Chapter 6

Melody

Throughout this chapter we will examine and analyze some of the basic techniques, improvisational materials, and typical devices that characterize Wes Montgomery’s improvised line. One of the fundamental tenets of style analysis includes the study of melody in large dimensions. The possibility that an improvised fragment may depend or derive to some extent from pre-existent material, such as a scale or a theme from another composition, is a fundamental concern of style analysis and jazz improvisation in particular.1 Many of Montgomery’s recurring melodic patterns issue from select scales and scalar fragments. To attain a certain level of stylistic understanding it is important to determine how Wes used these scales in the course of an improvisation.

Blues Scale, Tetrachords & CellsIt has already been demonstrated that Wes’ penchant for the

blues is displayed and manifested clearly in both his improvisational and compositional work.2 Countless solos attest to the pervasive employment of the blues scale, blues tetrachords, blues riffs, and blue notes, which in essence, constitute an integral and significant part of 1 Jan LaRue, Guidelines for Style Analysis. (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1970), 70. In his widely-used jazz styles and analysis form, Professor David Baker also includes a section on scale preferences. The Jazz Style of John Coltrane. (Miami: Studio 224, CPP/Belwin, Inc., 1980), 34.2 Reno De Stefano, “The Blues in Wes Montgomery’s Compositional and Improvisational Style” (M.A. thesis, Université de Montréal, 1990). An article version of this thesis has been published by IAJE Publications, 1994, 36-54.

the Montgomerian style.3 Wes does not commonly use a blues scale in its entirety when improvising, but rather employs fragmented motives and riffs that derive from the scale. Moreover, when the melody is considered in its large dimension- that is, across entire sections of the form- we begin to notice interesting stylistic dispositions that pertain to the blues scale.

Ex.1 Mean to Me (last A m.25-32)

3 David Baker, “Wes Montgomery’s ‘Naptown Blues’ Solo Transcription,” Downbeat, Vol.39 no.15, Sept. (1972), 43. Baker also acknowledges that Wes Montgomery, with his personal sound and unique technique “was the objectification of all those things for which the blues stands. His ability to transform even the most trite or pedestrian composition by drawing on his blues roots mark him as one of the great jazz players of all time.”

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Mean to Me is a standard tune in the jazz repertoire based on the common AABA thirty-two measure formal structure. Montgomery’s improvisation is limited to one chorus and it is specifically the last eight measures of the solo (example 1, last A) that are relevant to our discussion. In measures 25-26 Montgomery improvises a blues-type motive that is reiterated at measures 27-28 and developed at measures 29-32. This skillful and seemingly impromptu motivic development gives the listener the impression that Wes is not actually thinking in terms of scales, or even using a select scale for that matter. However, in this entire last A section, unlike preceding sections of the solo, Montgomery improvises using exclusively notes from the Ab blues scale (Ab, B, (c) Db, D, Eb Gb). As pre-existent material, this blues scale creates opportunities at the same time that it imposes restraints and limitations.4 The distinctive “bluesy” and “earthy” sound produced by the different combinations of notes from the blues scale presents an opportunity for varied sonority. The fact that it is extremely difficult to outline this busy harmonic background (Mean to

Me) with a six-note blues scale is an evident limitation. LaRue suggests that “the degree to which a composer,” or in our case an improviser, “responds to these opportunities may reflect in a revealing manner the traits of his melodic character.”5 The ingenious manner in which Montgomery extemporaneously manipulates these blues scale fragments and coherently develops them through extension, verifiably illustrates the degree of melodic inventiveness of which he was capable.

4 LaRue, op.cit., 70.5 Ibid.

4

Consideration of the blues scale in middle dimensions is important in melodic analysis, since it is in these dimensions that we recognize tunes and themes- “one of our most immediate and definable musical responses.”6 Both example 2a (Movin’ Along ) and 2b (Bock to Bock ) illustrate one of Montgomery’s most favored blues phrases appearing in numerous improvisations. This phrase is built on the Eb blues scale (root, b3, 4, b5, 5, b7- Eb, Gb Ab, A, Bb, Db) and comprises three disparate cells that may also exist separately in solos. The different cells a, b, and c are frequently employed randomly but coherently throughout the improvised line, and are often combined in different permutations.

Ex.2a Movin’ Along (m.18-19)

6 Ibid., 75.

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6

Ex.2b Bock to Bock (chorus 3, m.4-5)

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Blues TetrachordsThe blues scale as used in jazz really divides into two identical

tetrachords that are kept quite disjunct, that is to say, one or the other is used but generally not both.7 One of the most common blues tetrachord employed by Wes is the b-cell illustrated in example 2a and example 3. This blues cell (or fragment) is constructed using the lower tetrachord of the scale, starting on the flatted fifth (b5) degree and systematically moving downwards to the root. Accordingly, there appears to be a natural tendency for the flatted fifth to descend downwards to the root through the fourth and third degree of the blues scale. This occurs frequently because the dominant and tonic are the actual magnetic poles of the blue notes.8 The transcriptions further demonstrate that Montgomery often slurs the first three notes of this prevalent descending tetrachord.

Ex.3 Blue Roz (m.18 & m.25)

7 Winthrop Sargeant, Jazz, Hot and Hybrid, 3rd ed. (New York) Da Capo Press, Inc., 1975), 173-175. Sargeant adds that the late blues singer Bessie Smith, whose improvisations characterized the black vocal style in its purest form, also made extensive use of single tetrachordal groupings.8 André Hodeir, Jazz: Its Evolution and Essence, trans. David Noakes (New York: Grove Press, 1956), 155.

