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SLA for the ALT
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An Introduction to
Second Language Acquisition
for the ALTBy Renaud Davies
The following is a pedagogical guide to provide Assistant Language Teachers (ALTs)
with a general blueprint that will assist them in their planning and designing of lessons
and curriculum in the Japanese High School and Junior High School. The purpose of
this guide is to assist ALTs in the development of lessons and curriculum in situations
where they are given extra freedom and control over lesson planning. In such cases,
ALTs with little to no experience or knowledge in language teaching may feel
overwhelmed and perhaps even frustrated. Basic questions which may arise include:
“What should I teach?” and “How should I teach?” This guide endeavors to answer such
questions through discussing relevant SLA theories with the hope that readers will be
left with a better sense of how to best design their lessons and activities to benefit their
students’ learning.
To begin, it is first important to look at the history of different theories, methods and
approaches to better grasp where we currently stand in the world of language teaching.
I have attached a brief history of language teaching along with summaries of the most
popular language theories and teaching methods. This excellent visual history and
summary list was created by Ben Shearon who is currently teaching at Tohoku
University.
Introduction
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• Theories help to guide teachers in lesson planning helping them to choose appropriate methods and approaches.
• Theories help to answer the why and how in lesson planning.
• Theories can also help teachers to validate what they do in the classroom.
Choosing an Approach
Approach VS. Method
Note: An approach is a cohesive set of theoretical and practical beliefs. It is the why in
language teaching and it provides certain principles. As for method, it is the how in
language teaching; it is the application of the aspects of an approach.
You may favor a single approach or method for teaching, but I encourage ALTs to
borrow ideas from a variety of teaching methods and approaches to establish a desired
framework. First, it is important to realize that communicative competence does not hold
the same importance in Japan, as the focus for learners is on preparing themselves to
meet the challenges of the strict requirements of university entrance exams which give
saliency to lexical and grammatical knowledge rather than English communication.
Consequently, the grammar-translation method is still present despite the push towards
a more communicative approach. Current curriculum still gives weight to reading,
writing, vocabulary and grammar leaving listening and especially speaking on a much
lower pedestal. Lessons also tend to be teacher-centered rather than student-centered.
The Approach
Why learn SLA theory?
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In an attempt to balance this curriculum weight scale, I have put together a teaching
approach which borrows from several different approaches to provide ALTs with a
framework from which they can build and design lessons and curriculum for their
students. Using such a framework is most helpful when deciding on what to teach, what
activities to use, and why. ALTs are encouraged to research and explore other theories
and methods to create their own communicative curriculum to complement MEXT goals.
The suggested approach is a multifaceted approach incorporating ideas from the
Communicative and Natural Approach to Language Teaching, the Lexical Approach,
Task-based Language Teaching, Social Constructivist Theory and Multiple Intelligences
Theory. The key principles can be summarized as follows:
Language is communication
Activities should aim at promoting interaction and be designed to focus on completing
tasks through negotiation of meaning with teachers facilitating learner interaction. The
aim is communicative competence. In this approach language is used in real context;
grammar is taught both deductively and inductively; the target language is a vehicle for
classroom communication as oppose to an object of study; the students’ L1 or native
language can be used if necessary and a variety of methods or approaches can be
applied. Fluency is important; accuracy is not of importance; students are free to make
errors since the goal is meaningful communication; drilling is discouraged. It is a
learner-centered approach in which students are given the opportunity to express their
ideas and opinions.
Acquisition verses learning
Acquisition, according to Stephen Krashen, is a subconscious process whereas learning
is a conscious process. Krashen believed that second language learners should attempt
to acquire linguistic rules subconsciously and in a natural way much like a child acquires
Suggested Teaching Approach
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language. Furthermore, the acquirer must receive comprehensible input through
reading or hearing language that is slightly above their current level. Also, Krashen
discusses what he terms an affective filter. A learner who is tense, anxious, or bored will
block out input, making it unavailable for acquisition. Thus, depending on the learner’s
state of mind, the filter limits what is acquired. The filter will be up when the learner is
self-conscious or unmotivated. It will be down when the learner is motivated or feeling
relaxed. 1
For more information on Krashen’s Input Hypothesis:
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Learning and Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.
http://fredshannon.blogspot.com/2005/11/input-hypothesis.html
The art of language instruction
There are two popular approaches to language instruction. The first is the Present,
Practice, Produce (PPP) paradigm and the second is the Task-based approach. The
former is a much more direct approach which involves the teacher first presenting the
new language and demonstrating its use. This is followed by controlled practice coupled
with a shift from teacher-centeredness to student-centeredness. Finally, students
practice what they have learned with student talk-time at its maximum.
