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ANALYSIS OF TEXTBOOKS, QUESTIONNAIRE AND

INTERVIEWS

This chapter starts with content analysis of the textbooks for teaching English in

Indian and Iranian schools. It presents the analysis of Teacher’s Beliefs’

Questionnaire and concludes with interview with Indian and Iranian English teachers.

5.1. Content Analysis of the Textbooks

Content analysis of Indian and Iranian textbooks with regard to their compatibility

with communicative approach in teaching language skills and area, language of

instruction is given below.

5.1.1. Textbooks for Teaching English in India

The analysis of the textbooks published by NCERT for teaching English in Indian

secondary schools is given in two parts: the first part discusses the organisation of

each units of the textbooks, the second part deals with the textbooks’ teaching of

language skills and areas.

5.1.1.1. Organisation of Different Sections of the Units of the Textbooks

Each Indian textbook starts with “notes to the teacher”. The notes provide a brief

introduction to the nature, content and subsequent activities in the forthcoming

lessons. A communicative approach is evident in these notes, for example they

highlight the importance of context, the necessity of interaction, discussion, and

sharing of ideas in pair work, group work, and the significance of free response

exercises, etc.

The units of the textbooks for grades VII, VIII, IX and X are arranged under the

following headings:

Before You Read - (All) gives information about the text to be read and

sometimes it asks questions requiring free response from the reader.

Activity- requires students to discuss and do activities such as “rearranging

words”, and “thinking, guessing and matching them”.

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Oral Comprehension Check - is a while reading activity which checks that

learners are indeed following the text.

Understanding the Text - checks detailed comprehension of the text.

Talking about the Text - provides students with grounds for discussion based

on their full understanding of the text. This section requires students to relate

the text to their own opinion and attitude through pair work or group work.

Thinking about Language - focuses on genre and contains questions about

the type of language used by different characters in the text.

Working with Words - requires students to focus on application of words,

word collocation and words belonging to the same semantic field.

Noticing Form - requires students to pay attention to the structure of the

sentences.

Poem is also included in each lesson. The poem is either in the beginning of

the unit or at the very end. The poem is followed by working with poem. In

this section, there are questions requiring understanding the meaning and

rhyme of the poem.

Speaking and Writing - require students to speak/write in the form of

narration and relate the text to their own experience or use their imagination.

The textbooks for Grade VII and VIII do not contain grammatical explanations, but

the textbooks for Grades book IX and X present grammatical explanations and

relevant exercises.

5.1.1.2. Textbooks’ Teaching of Language Skills and Areas

Textbooks’ teaching of each language skill and area is presented in two parts:

5.1.1.2.1. Language Skills

(i) Listening

Listening activities require students to listen to what is usually read out by the teacher

and to fill in the blanks with missing information, or to answer questions checking

students' understanding of the main idea or details.

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Example:

(ii) Speaking

Speaking activities can be classified into:

Talking about the reading text

Completing dialogue

Narrating something happened in the past

Describing somebody

Group discussion and role play by using imagination.

Example:

Presenting oral report of a survey

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Asking and answering questions about likes/ dislikes, preferences, hobbies,

and personal characteristics.

(iii) Reading

Reading texts are about wide variety of issues and topics such as internet, sports,

geography, music, sciences followed by comprehension questions which are in the

form of sentence completion true / false, and multiple choice items. Another group of

exercises focus students' attention to form and requires them to work with words.

(iv) Writing

Writing is often integrated with reading and speaking, for example students should

first discuss and relate the reading text to their own attitudes and opinions, then they

should write about what they have already orally discussed.

Example:

Other writing exercises and activities require students to write:

About something which has happened in the past.

About something or some place using encyclopaedia.

A story with given cues and hints.

Newspaper report.

A description of somebody or something.

An argument against or for something.

Sentences and paragraphs.

Sentences by rearranging words.

Paragraphs by rearranging jumbled sentences.

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An article based on information presented in the given table.

Example:

5.1.1.2.2. Language Areas

(i) Grammar

Grammatical explanations are presented inductively under the heading ‘working with

the language/ thinking about language. Dialogue, reading texts, contextualised

exercises and discrete sentences have been used for teaching grammar.

Examples:

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Grammar activities require students to:

Combine sentences by applying grammatical rule.

Fill in the blanks with appropriate form of verbs in compound sentences.

Complete compound or complex sentences

Transform sentences (reported speech)

Read passage and mark/select or apply certain grammatical features in the law,

contextualised exercises.

(ii) Vocabulary

Vocabulary types are very diverse, including terminology used politics, geography,

business, sports, climate, animals, etc. Given below is the list of activities used for

teaching vocabulary.

Finding synonyms and antonyms for words in the reading text

Finding the meaning of words by looking them up in the dictionary.

Making new words by adding prefixes and suffixes to roots and using them in

sentences.

Matching words with their meanings

Collocations, idioms, phrasal verbs

Discussing meanings of words and finding them in the text

Word Puzzle

(iii) Pronunciation

There is no such heading as pronunciation in any of the units of the textbooks but

some pronunciation points used highlighted in a few units of the textbooks under the

heading of speaking/speaking and writing. These highlights are very brief and

restricted to pronunciation of individual sounds and words and they have not been

properly illustrated or explained.