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10

Ex.4 Cariba (m.5-6)

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The first four notes of the a-cell9 in example 2a often appear in the form of an upper blues tetrachord in the solos. This type of tetrachord (ex.4) comprises the root, flatted third, fourth, fifth of the blues scale, usually occurs in an ascending manner at the beginning of phrases, and is often preceded by rests. When employed in descending motion it is commonly interpolated with other melodic materials.10 It is quite common for Montgomery to repeat these cells intact and create propulsive riff figures.

Ex.5 Cariba (m.41-42)

9 For entire a-cells refer to Movin’ Along m.29; Mean to Me m.31; in retrograde: Movin’ Along m.20; Cariba m.42 Mean to Me m.31, etc.10 Refer to Movin’ Along, last beat of m.30.

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The c-cell illustrated in example 2a, is used extensively as basic thematic material and is a principal element of Montgomery’s blues vocabulary.11 This cell (ex.5) is characterized by the minor third interval which is usually played with a glissando from the first note to the second. It is precisely this minor third interval (“blue third”) and the accented glissando that imbue this cell with its distinctly bluesy quality.12 The second note of the cell is always the highest pitch of the phrase and is usually accented or characterized by a longer rhythmic value. Example 5 illustrates a phrase with another permutation of the c-cell followed by the a-cell in retrograde.

Ex.6 Blue n’ Boogie (fourth chorus, m.1-8)

11 Refer to Cariba m.21, 63-65; Pretty Blue m.35, 42; Ninth chorus (first six measures) of Blue n’ Boogie, the c-cell is used as principal thematic material. In the twelfth chorus, it is used in retrograde as a reiterated riff figure. It is not uncommon to find widespread use of these cells in compositions based on the blues form, or in other tunes with simple harmonic backgrounds. Such forms enable Montgomery to manipulate the diverse permutations of blues cells and tetrachords more freely without being preoccupied by complex chord changes. 12 Paul Oliver, Max Harrison, and William Bolcom, The New Grove: Gospel, Blues and Jazz (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1986), 72-73. The blues is strongly associated with guitar playing, and its inflections and shadings, such as grace notes and glissandos, are achieved easily on this instrument.

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Analyses of numerous improvisations evidence that the call-and-response technique is a pervasive component of Wes Montgomery’s style.13 He employs this technique in much the same way when composing various blues themes.14 Two basic forms of the call-and-response pattern can be found in Montgomery’s music. The first and most prevalent type occurs when the call is stated in double-stops (usually in thirds) and the response in single-note lines (ex.6). In the second type, the call is stated in octaves and the response in block chords.15 Wes will often create the illusion of two soloists by playing the pattern in two different textures as in example 6 (the use of thirds plus a single line), or in different registers of the instrument. 16 The complete motive resulting from the merging of the call-and-response pattern in measures one and two to form one recurring musical statement, is often referred to as a riff.17 It can be argued that within this riff there is a call-and-response pattern.18

Throughout the first eight measures of example 6 Wes exclusively employs notes of the F blues scale (F, Ab, Bb, B, C, Eb) to create the riff. When the melodic content of the riff pattern is analyzed

13 Gunther Schuller, Early Jazz: It’s Roots and Musical Development (New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. 1968), 27. This technique, common to much jazz and African music, is perpetuated primarily in the blues and to some extent in spirituals.14 De Stefano, op. cit. 15 Montgomery’s solo on Naptown Blues (Verve V/V6-8714) demonstrates these various techniques. However, it was not included in the transcriptions because it was recorded in 1965 after the demise of Riverside. See Sokolow for full transcription.16 De Stefano, op. cit.17 J. Bradford Robinson, “Riff” in The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, ed. Barry Kernfeld, 2 vols. (New York: MacMillan Press Limited, 1988), 2:379. The riff is defined as a short melodic ostinato, usually two or four bars long, which may either be repeated intact (strict riff) or varied to accommodate an underlying harmonic pattern. The riff is thought to derive from the repetitive call-and-response patterns of West African music, and appeared prominently in black-American music from the earliest times.18 Schuller, op. cit., 28.

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in small dimensions, we soon notice that the call embodies the aforementioned c-cell (minor third interval) and the response comprises the b-cell (descending tetrachord). Most of Montgomery’s call-and-response patterns are built around the blues scale and its tetrachords, and occur most frequently in blues-type tunes. The blues scale and its various constituents such as tetrachords and cells are often used in conjunction with other idiomatic blues devices (such as the call-and-response pattern) to shape and develop the improvised line.

The RiffMontgomery’s penchant for the use of riff patterns stems from

his profound affinity for the blues idiom. The riff came to the fore in the early 1930’s in the Southwest tradition of orchestral jazz, where the influence of rural blues musicians was exceptionally strong.19

According to Schuller, the Southwest is guitar country and blues country, “the Texas blues tradition particularly being one of the oldest indigenous traditions and probably much older than the New Orleans idiom that is generally thought to be the primary fountainhead of jazz.”20 Montgomery’s principal mentor, Charlie Christian, brought the Southwestern blues into modern jazz, was one of the greatest riff-tune inventors, and popularized the riff-tune idea in the Benny Goodman sextet.21 It is highly probable then, that Montgomery absorbed not only

19 Robinson, op. cit.20 Gunther Schuller, The Swing Era: The Development of Jazz, 1930-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 563.21 Ibid., 563-570. At the time of the Benny Goodman sextet Charlie Christian could apparently “conceive such riffs by the hundreds.” The riff was an exciting and still a relatively fresh idea in jazz. However, Schuller contends that the riff-tune idea was eventually “increasingly abused, or at least over-used by that group. It eventually

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Christian’s blues-inflected linear conception of soloing, but also some of his fundamental riff ideas. Riff ideas can be found abundantly in Wes’ themes, improvisations, as well as in his comping patterns.22

Ex.7 Blue n’ Boogie (eighth chorus, m.1-8)

became an end in itself, losing its original function and its freshness, and assuming finally a robot-like routinization.”22 Comping is an abbreviated term regularly employed in the jazz lingo that is synonymous with “accompanying.” It is most frequently applied to the harmonic backgrounds of piano or guitar.