Conversely, In task-based learning, the content students are to learn develops as
students progress through a given task. First, the ALT and JTE explain how they will
complete the task and review any vocabulary or grammar that will be useful. Next, the
teachers monitor and record language problems met during the task. Finally, the
teacher reviews the problems that students encountered during the task and has them
practice again. The task-based approach is a smart choice for students who are
motivated and work well independently. It uses language as a vehicle for authentic real
world needs allowing students to experiment with their store of knowledge rather than
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just practicing one pre-selected item. I recommend ALTs to use this latter approach
when possible.
For more information on task-based language teaching:
Jane Willis, A Framework for Task-Based Learning, Longman ELT
Example of a Task-based Lesson:Task-based grammar teaching – tips and activities by Lindsay Clandfieldhttp://www.onestopenglish.com/section.asp?docid=144974
Language is like a tapestry
The development of oral and listening skills is a priority; however, reading and writing
skills should not be ignored. Oxford’s analogy of a tapestry is perhaps best in portraying
the complexity and importance of integration in ESL/EFL curriculum and instruction.
Oxford aptly describes integration as a tapestry intricately woven from many strands in
such a way as to create, ideally, a tapestry that is strong, colourful and beautiful. She
argues that one of the most important of these strands consists of the four primary
skills: reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Oxford posits “the skill strand of the
tapestry leads to optimal ESL/EFL communication when the skills are interwoven”.2 She
stresses this integrated-skill approach as opposed to the compartmentalization of skills
or what she terms the segregated-skill approach. In short, curriculum that offers the
potential for a variety of skills to be used during classroom activities is an ideal
curriculum.
The L1 as a teaching and learning tool
JTEs know the learner's native language (L1) which gives them the possibility to make
L1 an ally to enhance learning. Therefore, activities involving L1 and L2 comparison and
translation are extremely helpful in the learning process. Using the L1 is also beneficial
when explaining difficult concepts. The use of L1 as a means of instruction should be
kept at a minimum, but is expected more at lower stages of learning in order to offer
learners affective support and increase their self-confidence.
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Research shows that we ‘chunk’ language
“Without grammar little can be conveyed; without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.” David Wilkins 3
Since you are in a fortunate situation which allows you to create materials for
monolingual students, the materials can expose learners to an exceptional quantity of
vocabulary. This brings us to our next question, “How does one teach vocabulary?” One
possible approach to teaching vocabulary is what is termed, The Lexical Approach. This
approach is based on a computer analysis of language which identifies the most
common and hence, most useful words, in the language and their various uses.
Important Points Regarding Lexical Theory
• Words typically co-occur with other words. These co-occurrences (or chunks) are an
aid to fluency.
Example:
By the way
If I were you
out of your mind
I know what you mean
terrible accident
That’s a great idea
• Learners pass through a stage where they use a high percentage of prefabricated
chunks. How are you? Fine, thank you. And you?
• Teaching vocabulary as a list of isolated words de-contextualizes language – context
is extremely important!
• Fluent and appropriate language use requires collocational knowledge. According to
Pawley and Syder (1983)4 the best explanation of how language users can choose the
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most appropriate ways to say things from a large range of possible options (nativelike
selection), is that units of language of clause length or longer are stored as chunks in
the memory. They suggest that this explanation means that most words are stored
many times, once as an individual word and numerous times in larger stored chunks.
• Memorized clauses and clause sequences make up a large percentage of the fluent
stretches of speech heard in everyday conversation.
"It is our ability to use lexical phrases that helps us to speak with fluency.
This prefabricated speech has both the advantages of more efficient retrieval
and of permitting speakers (and learners) to direct their attention to the
larger structure of the discourse, rather than keeping it narrowly focused on
individual words as they are produced" (Nattinger and DeCarrico, 1992)5.
Finally, syllabuses should include only maximally useful language items. Vocabulary
items should reflect the needs and interests of your students. Focus on the words they
need to communicate effectively in English. Also, phonological aspects should be dealt
with in the material and contain only those especially difficult for Japanese learners. For
example, Japanese learners tend to confuse the phonemes /r/ and /l/ and /b/ and /v/.
