• Temperature•Water• Sunlight•Wind•Rocks and soil

Temperature

• Environmental temperature is an important factor in distribution of organisms because of its effects on biological processes

Water

• Water availability in habitats is another important factor in species distribution

Sunlight• Light intensity and quality

affects photosynthesis

• Light is also important to development and behavior of organisms sensitive to photoperiod

Wind• Wind amplifies effects of temperature by increasing

heat loss from evaporation and convection

• Wind can change morphology of plants

Rocks and Soil• Many characteristics of

soil limit distribution of plants and thus the animals that feed upon them:• Physical structure• pH• Mineral composition

Climate• Four major abiotic components of climate: temperature,

water, sunlight, and wind

• Climate is the prevailing weather in an area

• Macroclimate consists of patterns on the global, regional, and local level

• Microclimate consists of very fine patterns, such as those encountered by the community of organisms underneath a fallen log

Global Climate Patterns• Global climate patterns are determined largely by solar

energy and the planet’s movement in space

Lower angle of in coming sunlight

Direct sunlight at equinoxes

Lower angle of in coming sunlight

Atmosphere

Sunlight intensity plays a major part in determining the Earth’s climate patternsSeasonal variations of light and temperature increase steadily toward the poles

LE 50-10b

June solstice: Northern Hemisphere tilts toward sun; summer begins in Northern Hemisphere; winter begins in Southern Hemisphere.

30°N

30°S

0° (equator)

60°N

Constant tilt

of 23.5°

September equinox: Equator faces sun directly; neither pole tilts toward sun; all regions on Earth experience 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness.

December solstice: Northern Hemisphere tilts away from sun; winter begins in Northern Hemisphere; summer begins in Southern Hemisphere.

March equinox: Equator faces sun directly; neither pole tilts toward sun; all regions on Earth experience 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness.

• Global air circulation and wind patterns play major roles in determining climate patterns

LE 50-10d

30°N

30°S

0°

(equator)

60°N

60°S

ArcticCircle

AntarcticCircle

Westerlies

Northeast trades

Doldrums

Westerlies

Southeast trades

Regional, Local, and Seasonal Effects on Climate• Various features of the landscape contribute to

local variations in climate• Trees/no trees• Elevation • Latitude

• Seasonal variation also influences climate

Bodies of Water

• Oceans and their currents and large lakes moderate the climate of nearby terrestrial environments

Mountains• Mountains have a significant effect on

• The amount of sunlight reaching an area

• Local temperature

• Rainfall

Seasonality• The angle of the sun leads to

many seasonal changes in local environments

• Lakes are sensitive to seasonal temperature change and experience seasonal turnover

LE 50-13

WinterO2 (mg/L)

12

Lake d

ep

th (

m)

24

16

8

840

O2 concentration

High (>8 mg/L)

Medium (4–8 mg/L)

Low (<4 mg/L)

O2 (mg/L)

12

Lake d

ep

th (

m)

24

16

8

840

O2 (mg/L)

12

Lake d

ep

th (

m)

24

16

8

840

O2 (mg/L)

12

Lake d

ep

th (

m)

24

16

8

840

Autumn Summer

Spring

Thermocline

4°C5°6°

8°18°

20°22°

4°C

4°4°

4°4°

4°

4°C

4°4°

4°4°

4°

4°C

4°4°

2°0°

4°

Lakes

- Are sensitive to seasonal temperature change - Experience seasonal turnover

Microclimate• Microclimate is determined by fine-scale differences in

abiotic factors

Long-Term Climate Change• One way to predict future global climate change is to

study previous changes

ANY QUESTIONS?