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It is not uncommon for Montgomery to improvise a single riff pattern throughout an entire chorus and then move to a different riff in the subsequent chorus. The riffs appear to be short main ideas that are usually not developed, simply reiterated. In twelve-bar blues forms such as Blue n’ Boogie (ex.7), Montgomery will often reiterate the riff for the first eight measures and supplement the remaining four measures with new contrasting melodic material. This is clearly evidenced in the eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth improvised choruses of Blue n’ Boogie. Montgomery’s riff patterns are based on blues tetrachords, blues cells, and their various combinations and permutations. Example 7 demonstrates that these riff ideas are usually extremely simple in character and are reiterated so as to generate a swinging momentum throughout the chorus. In the last four measures of this particular chorus Montgomery contrasts the riff pattern by repeating the pitch, Ab, with an eighth-note rhythm.

The Pentatonic ScaleWes Montgomery employs the pentatonic scale in his

improvisations, but never across entire sections or sub-sections of the form as he did with the blues scale. It is employed sparingly, usually as a short phrase or motive, and for only two to three measures at a time. Wes’ improvisations reveal that he superimposed the scale at different points on a chord, using in effect, the different modes of the scale.23 Since in jazz there is more than one pentatonic scale available 23 Some of these analyzed solos are not from the Riverside sessions: Montgomeryland Funk (Pacific Jazz CDP 7 94475 2); D-Natural Blues “Monterey Blues” (Fantasy 8052), m.42. In Here’s That Rainy Day (Verve 8625) Montgomery employs the pentatonic scale built on the fifth of major seventh chords four times. A total of seven pentatonic scales are employed throughout the 34-measure chorus (m.2, 5, 6, 13, 14, 17, 34).

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when improvising on chords, each pentatonic scale will offer a different coloring of the chord.24 By superimposing a pentatonic scale on a select scale degree, Montgomery is able to highlight certain chord tones for a particular musical effect, contrasting with his previously improvised material.

In Pretty Blue (ex.8) Wes uses Fb pentatonic scale (Fb, Gb, Ab, Cb, Db) extending over both the Db7 and Gb7 harmonic backgrounds. On Db7 he plays the root, fifth, eleventh and raised ninth (#9)- a pentatonic scale built on the raised ninth (#9) of the chord. 25 Over the Gb7 he plays the root, fifth, seventh (the ninth is not used), and eleventh of the chord- a pentatonic built on the seventh degree of the chord. This single pentatonic scale (Fb) is played and heard intelligibly as a complete musical phrase over the two chords. However, on a deeper analytical level we can appreciate that its superimposition on both harmonic backgrounds (Db7, Gb7) offers unique resulting notes because of its relation to the root of the chords.

Ex.8 Pretty Blue (m.51-53)

24 Mark E. Boling, The Jazz Theory Workbook, ed. Jerry Coker, 2nd ed. (Rottenburg N, W. Germany: Advance Music, 1993), 54.25 Dan Haerle, The Jazz Language (Lebanon, IN: Studio 224, 1980), 42. Haerle’s chart lists several applications of the pentatonic scale to different families of chords.

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Diminished ScaleThe diminished scale, sometimes referred to as the octatonic

scale, is an eight-note scale constructed in alternating whole steps and half steps.26 As was the case with the pentatonic scale, the diminished scale is employed sporadically and usually occurs within a larger musical phrase, but never across entire sub-sections of the form. The complete scale is always played in descending motion by Montgomery and its compass does not exceed two measures.27 Wes naturally utilizes the scale to maximum effect with dominant seventh chords because the scale’s pitches will provide the root, 3, 5, b7, b9, #9, #11, and 13. However, there are instances where he will use it on minor chords as well to momentarily generate harmonic tension.28

Ex.9a God Bless The Child (bridge, m.8)

26 Boling, op. cit., 51. Because the diminished scale is symmetrically constructed, only three diminished scales exist. The scale may either begin with a half step or a whole step depending on its application.27 Refer to S.O.S. (RLP-9434) m.6, 38; Au Privave (RLP 355) m.22; D-Natural Blues “Monterey Blues” (Fantasy 8052) m.13; Klactoveedsedstene m.58, West Coast Blues 2nd chorus m.19-20. (Jazzland OJC-146)28 This is evidenced on another version of Four on Six (Affinity AFF 13- recorded live in Paris, March 27, 1965). In the second chorus m.11-12, Wes improvises a diminished scale over the Gm7 harmonic background. The scale is not usually a good choice for minor chords, however, Montgomery resolves the tension immediately in the following measures by using more appropriate pitches.

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27

In examples 9a and 9b Wes improvises the same diminished scale comprising a distinctive four-note pattern. This type of diminished pattern is a prevalent element occurring in a great number of jazz musicians’ solos and also appears to be an essential constituent of Wes’ vocabulary.29 Not only does Montgomery use the identical scale and pattern in these examples, but also slurs and articulates the pitches in a similar manner in both instances.