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Examples:

Pronunciation exercises require students to:

Distinguish between minimal pairs

Focus on pronunciation of individual sounds

5.1.2. Textbooks for Teaching English in Iran

The analysis of the textbooks published by Ministry of Education of Iran for teaching

English in Iranian middle schools and high schools is discussed in two parts: the first

part discusses the organisation of each units of the textbooks, the second part deals

with textbooks’ teaching of language skills and areas.

5.1.2.1. Organisation of Different Sections of the Units of the Textbooks

The textbooks for Grades VII and VIII start with a note to the teacher in Persian. The

note highlights the importance of English language in Iranian school curriculum and

urges teachers to contribute towards better teaching of English so that English

assumes a good status in the country.

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Textbooks for Grade IX and X start with “Dear Colleague” (to the teacher) they

explain different sections of the units and objectives of each section and brief

instructions for teaching. The note reflects almost Communicative Approach by

advising teachers:

To teach the four language skills

Not to use mother tongue and avoid translation for teaching vocabulary and

reading as much as possible

Not to explain all grammatical points of reading

Not to encourage the students to memorise grammatical rules

To discourage students from rote learning and memorising sentences but to

learn the language by using it meaningful context

To teach through creating interaction between students

To use elements of fun and role play in teaching the language

Organisation of the units of the textbooks for teaching English in Grades VII and VIII

are different from those of the textbooks for Grades IX and X. The units of the

textbooks VII and VIII are constructed in the following way:

Dialogue- accompanied by picture in particular situation is the starting point

of each unit.

Patterns- require students to listen and repeat sentences presented with

picture.

Oral Drills- require students to listen and do single or multi slot substitution.

Write it Down- requires students to write questions, answers, fill in the

blanks, and complete sentences.

Speak out- requires students to make correct sentences or answer orally to

written questions.

Read aloud- requires students to listen and repeat individual words.

Reading- presents a short passage and requires students to answer reading

comprehension questions.

New Words and Expressions- present vocabulary- list

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Basic Structure-present a very brief grammatical explanation and the pattern

which is the focus of the unit.

The units of the textbooks for Grades IX and X are constructed in the following way:

New Words- present new vocabulary items in sentences accompanied by

picture and followed by questions.

Practice New Words- checks students’ grasp of new words by asking

students to fill in the blanks.

Reading passage- is followed by reading comprehension questions.

Speaking out- starts with presentation of the pattern i.e. ‘structure’ which is

the focus of subsequent exercises.

Write it Down- requires students to practice the grammatical point by writing

sentences.

Language Function- requires students to practice dialogue in different

situations.

Pronunciation Practice- focuses on pronunciation of individual sounds and

requires students to repeat sentences after teacher.

Vocabulary Review- requires students to fill in the blanks with appropriate

vocabulary items.

Vocabulary List- is the last section of the unit.

5.1.2.2. Textbooks’ Teaching of Language Skills and Areas

Types of activities and exercises for teaching each language skill and area is discussed

in two parts of language skills and language areas.

5.1.2.2.1. Language Skills

(i) Listening

Listening activities can be classified into:

Listening only to the dialogues

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Example:

Listening to the definition of new words and their application in sentences.

Example:

Listening to the tape and answering questions based on their understanding of

the preceding dialogue.

Example:

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Listening and repeating sentences.

Example:

Listening to the tape and substituting the words in pattern practice.

Listening to the tape and answering the questions with given cues.

Example:

Listening to the sentences and paying attention to the position of certain

grammatical features.

(ii) Speaking

Speaking activities can be classified into:

Looking at the pictures and answering to the written sentences orally or

completing the dialogue.

Example:

Students’ talking about themselves after reading a short passage. They should

relate the passage to their own life.(this type of activity is very rare)

Filling in the blanks, asking and answering questions, sentence, completion,

sentence construction, sentence transformation, and single slot substitution.

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Students’ making true sentences about themselves based on what they have

already practiced in the preceding speaking section.

Exposure to the functional use of language or language in context. This

section requires students to pay attention to dialogue and to practice it.

Students using cues, making sentences and applying particular grammatical

rule.

(iii) Reading

Reading activities can be classified into two:

Reading activities require students to read a passage, ask and answer questions

about information contained in the passage.

Reading comprehension questions require students to write true /false or

complete sentences.

(iv) Writing

Some activities used for teaching writing are as follows:

Changing sentences with given cues or filling in the blanks.

Writing or completing sentences describing pictures.

Completing sentences and writing sentences about a given topic or situation

while observing a particular grammatical rule.

Filling in the blanks with grammatically appropriate word.

Example:

Writing or completing ‘WH’ questions.

Putting words in correct order

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Combining sentences using given cues.

Writing or completing sentences with their (students’) own words.


(i) Grammar

There are grammatical explanations at the end of every unit. These explanations,

which are brief (about half a page), are presented under the title of ‘basic structure’,

‘structure’ or to ‘the teacher’.

(ii) Vocabulary

The textbooks for Grades VII and VIII only present vocabulary list at the end of the

unit. The units of the textbooks for Grades IX and X start with the definition and

application of vocabulary items. They take up a significant portion of the unit.

Vocabulary review exercises of the textbooks for Grades IX and X require students to

fill in the blanks with appropriate words.

