Anatolia

For other uses, see Anatolia (disambiguation) and AsiaMinor (disambiguation).

Coordinates: 39°N 32°E / 39°N 32°E

The location of Turkey (within the rectangle) in reference to theEuropean continent. Anatolia roughly corresponds to the Asianpart of Turkey, except the eastern parts historically known as theArmenian Highlands

Anatolia (from Greek Ἀνατολή, Anatolḗ — “east” or"(sun)rise"; in modern Turkish: Anadolu), in geog-raphy known as Asia Minor (from Greek: Μικρὰ ἈσίαMīkrá Asía— “small Asia”), Asian Turkey, Anatolianpeninsula, or Anatolian plateau, denotes the western-most protrusion of Asia, which makes up the majority ofthe Republic of Turkey. The inhabitants of this regionspoke Anatolian languages and other ancient languagessuch as Hattian in Central Anatolia until the region wasHellenized following the invasion of Alexander the Great,after that Anatolia was conquered in the 11th century bythe Oghuz Turks.The region is bounded by the Black Sea to the north,the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and the AegeanSea to the west. The Sea of Marmara forms a con-nection between the Black and Aegean Seas through theBosphorus and Dardanelles straits and separates Anatoliafrom Thrace on the European mainland.Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the eastto a line between the Gulf of İskenderun and the BlackSea, or to what is historically known as the ArmenianHighlands (Armenia Major). This region is now largelysituated in the Eastern Anatolia region of the far northeast of Turkey and converges with the Lesser Caucasus- an area that was incorporated in the Russian Empire

region of Transcaucasia in the 19th century.[1][2] Thus,traditionally Anatolia is the territory that comprises ap-proximately the western two-thirds of the Asian part ofTurkey. However, since the declaration of the TurkishRepublic in 1923, Anatolia is often considered to be syn-onymous with Asian Turkey, which comprises almost theentire country,[3] its eastern and southeastern borders arewidely taken to be the Turkish borders with neighboringGeorgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, and Syria, inclockwise direction.

1 Definition

The traditional definition of Anatolia within modern Turkey[4][5]

1907 map of Asia Minor, showing the local ancient kingdoms

The Anatolian peninsula, also called Asia Minor, isbounded by the Black Sea to the north, theMediterraneanSea to the south, the Aegean Sea to the west, and the Seaof Marmara to the northwest, which separates Anatoliafrom Thrace in Europe.Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in theeast to an indefinite line running from the Gulf of İsk-enderun to the Black Sea, coterminous with the Ana-tolian Plateau. This traditional geographical definition

1

2 3 HISTORY

is used, for example, in the latest edition of Merriam-Webster’s Geographical Dictionary,[4] as well as the arche-ological community.[5] Under this definition, Anatolia isbounded to the East by the Armenian Highland, and theEuphrates before that river bends to the southeast to en-ter Mesopotamia.[5] To the southeast, it is bounded by theranges that separate it from the Orontes valley in Syria(region) and the Mesopotamian plain.[5]

However, following the establishment of the Republicof Turkey, Anatolia was defined by the Turkish gov-ernment as being effectively co-terminous with AsianTurkey. Turkey’s First Geography Congress in 1941 cre-ated two regions to the east of the Gulf of Iskenderun-Black Sea line named the Eastern Anatolia Region andthe Southeastern Anatolia Region,[6] the former largelycorresponding to the western part of the Armenian High-land, the latter to the northern part of the Mesopotamianplain. This wider definition of Anatolia has gainedwidespread currency outside of Turkey and has, for in-stance, been adopted by Encyclopædia Britannica[7] andother encyclopedic and general reference publications.[8]

2 Etymology

The oldest known reference to Anatolia – as “Land of theHatti” – was found on Mesopotamian cuneiform tabletsfrom the period of the Akkadian Empire (2350–2150BC). The first name the Greeks used for the Anato-lian peninsula was Ἀσία (Asía),[9] presumably after thename of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia. As thename of Asia came to be extended to other areas east ofthe Mediterranean, the name for Anatolia was specifiedas Μικρὰ Ἀσία (Mikrá Asía) or Asia Minor, meaning“Lesser Asia”, in Late Antiquity.The name Anatolia derives from the Greek ἀνατολή(anatolḗ) meaning “the East” or more literally “sun-rise”, comparable to the Latin derived terms “levant” and“orient”.[10][11] The precise reference of this term has var-ied over time, perhaps originally referring to the Aeolian,Ionian and Dorian colonies on the west coast of AsiaMinor. In the Byzantine Empire, the Anatolic Theme(Aνατολικόν θέμα) was a theme covering the westernand central parts of Turkey’s present-day Central Ana-tolia Region.[12][13] The modern Turkish form of Anato-lia is Anadolu, which again derives from the Greek nameAνατολή (Anatolḗ). The Russianmale nameAnatoly andthe French Anatole share the same linguistic origin.In English the name of Turkey for ancient Anatolia firstappeared c. 1369. It is derived from the Medieval LatinTurchia (meaning “Land of the Turks”, Turkish Türkiye),which was originally used by the Europeans to define theSeljuk controlled parts of Anatolia after the Battle ofManzikert.