Ex.9b The Way You Look Tonight (2nd chorus, bridge m.13-14)

29 David Baker, How To Play Bebop vol.1 (Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing Company, Inc., 1987), 45. Baker includes this particular diminished pattern as one of the twenty-six most employed “Public Domain Diminished Patterns” of Bebop.

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30

Lydian Dominant MotifThe lydian dominant scale is a commonly employed scale in jazz

and corresponds to the fourth mode of the melodic minor scale.30

Montgomery often utilizes an idiosyncratic motif (ex.10a, 10b) built on this particular mode. This lydian dominant motif has a distinctive and unique character which makes it audibly discernible even in up-tempo improvisations.

Ex.10a Freddie The Freeloader (m.25-27)

30 Boling, op. cit., 47. As used in jazz improvisation, the term “melodic minor” refers to the ascending form of the scale. Unlike the traditional melodic minor, the ascending melodic minor (1 2 b3 4 5 6 7), sometimes called Real Melodic Minor or Jazz Melodic Minor, does not have a different descending form.

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The motif illustrated in example 10a comprises all of the pitches in the Bb lydian dominant scale (Bb C D E F G Ab), and three of the functionally more important notes of the mode are emphasized by Wes; the root-Bb, the seventh-Ab, and the sharp eleventh- E.31 In effect, these are the select pitches that imbue this motif with its distinct “lydiant dominant” quality.

Ex.10b The Trick Bag (m.9)

31 Blue n’ Boogie 2nd chorus m.5-6, Wes employs the same three notes on a Bb7 chord.

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Montgomery often plays this same motif on a minor seventh chord which is a transposition of the fourth mode (lydian dominant) to its root. Hence, the mode in example 10b corresponds to the ascending G melodic minor scale.32

Developmental Techniques & ProceduresBarry Kernfeld separates the different improvisatory procedures

used by jazz musicians into three distinct categories: Paraphrase, motivic, and formulaic improvisation.33 In actuality, a player may use several or all of the techniques in the course of a single improvised solo, frequently overlapping the three types. In the following section we will examine Montgomery’s individual use of these techniques.

Paraphrase improvisation also called melodic paraphrase, consists of the embellishment or ornamentation of the melody of a theme, or some portion of it. Wes’ utilization of the paraphrase procedure does not only comprise a few ornamental flourishes, but is a highly skillful reworking of the original melody through the manipulation of specific musical elements. His ability to transform and enhance existing melodies in such a way as to make even the most pedestrian theme come alive, is inferred by Norman Mongan’s statement:

His reading of Monk’s “Round Midnight” immediately became part of jazz history as one of the greatest interpretations of the tune (listen to those arpeggiated triplets towards the end of his solo!). An old war-horse, “Besame Mucho,” was given a complete

32 Ibid., 47. Boling illustrates the placement of the modes of the melodic minor scale within five chord types.33 Barry Kernfeld, “Improvisation” in The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, ed. Barry Kernfeld, 2 vols. (New York: MacMillan Press Limited, 1988), 1:556.

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facelift by Wes’ 3/4 treatment; the statement of the melody is a lesson in itself.34

An aural analysis of diverse paraphrased themes has evidenced that Montgomery fundamentally exploits six elements when developing his most inventive paraphrase improvisations:35

(1) The Blues Tinge: Blue notes, blues tetrachords or cells are added to select segments of the original melody, imbuing it with a distinctive and contrasting “blue” quality.

(2) New Scalar Material: Diatonic and chromatic scalar material unrelated to the original theme is appended in melodically static areas. This scalar material is used to fill in rests or to contrast repeated pitches of the theme. Passing tones, neighbor notes, escape tones, and disparate nonharmonic tones, as well as formulaic patterns,36 are also appended to the original theme. Frequently, brief non-thematic flourishes are ingeniously interpolated into the phrases.

(3) Rhythmic Transformation: Wes repeatedly infused paraphrased melodies with excitement by varying original rhythms and by augmenting the rhythmic density and momentum. Formerly held pitches or periods of rests are filled in by reiterated rhythmic patterns, or by a continuous swinging eighth-note pulse. He also employs implied rhythmic groupings creating interesting ambiguities of

34 Norman Mongan, The History of The Guitar in Jazz (New York: Oak Publications, 1983), 163.35 Some excellent samples of paraphrase improvisation displaying the six basic elements include: Round Midnight, Yesterdays (RLP-1156), Besame Mucho (RLP-9459), Summertime (CDP7 94475 2), If You Could See Me Now (Verve 68633), and The Way You Look Tonight (RLP 9494). 36 Repertoire of melodic formulas and licks common to jazz musicians.

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phrasing previously lacking from the original theme.37 Other improvisations are characterized by an incredibly regenerated swing feel, slightly enhanced by notes placed ahead or behind the beat.38

(4) Undulating Melodic Contours: Montgomery carefully manipulates the aforementioned scalar and rhythmic devices in such a manner as to produce more pronounced undulating contours and melodic appeal in paraphrase solos without, however, sacrificing recognizability. He improvises contrapuntal melodic lines yielding undulating contours where single repeated pitches originally occurred.

(5) Dramatic Devices: Dramatic musical devices such as subtle embellishments, staccatos, glissandi, tremolos and slurs are clearly accentuated and underscored, thus giving the paraphrased line a more expressive and unique musical character.

(6) Phrase Beginnings & Endings: Montgomery is particularly attentive to playing the key notes and main rhythmic patterns characteristic of phrase beginnings and endings, thus preserving a reasonable degree of recognizability of the original theme.