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Example:

(iii) Pronunciation

Pronunciation is dealt with in a very small portion of each unit. Pronunciation of

individual sounds is explained mostly through minimal pairs and homophones.

Instruction requires students to pay attention to the phonetic transcription of

individual sounds and its pronunciation in individual words.

Example:

5.1.3. Comparative Analysis of Indian and Iranian English Textbooks

Both Iranian and Indian textbooks for teaching English start with a note to the

teachers. These notes, as mentioned above, implicitly require teachers to adopt

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Communicative Approach by what they suggest. Given below is a comparative

analysis of the textbooks according to the checklist developed on the basis of CLT

literature discussed in chapter 3. The analysis discusses approperiacy of the textbooks

with regard to the general features of CLT as well as textbooks’ teaching of each

language skill and area.

5.1.3.1 Principles Representing Characteristic Features of CLT:

Principle -I

Inclusion of element of fun through games and role play

Principle-II

Initiation of interaction among students

Principle -III

Inclusion of authentic materials, tasks and activities

Principle -IV

Paying balanced attention to the four language skills and areas of grammar,

vocabulary and pronunciation

Principle -V

Integrative teaching of the language skills and areas

Principle -VI

Representing the culture of the speakers of the target language

5.1.3.2 Principles for Communicative Teaching of Language Skills and Areas

5.1.3.2.1 Language Skills

(i) Listening

Principle -I

The purpose of listening should be clearly stated

Principle -II

Students should have pre-listening activities

Principle -III

Listening for the main idea in a conversation or lecture

Principle -IV

Listening for specific information

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Principle -V

Listening and making inferences

Principle -VI

Prediction, guessing, and the use of prior knowledge, note taking and Summarising

Principle – VII

Recognition of discourse markers

(ii) Speaking

Principle -I

Students are free to use different forms to perform different functions or express

different meanings.

Principle -II

Speaking practice involves two or more people.

Principle -III

Class is conducted in the target language and mother tongue is the last resort.

Principle -IV

Class plays the role of a social context for language use.

Principle -V

Students interaction is mainly through pair work, group work, and group discussion.

Principle -IV

Speaking serves as a vehicle for participation in classroom activities.

(iii) Reading

Principle -I

Reading can provide a model and topic for writing and speaking.

Principle -II

Two important issues in reading are authenticity and process.

Principle -III

A reading text should be engaging and interesting, but not oversimplified.

Principle IV

Reading should provide an opportunity for both intensive and extensive reading.

Principle -V

Skimming and scanning should be referred to in reading activities.

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(iv) Writing

Principle -I

It is necessary to pay attention to the mechanics of writing.

Principle -II

Students should learn to communicate through writing.

Principle -III

Writing is not linear i.e. moving smoothly from start to finish. Students need to learn

the process- write, plan, revise, anticipate and review throughout writing process.

Principle -IV

Writing should be integrated with other skills so that it can be used to demonstrate

students' knowledge of reading, speaking and listening.


(i) Vocabulary

Principle -I

Vocabulary is not conceptualised as single words, but it is sequence of words which

operates as single unit.

Principle -II

Vocabulary should include lexical chunks due to their importance in functional

language use.

Principle -III

Vocabulary should cover a Wide range of topics and concepts.

Principle -IV

Words are not presented as discrete unit, but they are presented in context.

Principle -V

Words are not translated into mother tongue neither in the textbook nor in the

classroom.

(ii) Grammar

Principle -I

These explanations are brief, simple and comprehensive.

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Principle -II

Charts and other visuals are used to show the grammatical relationship.

Principle -III

One item is explained at one time. Rules and exceptions are not given at the same

time.

Principle -IV

Grammar is embedded into general language course and is not singled out as a

discrete “skill” in a separate course.

Principle -V

Grammar is contextualized in meaningful language use.

(iii) Pronunciation

Principle -I

Segmental features should be given due attention.

Principle -II

Suprasegmental features should be focused.

Principle -III

Pronunciation teaching should be linked with meaning at the discourse level.

Principle -IV

Focus is required to consonant and vowel links, consonant to consonant links,

contracted forms, Links between words, word and sentence stress, weak and strong

forms, tone units, tonic placement and tones.

Taking the above principles into consideration, comparative analysis revealed that:

Both Indian and Iranian textbooks for teaching English start with a note to the

teachers. These notes, as mentioned above, implicitly require teachers to adopt

Communicative Approach by emphasizing presentation of language in context,

interaction among students, and the teaching of the four language skills, etc.

Principle -I

Iranian textbooks contain few games or role plays. Element of fun has totally been

neglected in these textbooks. Although Indian textbooks contain a few games, there

are a good number of exercises requiring students to use their imagination and play

role and speak. Another activity which might be very interesting for young learners is

poem. Indian textbooks contain a large number of poems.

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Principle -II

Indian textbooks require students to interact with each other through pair work, group

work and group discussion, while Iranian textbooks do not initiate much interaction

between students.

Principle -III

Authenticity and authentic tasks and activities are much more present in Indian

textbooks. There are a sufficient number of tasks and activities which replicate real-

life situation such as letter writing, giving speech and group discussion or

summarising data presented in tables, etc, while Iranian textbooks lack this type of

exercises

Principle -IV

A proportionate attention have been given to the teaching of language skills and areas

in Iranian textbooks. Although they have a number of shortcomings, each unit

contains all skills, but in Indian textbooks the skill of listening and area of

pronunciation are almost neglected. There is a Listening Section only in two units of

textbook X and the other three textbooks do not contain any listening activities, tasks,

or exercises.