Thus, emphasis should be given to these.
For more information regarding the lexical approach:
Lewis, Michael (1993), The Lexical Approach, Hove: Language Teaching
Publications.
Lewis, Michael (1997). Implementing the Lexical Approach: Putting Theory
Into Practice. Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
Learners need social interaction
Social constructivism stresses the importance of social interaction and
cooperation when learning. Thus, constructivist research examines learners engaged in
social practices and cooperative learning to see how such individuals construct meaning
out of the input received during interactions. Social constructivist theory owes much to
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its greatest contributor, Lev Semeonovich Vygotsky. Perhaps his most monumental
contribution to constructivist theory is his work relating to what he termed the Zone of
Proximal Development or ZPD. Vygotsky defines ZPD as:
“The difference between the child’s development level as determined by independent
problem solving and the higher level of potential development as determined through
problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable
peers.”(Vygotsky, 1978, p.85)6.
Neo-Vygotskyans commonly use the scaffold metaphor to describe ZPD. During
social learning one’s understanding is scaffolded or raised by another person who is
operating at a slightly higher level closing the gap between a learners existing
developmental state and their potential development. In short, a student is able to do
more with the help of adults or peers than if he or she were alone. Furthermore, social
learning encompasses other benefits such as increased empathy, a sense of belonging
and better communication skills, all of which are supported by a cooperative community
which in turn increases a participant’s self-esteem and consequently, further decreases
inhibition and other affective factors that plague learners. Group activities with teacher
facilitation can accomplish this. Ask your JTE to help you organize students into groups
so that higher level students are paired with lower level students.
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For more information:
Book: Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in Society. London: Harvard University Press.
Website: [http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/constructivism.htm]
On cooperative Learning:
Website: [http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/coopcollab/index.html]
Also, see Krashen’s Input Hypothesis for more on affective factors (p.23).
People learn differently
The Theory of Multiple Intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner,
professor of education at Harvard University. The theory suggests that the traditional
notion of intelligence, based on I.Q. testing, is too limited. In response to this, Dr.
Gardner proposes eight different intelligences to account for a broader range of human
potential in children and adults. These intelligences are as follows:
Linguistic intelligence ("word smart"):
Excellent Speakers and Listeners.
Work best through lectures, recordings and discussions.
Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart")
Above average aptitude for problem solving.
Work best through classifications and problem solving activities.
Visual/Spatial intelligence ("picture smart")
Imaginative and creative.
Good at reading body language.
Work best through drawing and visual diagrams.
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart")
Understands sensory material from hands on experience.
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Work best through lessons requiring movement.
Musical intelligence ("music smart")
Highly responsive to audial stimuli.
Work best while listening to music.
Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart")
Sociable and excellent at working in groups.
Work best through collaboration and cooperation.
Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart")
Reflective and independent thinkers.
Understand their own strengths and weaknesses.
Work best through self-evaluations and individually paced projects.
Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")
Excellent understanding of biology and the natural world.
Work best through “show and tell” and field trips.
For more information on the M.I Theory:
http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/mi/index.html
As ALTs, we can apply M.I. theory by simply creating lessons that aim at several
intelligences. If you are having trouble teaching certain students through traditional
linguistic instruction you may want to adjust your lesson to facilitate effective learning.
In conclusion, I hope you have found this brief introduction to Second Language
Acquisition interesting and useful. If you are interested in learning more or perhaps
pursuing a career in ESL, please feel free to contact me at any time.
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Renaud Davies
Bibliography
1 Lightbown, P. and Spada, N. (1998). How Languages are Learned. Oxford University Press: New York. p. 23
2 Oxford Rebecca, “Integrated Skills in the ESL/EFL Classroom”. Eric Digest.
2001. p.2
3 Wilkins, David A. (1972). Linguistics in Language Teaching. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
4 Pawley, Andrew and Syder, Frances Hodgetts. (1983). Two puzzles for
linguistic theory: native like selection and native like fluency. In Language
And Communication,Jack C.Richards and Richard W. Schmidt (eds.),
191-225. London: Longman.
5 Nattinger, James R. and DeCarrico Jeanette S. (1992). Lexical Phrases and
Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
6 Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between Learning and Development (pp.
79-91). In Mind in Society. (Trans. M. Cole). Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
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