Motivic ImprovisationWhen paraphrase improvisation is not used, the focus shifts to

musical fragments and the various ways in which they are combined and manipulated in jazz improvisation. Therefore, motivic

37 For implied rhythmic groupings refer to Montgomery’s improvisation on the opening of If You Could See Me Now from Smokin’ at the Half Note album (1965, Verve 68633). Lewis Porter has transcribed these opening measures in The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, 2:125.38 Refer to Besame Mucho.

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improvisation may be defined as the building of new material through the development of a single fragmentary musical idea.39 Schuller has accurately posited that “the average improvisation is mostly a stringing together of unrelated ideas,” but also keenly observes that “there is now a tendency among a number of jazz musicians to bring thematic (or motivic) structural unity into improvisation.”40 Since its development, jazz improvisation has become a more or less “unfettered, melodic-rhythmic extemporaneous composing process in which the sole organizing determinant is the underlying chord progression.”41 Montgomery’s solos unavoidably possess their share of unrelated musical ideas. Nevertheless, we do intelligibly recognize Wes’ sense for form extending itself into his melodies within select portions of improvised solos, where each melodic fragment is repeated, developed, or played in variations.42

Montgomery’s solo on Satin Doll is built for the most part, on the process of motivic improvisation. The complete solo displays a number of motives developed through sequence, retrograde, transposition and repetition. Satin Doll lends itself well to the procedures of motivic development because of the numerous descending IIm7-V7 harmonic progressions inherent in both the A section and the bridge. This type of motivic manipulation (sequence) is characteristic of Montgomery’s syntax and is mainly detectable on ascending and descending parallel progressions of dominant seventh chords, IIm7-V7, and their various

39 Kernfeld, op. cit., 556.40 Gunther Schuller, “Sonny Rollins and the Challenge of Thematic Improvisation,” The Jazz Review, Vol. 1, no.1 (1958), 6. 41 Ibid.42 Jerry Coker, Listening to Jazz (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1978), 32.

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harmonic substitutions.43 The transcriptions reveal widespread use of motivic sequence in Wes’ solos, however, this may be due to some extent, to the very nature of the guitar itself. Melodic patterns can be transposed instantaneously on this instrument by retaining the original fingering and moving it up or down horizontally across the fingerboard through select positions.

Ex.11 Satin Doll (m.1-6)

43 Also refer to Airegin m.29-32; West Coast Blues m.27-32, 41-44, 62-63, 151-154, 168-174.

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The opening measures of Wes’ solo on Satin Doll (ex.11) evidently exhibit the motivic development of predominantly arpeggiated structures. He introduces a motive (a) that is modified in retrograde to produce motive (b) in measure two. He duplicates this process in measures three and four with slight modification of motive (b’) while motive (a) is also used in measure five with a short two-note extension. Both motives (a) and (b) are sequenced and transposed up a tone in measures three and four. These arpeggiated motives specifically outline major seventh arpeggios which are incontestably, an important part of Montgomery’s improvisational vocabulary.44

Moreover, the structural unity of these opening measures is further strenghtened by the repeated use of an invariable rhythmic motive.

Montgomery’s stature as a jazz soloist is, in part, attributed to his exceptional ability to instantaneously create and develop incredibly coherent melodic solos. The late jazz guitarist Emily Remler was particularly attracted to this aspect of Wes’ improvisations. During her years as a student at Berklee College, she had decided she wanted to play exactly like Montgomery and was so loyal that she rejected all other approaches: “Not only were the legendary octave techniques incredible, but I found in his playing a thematic, motivic, logical form in his solos.”45 This proficiency is clearly exhibited by the seemingly effortless manner in which he produces and develops countless disparate motives even within a single improvisation. Wes’ solo on

44 In Satin Doll Montgomery employs other similar major seventh structures (in sequence and retrograde) at m.13-14 and 25-30, contrasting them with more linear and chromatic block chord melodies in sequence at m.33-37 and 41-44.45 Adrian Ingram, Wes Montgomery (Gateshead: Ashley Mark Publishing Co., 1985), 65.

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Lolita demonstrates his exceptional command of motivic improvisation.

This solo has been analyzed aurally and the findings have been concisely summarized in table 15. Lolita has a formal structure of sixteen measures and, as illustrated in the first column, Montgomery improvises on eleven choruses of the form. The second column exposes the measures within the specific chorus where motivic development has occurred. The third column lists fourteen main musical motives labeled (a) through (n) with a short description, and the last column describes the principal developmental procedures employed to transform individual motives. The fourteen motives used in this solo are intrinsically diverse and once a motive has been stated and briefly developed, another is introduced. Hence, this type of motivic improvisation where distinct motives are introduced within new choruses differs significantly from improvisations where a main motive or a thematic idea reappear at several points during a solo.46

Table 15 illustrates that motives are usually introduced at the beginning of eight-measure phrases within the chorus, that is, at measure one and nine. Each new chorus is customarily delineated with varying motives developed through sequence, repetition, or transposition. In the first five choruses Wes improvises melodic lines, and from the sixth chorus onwards he employs block chords motivically characterized by distinctive rhythms. As displayed in the

46 Lewis Porter, “John Coltrane’s A Love Supreme: Jazz Improvisation as Composition,” Journal of The American Musicological Society, Vol. 38 (1985), 593-621. In his analysis of John Coltrane’s solo on A Love Supreme, Porter establishes that a basic collection of pitches and a distinct cell a appear in all parts of the suite, in their original forms, in rotated forms, and transposed.