Principle -V

Integrative teaching of language skills is quite evident in Indian textbooks. For

example, Writing is often integrated with reading and speaking. Each units starts

with reading comprehension questions. Reading comprehension questions are

followed by questions requiring students to relate the text to their own opinion,

attitude and experience. Finally students are asked to write what they have already

discussed. Iranian textbooks do not have such characteristics.

Principle -VI

Although presentation of home culture is more evident in Indian textbooks, target

culture has also been presented. Indian textbooks contain stories and scripts written

and published in the west, but Iranian textbook only present Islamic culture of the

home. Almost all names, religious rituals and costumes are Islamic. It can be said that

Iranian textbooks do not represent the culture of the speakers of English language, but

Indian textbooks represent both home and the target culture.

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(i) Listening

Principle -I

The purpose of listening has not been clearly stated both in Indian as well as Iranian

textbooks.

Principle -II

Both Indian and Iranian textbooks do not have pre-listening activities.

Principle -III

Listening activities of Indian textbook contain activities such as listening for main

idea while Iranian textbooks do not have such activities.

Principle -IV

Indian textbooks, unlike Iranian textbooks, contain exercises requiring students to

listen for specific information

Principle -V

Both Indian and Iranian textbooks lack listening activities requiring students to make

inferences.

Principle -VI

Iranian textbooks, unlike Indian textbooks, do not have listening activities or

exercises requiring answer in context.

Principle -VII

Discourse markers have been neglected in both Indian and Iranian textbooks.

(ii) Speaking

Principle -I

Indian textbooks do not bound students to certain form. Students are free to use

different forms to perform different functions or express different meanings. They

allow students to freely speak their minds and use language for performing functions.

Iranian textbooks do not require students to use language for performing functions.

They restrict students to pattern practice at sentence level or controlled speaking

practice.

Principle -II

In Indian textbooks class plays the role of a social context, for example, one student is

asked to play the role of a chief guest and give a speech while other students play the

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role of audience. Iranian textbooks do not create opportunity for the students to

interact in the class as a social context.

Principle -III

Pair work, group work and group discussion are vehicles for interaction in Indian

textbooks and there is only a dialogue between two people in Iranian textbooks.

Principle -IV

It is obvious when the class plays the role of a social context and students interact a

lot in pair work, group work, role play and group discussion. Speaking can serve as a

vehicle for classroom activities. Therefore, in Indian classroom, unlike Iranian

classroom, speaking can facilitate participation in classroom activities.

(iii) Reading

Principle -I

Reading passages in Indian textbooks serve as a model for speaking and writing, but

reading passages of Iranian textbook do not play such a role.

Principle -II

Reading passages of Indian textbooks which are usually in the form of a story are

authentic, but most reading passages of Iranian textbooks are not authentic.

Both Indian and Iranian textbooks contain reading passages on variety of topics such

as literature, sport, sciences, etc. The reading passages of Iranian textbooks are

simplified and short, but reading passages of Indian textbooks are long and not

simplified.

Principle -III

As stated earlier reading passages of Indian textbooks are not only long but also

accompanied by supplementary readers which provide opportunity for students to

read extensively, but the reading passages of Iranian textbooks are short (around only

one page), hence, they do not provide opportunity for extensive reading, they are only

good for intensive reading and text analysis.

Principle-IV

Skimming and scanning have been referred to both in Indian as well as Iranian

textbooks.

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(iv) Writing

Principle -I

There are no explanations, activities, and tasks with regard to mechanics of writing in

Iranian textbooks, but mechanics of writing have been dealt with in two units of

English textbooks for Grade IX of Indian textbooks.

Principle –II

Indian textbooks contain a number of tasks in replication of real- life situation to teach

writing, but Iranian textbooks require students to write detached sentences.

Principle -III

Writing as process which requires students to write, plan, revise, anticipate, and

review has not been referred to in both Indian as well as Iranian textbooks.

Principle -IV

Integration of writing with other skills such as reading and speaking is more evident

in Indian textbooks in comparison with Iranian textbooks. In Indian textbooks each

skill reinforces other, but Iranian textbooks do not have such characteristics.

5.1.3.2.2 Language Areas

(i) Grammar

Principle -I

Grammatical explanations are brief and simple both in Indian and Iranian English

textbooks, but these explanations are more comprehensive and easy to understand in

Indian textbooks because of their direct relevance to the preceding reading passage.

Principle -II

Neither Indian nor Iranian textbooks use charts and visuals to show grammatical

relationship. All grammatical explanations are in writing.

Principle -III

Grammatical explanations are not very long in Indian as well as Iranian textbooks.

Both sets of textbooks present one item at one time. Rules and exceptions are not

given at one time

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Principle -IV

Grammar has been embedded into a general language course. Grammar has not been

dealt with in a separate course with a separate book in Indian as well as Iranian

textbooks.

Principle -V

Grammar has been contextualized in meaningful language in Indian textbooks.