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third column (Main Motives), these block chords are used more often as rhythmic motives than melodic.

Table 15 - Lolita

Chorus Measures Main Motives Procedures

#1 m.8-12 (a) 3-note transposition (5x)

#2 m.1-8

m.9-12

(b) 4 measures

(c) 2 measures

sequence

transposition

#3 m.1-8 (d) 4 measures sequence

#4 m.9-10 (e) 3-note transposition

#5 m.9-12 (f) rhythmic, 2-meas. repetition

#6 m.1-8 (g) rhythmic, 4-

meas.

repetition

#7 m.1-8

m.9-12

m.13-16

(h) 4 measures

(i) rhythmic, 1-meas.

(j) rhythmic

sequence

repetition

repetition

#8 m.1-4

m.9-11

(j) rhythmic

(k) 4-note

repetition

repetition -

extension

#9 m.1-8

m.9-12

m.13-14

(l) 4-measures

(m) rhythmic,1-

meas.

(m) rhythmic

sequence -

extension

repetition

fragmented

#10 m.1-8

m.9-11

(n) rhythmic, 4-

meas.

(n) rhythmic

repetition

fragmented

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#11 -------- -------------- -------------

The seventh chorus is the most intense motivically, comprising three disparate motives; the first is developed in measures one through eight, the second in measures nine through twelve, and the third in measures thirteen to sixteen. In this instance Wes promotes structural unity and coherence by subdividing the basic sixteen-measure structure into an eight-measure section, and two subsequent four-measure sections where the motives are developed. In the last and conclusive chorus Wes does not develop any main motives but uses these last sixteen measures to unwind and promote resolution.

Formulaic Improvisation47

Formulaic improvisation can be defined as the creation of new material from a distinct body of fragmentary musical ideas.48 In this procedure many different formulas are mixed and interpolated to form continuous melodic lines. Jazz musicians freely draw from the repertory of formulas or “licks” they have acquired throughout their apprenticeships to develop their solos. It has already been

47 This is a concept borrowed from the studies of epic poetry and Western ecclesiastical chant. The pioneering research of Milman Parry and his student Albert B. Lord on the oral transmission of epic poetry and formulaic analysis has been particularly important. See Milman Parry’s The Making of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers of Milman Parry, ed. Adam Parry (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971) and Albert B. Lord’s The Singer of Tales (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960; New York: Atheneum, 1965, 1974).48 Kernfeld, op. cit., 556.

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demonstrated that outstanding improvisers skillfully employ large quantities of formulaic material.49 Many of these formulas are shared by the jazz community at large and are essential components of what is commonly referred to as the “jazz language.”50

Our immediate goal is not to identify all of the possible formulas and permutations employed by Wes, this would be far beyond the scope of this thesis. However, we want to demonstrate that these formulas do permeate Montgomery’s solos extensively, and that they are used synchronously with the other aforementioned types of improvisation. Formulas may appear in the form of larger musical entities such as phrases comprising one or two measures, or as smaller entities such as cells spanning two or three beats, usually interpolated with other cells to form continuous melodic lines. Thus far, we have analyzed and explained Wes’ use of several principal formulas such as the diminished pattern (ex.9a and 9b), the lydian motif (ex.10a, 10b), the idiomatic blues phrase (ex.2a, 2b), and essentially smaller formulas such as blues tetrachords (ex.3, 4) and blues cells (ex.5). Kernfeld has noted that the essence of formulaic improvisation is that “the formulas do not call attention to themselves, but are artfully hidden through variation in the improvised lines.” He also remarks that, “the challenge.....is to mold diverse fragments into a coherent whole.”51 The ensuing examples clearly reveal how

49 Thomas Owens, “Charlie Parker: Techniques of Improvisation” (Ph.D. diss., UCLA, 1974). Owens has identified about one hundred formulaic fragments that belong to saxophonist Charlie Parker’s central repertory. 50 Jerry Coker and David Baker have analyzed and itemized a number of these formulas or “public domain patterns” for improvisers in their respective books: Elements of the Jazz Language For The Developing Improvisor, and How To Play Bebop, Vol.2 .51 Ibid., 558.

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Montgomery fashions, assembles, and permutates diverse formulaic fragments into intelligible and coherent melodic transformations.

Measures 49-54 and 77-83 of Wes’ solo on Full House comprise three basic formulas that are used extensively and are audibly perceivable in numerous improvisations. The b pattern (ex.12a, 12b), usually played in descending fashion, occurs frequently at the end of phrases, and the a pattern, one of the most employed formulas, often appears at the very beginning of phrases. The a pattern is sometimes appended to the b pattern, and the c pattern to the a pattern.52

Ex.12a Full House (m.49-54)

52 Refer to Freddie The Freeloader m.13-14.

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Ex.12b Full House (m.77-83)

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50

Examples 12a and 12b illustrate the utilization of three select Montgomerian formulas and their varied permutations within a single improvised solo. In measures 49-54, Wes plays the permutations b, a,

c, b, whereas in measures 77-83 he uses a, c, b, a, b’ 53 Throughout his solos he will also alter, fragment, or extend diverse formulas, intermingling them with additional melodic materials,54 and maintain melodic coherence.55

Continuous Motion, Tessitura, Melodic AngularityNot all of Montgomery’s improvisations contain large numbers of

perceivable main ideas or motivic transformations as in Lolita or Full

House. Instead, Wes will frequently rely and build upon the continuity provided by “steady maintenance” of continuous eighth-note motion in the melodic line.56 This continuous motion is especially evident in fast tempos where jagged and acutely angular single-note lines are slurred with greater frequency.57 The increased slurring tends to slightly blur the sound quality of the line but on the other hand, effectively empowers Wes to acquire additional speed and maneuverability.

53 See also Full House : pattern b fragmented m.19-20; pattern a fragmented m.20-21, 27-28; Cariba : pattern b m.11; pattern a m.20-21.54 Compare m.17-19 with 53-55 in Airegin. It is the same basic formula employed on a recurring harmonic background, with slight rhythmic alterations and melodic interpolations.55 Robert Van Der Bliek, “Wes Montgomery: A Study of Coherence in Jazz Improvisation” (M.F.A. thesis, York University, 1987). This study has been published in article form in Jazzforschung/Jazz Research, vol.23 (1991). Van Der Bliek has examined some of the means by which Wes Montgomery established coherence in his improvisations. His study comprises analyses of six solos recorded for the Riverside label during the period 1960-62, four of which include alternate takes. Van Der Bliek’s analytical priority has been to explore Montgomery’s specific choices with respect to connections between “main ideas,” means of organization, and ways of dealing with particular problems or constraints in a small selection of solos. His study, unlike ours, does not attempt to draw specific conclusions about the fundamental features of Montgomery’s improvisational style, his idiosyncratic techniques and favorite devices.56 Ibid., 98-100.57 Refer to Cottontail, Airegin (m.1-56), Dearly Beloved (Boss Guitar, RLP 9459).

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The tessitura of improvisations performed at faster tempos tends to normally be situated in a slightly higher range of the instrument. 58

There are several tentative explanations we can propose for this: a) It is somewhat easier to play fast on the higher strings of the guitar since the gauge is smaller than on the thicker lower strings. b) Playing on the lower strings also requires that the wrist of the left hand be more arched and the fingers extended, thus slightly reducing motor movement swiftness during a solo. c) There is obviously more sound volume emitted by the rhythm section at faster tempos, thereby challenging Montgomery to play in a more audible high range of the instrument.

The melodic lines’ angularity is also more pronounced in fast tempos. A comparison of two of Wes’ transcribed improvisations (see appendix), Airegin and West Coast Blues, clearly establishes this. Airegin is played at up-tempo with a metronomic speed of about 310 (quarter note value), whereas West Coast Blues is performed at a medium tempo of 152. The melodic lines in Airegin (m.1-56) are convulsive with rapid ascents and descents transpiring within the span of one or two measures. West Coast Blues (m.1-95) on the other hand, exhibits smoothly rising and descending undulating melodic lines.

Highlighted Extended IntervalsOne of the most prevalent and discernible Montgomerian

melodic trait is the highlighted extended interval of the ninth, eleventh, or thirteenth. As a general rule, Wes regularly emphasizes

58 Refer to Blue n’ Boogie, Airegin.

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these scale degrees on the first beat of a measure, as the top note of an ascending arpeggio (ex.13a), or with rhythmic emphasis, (as a quarter note or eighth note among sixteenth notes).59 The eleventh or ninth degree are highlighted on minor seventh chords, and the ninth or thirteenth on dominant seventh chords. The b9 is also occasionally highlighted (depending on the harmonic progression) on dominant seventh chords (ex.13a).60 This technique is such an integral part of Wes’ musical language that it also permeates his compositions.61

Ex.13a Airegin (m.17-18)62

59 Fred Sokolow, Wes Montgomery (Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Publishing Corporation, 1988), 5. Sokolow illustrates this technique with examples which are not from the Riverside sessions: Naptown Blues (Goin’ Out Of My Head, Verve 8642, 1965), Bumpin’ (Bumpin,’ Verve 8625, 1965), and Far Wes (Wes Montgomery Beginnings, Blue Note BN-LA 531 H2, 1958).60 It is sufficient to sample a single improvisation to demonstrate Montgomery’s extensive employment of this device. In Airegin the eleventh occurs at m.21, 29, 37, 39, 43, 53, 72; the ninth occurs at m.25, 27, 55, 73, 75, 77, 101, 102, 105; the thirteenth at m.34, 62, 104; the flatted ninth at m.4, 18, 26, 32, 40, 54, 68, 90.61 In the theme of Four on Six (after the sixteen-bar introduction), Wes highlights the ninth four consecutive times on the first beats of measures five to eight. 62 The same highlighted intervals are utilized over the Bbm7-Eb7 progression at m.53-54 and m.89-90.

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Example 13b illustrates the extensive use of this device in a particular section of a solo improvisation. In measures 46 to 51 of Freddie The

Freeloader, Wes consistently highlights the thirteenth and the ninth of dominant seventh chords on the first beat of every measure except, measure 48.63

Ex.13b Freddie The Freeloader (m.46-51)

63 The same highlighted intervals are utilized at m.34-37 over the Eb7-D7-Bb7 progression.

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Consecutive Triads in Parallel MotionMontgomery regularly employed a series of consecutive triads

moving in parallel motion to create an abstract “outside” sound within the melodic line. The melodic tension created through this device is further increased by the inherent cross-rhythm (3/8 against 4/4) generated by its repeated melodic

Ex.14 Blue n’ Boogie (26th chorus, trading fours with drummer)

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groupings. In example 14 Wes plays a series of four dissonant augmented triads in parallel ascending motion over the basic Bb7 chord, producing tension and melodic intensity. This line finds resolution and tonal stability over the diatonically more linear and contrasting line played over F7. The brackets in example 14 show that the melodic groupings of the ascending triads yield a 3/8 cross-rhythm over the basic continuous 4/4 pulse of the rhythm section. Other improvisations evidence that the series of triads utilized need not be exclusively augmented. The triads do occur less frequently in descending motion, however, they sometimes include a mixture of major, minor, and diminished triads.64 This technique is typically used on fast tempos or in slower tempos where Montgomery plays in double time.65