Grammatical explanations are more tangible in Indian textbooks, because of their

relevance to the reading texts as well because of the context in which they are

presented. On the contrary, textual context has not been used to illustrate grammatical

explanations in Iranian textbooks.

(ii) Vocabulary

Both Indian and Iranian textbooks present vocabulary in textual context, Iranian

textbooks provide a list of words and their Persian equivalent at the end of the book.

Indian textbooks use different types of activities and exercises for vocabulary

practice, but in Iranian textbooks a small portion of each unit has been allocated to

vocabulary practice. Vocabulary items of Indian textbooks include a wide range of

notions and concepts, while vocabulary items of Iranian textbooks, although on

various topics, are limited in terms of number.

(iii) Pronunciation

Pronunciation has not been given due attention in Indian textbooks. There are only a

few instances of pronunciation teaching in Indian textbooks which come under the

title of speaking and writing. Iranian textbooks pay more attention to pronunciation,

although it does not comply with the principles of Communicative Approach. Iranian

textbooks, like Indian textbooks, only deal with pronunciation at the word level, i.e.

pronunciation of individual word detached from context are focused.

5.2. Questionnaire Analysis

The analysis of Teachers’ Beliefs’ Questionnaire which was administered to Indian

and Iranian teachers on four- Item Likert Scale is given below.

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5.2.1 Indian Teachers

Analysis of questionnaire with regard to Indian teachers who responded to the

questionnaire eliciting responses with respect to teaching of language skills, language

areas, instructional materials and language of instruction, form and function,

treatment of errors, and teachers’ role is given below.

5.2.2.1. Teaching of Language Skills

Table 1:

1. A significant portion of class time should be spent on reading and reading comprehension

questions.

2. Listening is more important than speaking in the early stages.

3. Writing can be taught through asking students to manipulate sentences.

4. All four language skills are equally important.

5. Learners are encouraged to repeat after teacher rather than speak and communicate from day

one.

There were four questions about teaching language skills. Analysis of data with

regard to answer to these questions revealed that 72% of the respondents believed that

significant portion of class time should be spend on reading and reading

comprehension (32% strongly agree, 40% agree), and 70% agreed that listening is

more important than speaking in early stages (28% strongly agree, 42% agree), and

60% believed that writing can be taught through practicing at sentence level and

manipulating sentences (18% strongly agree, 42% agree). Answer to the three

questions demonstrated that respondents were more inclined towards traditional

approaches. The only two questions which received responses demonstrating

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Traditional Approaches

Communicative Approach

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adherence to Communicative Approach was about equal importance of language

skills and repetition after teacher instead of communication from day one. 82% of the

respondents agreed that the four language skills are equally important (36% strongly

agree, 46% agree). In response to the question about repetition after teacher instead of

speaking from day one, 52% of the respondents disagreed (6% strongly disagree, 46%

disagree). See table1.

5.2.2.2.Teaching of Language Areas

Table 2:

1. Grammatical explanations should be in detail, i.e., rules and exceptions should be given at the

same time.

2. Native- like pronunciation is a goal in language teaching.

3. Vocabulary learning should be through memorizing word –list.

4. Sentence is the only tool for teaching grammar.

In response to the questions with regard to teaching language areas of grammar,

pronunciation and vocabulary, 80% of the respondents believed that all rules and

exceptions should be given at the same time (38% strongly agree, 42% agree). In

response to the question about native- like pronunciation as a goal in language

teaching, 64% of respondents contended that it should be the aim in language

teaching (20% strongly agree, 44% agree) and with regard to vocabulary teaching,

66% believed that vocabulary learning should be through memorising word- list (18%

strongly agree, 48% agree). Responses to the three questions about teaching language

areas were indicative of deviation from Communicative Approach. The only question

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which received responses in conformity with Communicative Approach was that 64%

of the respondents disagreed that sentence is the only tool for teaching grammar (26%

strongly disagree, 38% disagree). See table 2.

5.2.2.3.Linguistic Form and Language Function

Table 3:

1. In communication, the ability to exchange messages successfully even with grammatical

mistakes is acceptable.

2. One grammatical form might be used for several functions.

3. Formal and informal expressions need equal attention in language teaching.

4. The aim of language program should be to develop learners' linguistic competence.

In response to three questions about linguistic form and language function, 60%

comply with Communicative Approach by contenting that successful communication

even with grammatical mistakes is acceptable (10% strongly agree, 50% agree) and

72% of the respondents believed that one grammatical form might serve several

functions (14% strongly agree, 58% agree). In response to the question about the

necessity of equal attention to the four language skills, 76% of the respondents agreed

(20% strongly agree, 56% agree). 82% of the respondents agreed that the aim of

language teaching should be to develop learners linguistic competence (16% strongly

agree, 66% agree). Therefore, it can be said respondents were supportive of

Communicative Approach in responding to three questions related to linguistic form

and language function and one question showed their inclination towards traditional

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Traditional Approachers


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approaches by contenting that the aim of language teaching should be developing

learners’ linguistic competence. See table 3.

5.2.2.4.Instructional Materials and Language of Instruction

Table 4:

1. Textbooks along with accompanying audio-videos are the best and only resources for teaching

a language.

2. Students’ native language should be used only as the last solution.

On questions about instructional materials and language of instructions, 68% of the

respondents agreed that the textbooks along with accompanying audio-videos are the

best and only resources for language teaching (12% strongly agree, 56% agree). 52%

agreed that students’ mother tongue should be used as the last solution (18% strongly

agree, 34% agree). The responses were in conformity with traditional approaches and

Communicative Approach, respectively. See table 4.

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5.2.2.5.Teacher’s Role

Table 5:

1. Teacher should be facilitators rather than directors of the language classroom

2. Language classroom is teacher –centered.

3. In a good language classroom teacher talks at length and students listen and take note.

There were three questions about teacher’s role in the language classroom. In

response to the question about teacher as a facilitator or the director of language

classroom, 92% agreed that teacher is a facilitator (38% strongly agree, 54% agree).

on teacher – centredness of the language classroom, 54% disagreed with the idea of

teacher-centredness of language classroom (24% strongly disagree, 30% disagree),

54% agreed with the idea that in a good language classroom teacher talks at length

and students listen and take notes (12% strongly agree, 42% agree). See table 5.

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5.2.2.6 Treatment of Errors

Table 6:

1. Oral errors should be tolerated.

2. Teacher’s correction of errors is preferable to self-correction or student-student correction.

In response to two questions about the treatment of errors, 58% agreed that oral errors

should be tolerated (16% strongly agree, 42% agree), and 70% of the respondents

agreed that teacher’s correction of errors is preferable to self-correction or student-

student correction (26% strongly agree, 44% agree). See table 6.

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

1 2



109

5.2.2 Iranian Teachers

Given below is the analysis of questionnaire administered to Iranian teachers with

regard to the questions discussed above.

5.2.2.1. Teaching of Language Skills

Table 7:


questions





one.

In response to the questions regarding teaching language skills, 60% of the

respondents agreed that a significant portion of time in the class should be spent on

reading and reading comprehension questions (14% strongly agree, 46% agree); 78%

believed that listening should precede speaking in early stages (12% strongly agree,

66% agree), 56% did not believe that writing can be taught through manipulating

sentences (16% strongly disagree, 40% disagree). 52% of the respondents agreed that

all four language skills are equally important (18% strongly agree, 34% agree). In

responses to the question about repetition after teacher rather than speaking and

communication from day one, 72% disagreed with the idea (14% strongly disagree,

58% disagree). See table 7

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

1 2 3 4 5



110

5.2.2.2.Teaching of Language Areas

Table 8:


same time.




In response to the questions regarding language areas (Vocabulary, grammar, and

pronunciation), 70% of the respondents disagreed with the idea of detailed

grammatical explanations along with giving the rules and exceptions at the same time

(2% strongly disagree, 68% disagree), 56 % believed that native-like pronunciation

should be a goal in language teaching (14% strongly disagree, 42% disagree), 62%

disagreed with the learning of vocabulary through memorising from word-list (30%

strongly disagree, 32% disagree). 70% disagreed that sentences is the only tool for

teaching grammar (30% strongly disagree, 40% disagree). See table 8.

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

1 2 3 4



111

5.2.2.3.Linguistic Form and Language Function

Table 9:






78% agreed that successful communication even with grammatical mistakes is

acceptable (12% strongly agree, 66% agree). In response to the questions highlighting

the importance of communication and language function, 60% contended that one

grammatical form can serve several functions (10% strongly agree, 50% agree). On

importance of formal and informal expressions, 52% were agree (8% strongly agree,

54% agree). With regard to linguistic competence as an aim in language programme,

52%disagreed (6 % strongly disagree, 46% strongly disagree). See table 9

1.08

1.09

1.1

1.11

1.12

1.13

1.14

1.15

1.16

1 2 3 4

Axi

s Ti

tle



112

5.2.2.4.Instructional Materials and Language of Instruction

Table 10:


a language.


Two questions about instructional materials and language of instructions received

responses in conformity with the principles of Communicative Approach: 60% of

the respondents disagreed that the textbooks along with accompanying audio-videos

are the best and only resources for language teaching(4% strongly disagree, 56%

disagree). 58% agreed that students’ mother tongue should be used as the last solution

(20% strongly agree, 38% agree). See table 10.

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1 2



113

5.2.2.5.Teacher’s Role

Table 11:




Three questions about teacher’s role in the language classroom got the following

responses. In response to the question about teacher as a facilitator or the director of

language classroom, 84% agreed that teacher is a facilitator (24% strongly agree, 60%

agree), 58% of the respondents disagreed on teacher – centredness of the language

classroom (18% strongly disagree, 40% disagree), 72% disagreed with the idea that in

a good language classroom teacher talks at length and students listen and take notes

(20% strongly disagree, 52% disagree). See table 11.

1.25

1.26

1.27

1.28

1.29

1.3

1.31

1 2 3



114

5.2.2.6.Treatment of Errors

Table 12:



In response to the questions regarding the treatment of errors, 54% agreed that oral

errors should be tolerated (10% strongly agree, 44% agree), and 66% of the

respondents disagreed that teacher’s correction of errors is preferable to self-

correction or student-student correction (12% strongly disagree, 54% disagree). See

table 12.