This Montgomerian device is very similar to another type of “outside playing” called side-slipping. This concept was developed by players like John Coltrane and Freddie Hubbard into a technique for adding tension into lines built on static harmonies of modal compositions.66 The side-slip came into prominence in modal jazz which was characterized by very “slow harmonic rhythm, uncommon sequence of chords, and simply-structured harmonies.”67 The

64 Refer aurally to m.4-5 of the second chorus of Naptown Blues (Goin’ Out of My Head, Verve 8642). This is an “outside” passage in which Wes plays two minor and two major arpeggios: C#minor to B major immediately followed by a similar pattern, C minor to Bb major, and A diminished. This is all played over the tonic F7 chord, moving to the Bb7. Similarly, a 3/8 cross-rhythm is generated over the basic 4/4 pulse. Also refer to Four on Six (RLP 9320), m.69-71; Four on Six (Smokin’ At The Half Note, Verve 68633) first chorus, m.9-10; If You Could See Me Now (Verve 68633), m.23. 65 For an example of this device in double time refer to If You Could See Me Now, m.1-24.66 Boling, op. cit., 100. 67 Coker, Listening to Jazz, op. cit., 54-55. The soloists can treat each chord as though it were a scale, mode, or a whole key area, greatly expanding on the older

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improvisers devised many patterns that moved sequentially up or down, half a step above or below the chord, playing in deliberate contrast with the key. According to Ingram, it seems that Montgomery was aware of, and extremely interested in the side-slipping approach: “He had followed and absorbed the modal experiments of trumpeter Miles Davis and John Coltrane and had learnt the art of side-slipping, momentarily playing outside the chord changes, from saxophonist John Coltrane.”68 Thus, it is highly probable that Wes’ use of consecutive triads in parallel motion, was an idiosyncratic interpretation of the side-slip, since it does possess some of its essential characteristics.69

Single-Note Triad Chord FormsLike many jazz performers, Wes uses a large number of triadic and arpeggiated structures in his improvised solos. The syntactical nature and employment of these structures and their extensions have been discussed thoroughly in chapter 5. Montgomery’s single-note-triadic arpeggios are based on various chord form fingerings that are easily performed with three fingers of the left hand (ex.15). He frequently applies major and minor triad chord forms to play rapid triplet riffs, and eighth or sixteenth-note runs.

Ex.15

concept of simply producing a single, basic voicing for a chord.68 Ingram, op. cit., 53.69 Coker, op. cit., 59. According to Coker the side-slip usually has at least some of the following characteristics: 1) it generally occurs on weak or unaccented beats of measures; 2) the foreign key gone to will be in total opposition to the given key; 3) the side-slip will usually be relatively short in duration; 4) it returns to the original key rather quickly or; 5) it continues “slipping” indefinitely in the same direction; and 6) quite often the same melodic phrase or pattern will be used, first in the given key, then in a contrasting key, then once again in the given key.

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The augmented triad chord forms played in ascending or descending parallel motion, vertically across the fingerboard, are also utilized to create the side-slipping effect (ex.14). In his discussion of Montgomery’s solos, Fred Sokolow supports this premise:

Notice Wes’ characteristic use of triad chord forms during single-note triplet/arpeggios (as in “Four On Six”). He plays the same ascending pair of triplet/triads in the first and second choruses.......Here again, Wes uses triad chord forms:70

Sokolow has also observed that Montgomery uses these triad forms to “play nearly all the rapid-fire triplets in the single-note solos.” 71 The a

pattern illustrated in the aforementioned examples 12a and 12b, comprises a triplet figure deriving from these particular forms.

Concluding RemarksThroughout the chapter we have attempted to codify and

illustrate the use of some of the most distinctive melodic techniques, idiosyncratic devices, and improvisational materials, that permeate and characterize Wes Montgomery’s improvisational style. The selection embodies prevailing and fundamental melodic techniques employed by Wes, however, it is not all-inclusive. The melodic traits and devices are audibly discernible on the recordings and occur frequently, even within a single improvisation. Therefore, the collection of techniques to be included in this section was made on the basis of recurrence and perceptibility of melodic traits. Needless to

70 Fred Sokolow, op. cit., 70. 71 Ibid., 40.

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say, this was accomplished through extensive repeated listenings, both with and without transcriptions.

The blues was found to be one of the principal characterizing elements of Wes’ style; it is fostered melodically through extensive deployment of blues scales, tetrachords, select cells, call-and-response patterns, blues riffs and disparate articulations.72 Although he was self-taught and received no formal musical tutoring, Montgomery was well-attuned to and aware of other more contemporary scales and their usage. This is evidenced by his extensive use of diminished patterns, pentatonic scales, and numerous lydian-dominant-derived patterns. Wes’ acclaimed improvisational inventiveness is partly the result of his skillful and discriminate use of the three solo procedures examined; paraphrase, motivic, and formulaic. The transcribed examples have also demonstrated Montgomery’s exclusively personal application of these improvisational procedures, and the resulting effect of faster tempos on the continuous motion, tessitura, and angularity of the melodic line. Various colorings of the melodic line are achieved through the highlighted extended intervals and through tension building devices such as side-slipping.

72 De Stefano, IAJE Jazz Research Papers 1994, 39-41.

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