5.2.3 Comparative Analysis of the Questionnaire

Comparative Analysis of Teacher’s Beliefs’ Questionnaire with regard to teaching of

language skills, language areas, linguistic form and language function, instructional

materials and language of instruction along with strategies employed by teacher

during teaching and language practice is given below:

1.1

1.12

1.14

1.16

1.18

1.2

1.22

1.24

1.26

1.28

1.3

1.32

1 2



115

5.2.3.1 Teaching of Language Skills

Table 13:


questions





one.

Analysis of responses to the three questions about teaching listening, speaking,

reading and writing revealed that 72% of Indian teachers and 60% of Iranian teachers

were agree with spending most of the class time on reading and reading

comprehension; 70% of Indian teachers and 78% of Iranian teachers believed that

listening should precede speaking in the early stages; 60% of Indian respondents

agreed that writing can be taught through manipulating sentences, but 56% of Iranian

respondents disagreed with the idea. The only two questions which received responses

demonstrating adherence to Communicative Approach by both groups of teachers

were about equal importance of the four language skills and communication instead of

repetition after teacher from day one. In response to these questions, 78% of Indian

teachers and 52% of Iranian teachers agreed with the idea of equal importance of the

four language skills and 52% of Indian teachers and 72% of Iranian teachers

disagreed with repetition after teacher instead of communication from day one. See

table 13

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

1 2 3 4 5



India

Iran

116

5.2.3.2. Teaching of Language Areas

Table 14:


same time.




In response to two questions with respect to the teaching of language areas, the

responses of Iranian teachers were in conformity with the Communicative Approach:

70% of these teachers disagreed with detailed grammatical explanations and giving

the rules and exceptions at the same time. On the other hand, 62% of Indian

respondents agreed with the idea. On learning vocabulary by memorizing the word –

list, 62% of Iranian teachers disagreed, while 64% of Indian teachers agreed. The

questions about native –like pronunciation as a goal and sentences as the only tool for

teaching grammar were responded similarly by Indian and Iranian teachers. The

responses were against and according to the principles of Communicative Approach,

respectively: 62% of Indian teachers and 56% of Iranian teachers agreed with native-

like pronunciation as a goal in language programme; 64% of Indian teachers and 70%

of Iranian teachers disagreed with sentence as the only tool for teaching grammar. See

table14.

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

1 2 3 4

Traditional Approach

Communicative Apparoch

Iran

India

117

5.2.3.3. Linguistic Form and Language Function

Table 15:






There were similarities between responses given to the first three questions by two

groups of teachers: 60% of Indian teachers and 78% of Iranian teachers agreed that

successful communication even with grammatical mistakes is acceptable. 72% of

Indian respondents and 60% of Iranian respondents agreed that one grammatical form

can serve several functions. On the necessity of equal attention to formal and informal

expressions, 76% of Indian and 52% of Iranian respondents agreed that formal and

informal expressions deserve equal attention.

The only question which was responded differently by Indian and Iranian teachers

was about linguistic competence as the goal of language learning: 82% of Indian

respondents agreed that developing learners’ linguistic competence should be a goal

in language programme, but 52% of Iranian teachers did not consider it as a goal in

language education. See table 15

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

1 2 3 4



India

Iran

118

5.2.3.4. Instructional Materials and Language of Instruction

Table 16:



a language.

Both Indian (52% agree) and Iranian (58% agree) teachers agreed with one of the

basic tenets in Communicative Approach which requires mother tongue should be

used as the last resort, but they responded differently to the question about materials

for teaching English: 68% of Indian teachers’ agreed that the textbooks and

accompanying audio-videos are the best and only resources for language teaching but

60% of Iranian disagreed with the idea. See table 16.

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

1 2



India

Iran

119

5.2.3.5. Teacher’s Role

Table 17:




Both Indian (94% agree) and Iranian teachers (84%) agreed that teacher is a facilitator

in language classroom. On teacher -centredness of language classroom, 56% of Indian

teachers disagreed and 54% of Iranian teachers also disagreed. With respect to

teacher’s talk in the classroom, 54% of Indian respondents were agree that in a good

language classroom teacher talks at length and students listen and take notes, but 72%

of Iranian teachers disagreed with the idea. See table 17.

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

1 2 3Axi

s Ti

tle

Traditional Approach


India

Iran

120

5.2.3.6. Treatment of Errors

Table 18:



In response to two questions on the treatment of errors, 58% of Indian teachers and

54% of Iranian teachers agreed that oral errors should be tolerated. Therefore,

teachers’ responses complied with Communicative Approach, but the two groups of

teachers responded differently to the questions about teacher’s correction of errors:

70% of Indian respondents’ demonstrated conformity with the traditional approaches

by agreeing with teacher’s correction of errors while 66% of Iranian teachers

disagreed with teacher’s correction of errors. See table 18.

5.3. Interview

20 teachers (10 from Indian and 10 from Iran) were selected for interview. Their

selection was based on the score they secured in responding to the questionnaire. The

participants were considered aware and supportive of Communicative Approach. The

participants were asked a number of questions with regard to the implementation of

CLT.

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

1 2



India

Iran

121

In response to the questions with regard to the implementation of CLT, they generally

accepted that they are implementing some aspects of CLT. The implementation of

other aspects of CLT such as interaction among students, conducting the class in

English language and using authentic materials is often hindered by a number of

factors. The factors can be classified under students, teachers and context of language

teaching.

5.3.1. Indian Teachers

Indian teachers who participated in interviews referred to a number of challenges

facing implementation of Communicative Approach. The summary of problems they

have encountered are given below.

5.3.1.1. Large Class Size

60 % of the participants believed that handling crowded classroom is difficult. They

said that they have to manage classes of more than 40 students. They cannot initiate

and monitor pair work and group work in such classes. Therefore, there is not much

student-student interaction which is an important aspect of Communicative Approach

in such classes.

5.3.1.2. Students’ Law Proficiency Level in Lower Classes

52 % of the respondents said that they have to translate words into Hindi and to use

the mother tongue for grammatical explanations due to low proficiency level of

students in lower classes. Their students demand for and feel more comfortable with

frequent use of Hindi in the classroom.

5.3.1.3. Students’ Lack of Interest

60% of the participants believed that students are not very much interested in English,

they are preoccupied with their main subjects and pay more attention to other subjects

other than English.

5.3.1.4. No Listening Exam

60% of the participants stated despite communicative testing of speaking, reading and

writing, no place has been given to listening. Listening has not been incorporated into

testing and examination system.

122

5.3.1.5. Teacher’s Heavy Work Load

Teacher’s heavy work load was mentioned as an important problem hindering

implementation of Communicative Approach. 70% of the respondents stated they

have to teach about 28 hours a week. Classes are continuous with very short break,

i.e. after one class finishes, they have to start another, and they do not have enough

time to refresh. Therefore, they feel tired and are less able to move around the class

and teach energetically.

5.3.1.6. Lack or Shortage of Facilities

80% of the participants said that they do not use authentic materials due to lack of

facilities. Most government schools do not have a language lab. Their teaching is

solely textbook-dependent.

5.3.1.7. Limitation of Time to Cover the Syllabus

70% of the participants said that they are under the pressure to cover the syllabus.

Therefore, they cannot foster much interaction and communication between students.

5.3.2. Iranian Teachers

Iranian teachers who participated in the interview also referred to a number of

problems preventing them from implementation of Communicative Approach. Given

below is the summary of the problems.

5.3.2.1. Large Class Size

70 % of the participants believed that large number of students in each class is one the

problems leading to less interaction among students.

5.3.1.2. Students Law Proficiency Level in Lower Classes

90% of the participants said that they conduct the class in Persian due to low

proficiency level of the students. They translate the words and give grammatical

explanations in Persian.

5.3.2.4. Non-Communicative Examinations

60% of the respondents believed that testing system mainly tests students’ ability in

reading and grammar. Students’ ability to use language for communication is never

123

tested neither in annual examinations nor in National Entrance Exams of the

Universities. Examinations’ main focus is on reading, grammar and spelling. Oral

skills and writing are neglected. Therefore, students are not motivated to take part in

listening, speaking and communicative writing. The teachers spend most of the class

time on

i. Teaching reading

ii. Answering reading comprehension questions

iii. Explaining grammatical rules

iv. Doing written exercises of grammar

5.3.2.5. Teacher’s Heavy Work Load

60% of the interviewees stated that they teach around 30 hours per week. Therefore,

they do not feel very energetic to move around the class as a requirement in

Communicative Approach. With a focus on reading and grammar exercises they will

have more chance of sitting in their chairs and teach the class.

5.3.4.6. Lack or Shortage of Facilities

90% of the respondents said they do not use authentic materials in their classes

because they have no access to language lab or technology in schools they are

teaching.

5.3.2.7. Limitation of Time to Cover the Syllabus

80% of the respondents said that the time allocated for English is only 2 hours per

week so their first priority is to cover the syllabus in such a short time. Therefore,

reading, reading comprehension and written exercises of grammar take most of the

class time.

5.3.2.8. Non- Communicative Syllabus

90% of the participants said that the textbooks are not communicative and it cannot be

depended on for teaching communication.

5.3.3. Comparative Analysis of the Interviews

60% of Indian teachers and 70% of Iranian teachers referred to crowded classes as

one of the obstacles hindering implementation of Communicative Approach. Hence,

124

they are unable to initiate and monitor pair work and group work in their crowded

classes.

60% of Indian teachers and 90% of Iranian teachers said that they use mother tongue

most of the time for giving grammatical explanations and they translate words into

students’ mother tongue due to their low proficiency level.

60% of Indian teachers said that students’ listening is not tested in annual

examinations, although they have communicative testing of speaking, reading and

writing. 70% of Iranian teachers also referred to Non- Communicative testing system

in Iranian Schools as one of the obstacles hindering communicative language

teaching. They said examinations’ focus is only on reading, grammar and spelling.

70% of Indian teachers and 60% of Iranian teachers said continuous classes and heavy

work load prevents them from communicative teaching. They feel less energetic to

move around the class and initiate and monitor pair work and group work.

80% of Indian teachers and 90% of Iranian teachers said they do not use authentic

materials because of no access to technology and unavailability of language lab in

schools they are teaching.

70% of Indian participants and 80% of Iranian participants referred to time pressure to

cover the syllabus as one of the obstacles that hinder implementation of

Communicative Approach.

60% of Indian teachers referred to students’ lack of interest as an obstacle to

communicative language teaching, and 90% of Iranian teachers referred to non-

communicative syllabus of Iranian Middle schools and high schools as a serious

stumbling block towards implementation of Communicative Approach.

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