3 History

Main article: History of Anatolia

3.1 Prehistory

Mural of aurochs, a deer, and humans in Çatalhöyük, which isthe largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date. It wasregistered as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2012.[14]

Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to thePaleolithic.[15] Neolithic Anatolia has been proposed asthe homeland of the Indo-European language family, al-though linguists tend to favour a later origin in the steppesnorth of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the Indo-European Anatolian languages have been spoken in Ana-tolia since at least the 19th century BC.Eastern Anatolia contains the oldest known monumen-tal structures. Those at Göbekli Tepe, for example, werebuilt by hunter-gatherers a thousand years before the de-velopment of agriculture. Eastern Anatolia, alongsideMesopotamia and the Levant, was a heartland of theNeolithic Revolution, one of the earliest areas in whichhumans domesticated plants and animals. Neolithic sitessuch as Çatalhöyük, Çayönü, Nevalı Çori andHacilar rep-resent the world’s oldest known agricultural towns.

3.2 Ancient Near East (Bronze and IronAges)

3.2.1 Hattians and Hurrians

The earliest historical records of Anatolia stem from thesoutheast of the region and are from the Mesopotamian-based Akkadian Empire during the reign of Sargon ofAkkad in the 24th century BC. Scholars generally believethe earliest indigenous populations of Anatolia were theHattians and Hurrians. The Hattians spoke a languageof unclear affiliation, and the Hurrian language belongsto a small family called Hurro-Urartian, all these lan-guages now being extinct; relationships with indigenouslanguages of the Caucasus have been proposed[16] butare not generally accepted. The region was famousfor exporting raw materials, and areas of Hattian- and

3.2 Ancient Near East (Bronze and Iron Ages) 3

Hurrian-populated southeast Anatolia were colonised bythe Akkadians.[17]

3.2.2 Assyrian Empire (21st-18th centuries BC)

After the fall of the Akkadian empire in themid-21st cen-tury BC, the Assyrians, who were the northern branch ofthe Akkadian people, colonised parts of the region be-tween the 21st andmid-18th centuries BC and claimed itsresources, notably silver. One of the numerous cuneiformrecords dated circa 20th century BC, found in Anatolia atthe Assyrian colony of Kanesh, uses an advanced systemof trading computations and credit lines.[17]

3.2.3 Hittite Kingdoms (17th-12th centuries BC)

The Lion Gate at Hattusa, capital of the Hittite Empire. The city’shistory dates to before 2000 BC.

Unlike the Semitic Akkadians and their descendants, theAssyrians, whose Anatolian possessions were peripheralto their core lands in Mesopotamia, the Hittites werecentred at Hattusa in north-central Anatolia by 2000BC. They were speakers of an Indo-European languageknown as the "language of Nesa". Originating fromNesa,they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BC, impos-ing themselves over Hattian- and Hurrian-speaking pop-ulations.The Hittites adopted the cuneiform written script, in-vented in Mesopotamia. During the Late Bronze Agecirca 2000 BC, they created an empire, the Hittite NewKingdom, which reached its height in the 14th centuryBC, controlling much of Asia Minor. The empire in-cluded a large part of Anatolia, northwestern Syria andnorthwest upper Mesopotamia. They failed to reachthe Anatolian coasts of the Black Sea, however, as an-other non-Indo-European people, the Kaskians, had es-tablished a kingdom there in the 17th century BC, dis-placing earlier Palaic speaking Indo-Europeans.[18]Muchof the history of the Hittite Empire concerned war withthe rival empires of Egypt, Assyria and the Mitanni.[19]

The Egyptians eventually withdrew from the region afterfailing to gain the upper hand over theHittites and becom-

ing wary of the power of Assyria, which had destroyed theMitanni Empire.[19] The Assyrians and Hittites were thenleft to battle over control of eastern and southern Anato-lia and colonial territories in Syria. The Assyrians hadbetter success than the Egyptians, annexing much Hittite(and Hurrian) territory in these regions.[20]

3.2.4 Mitanni kingdoms (ca. 1500–1300 BC)

The Mitanni Empire was also an Indo-European (andHurrian)-speaking and Anatolian-based empire. TheMi-tanni appeared in the 17th century BC and spoke an Indo-Aryan language related to the Indo-European languageseventually to be found in India.[21]

3.2.5 Northeastern Hurrian kingdoms (c. 12th-6thcenturies BC)

Hurrian kingdoms, such as Nairi (13th/12th-10th cen-turies BC) and the powerful state of Urartu (860 BC–590BC) arose in northeastern Anatolia from the 10th centuryBC, before eventually falling to the Assyrians. Duringthe same period the Georgian states of Colchis and Tabalarose around the Black Sea and central Anatolia respec-tively.

3.2.6 Neo-Hittite kingdoms (c. 1180-700 BC)

After 1180 BC, the Hittite empire disintegrated into sev-eral independent "Neo-Hittite" states, subsequent to los-ing much territory to the Middle Assyrian Empire andbeing finally overrun by the Phrygians, another Indo-European people who are believed to have migrated fromthe Balkans. The Phrygian expansion into southeast Ana-tolia was eventually halted by the Assyrians, who con-trolled that region.[20]

Arameans

Semitic Arameans encroached over the borders of southcentral Anatolia in the century or so after the fall of theHittite empire, and some of the Neo-Hittite states in thisregion became an amalgam of Hittites and Arameans.These became known as Syro-Hittite states.

Luwians

In central and western Anatolia, another Indo-Europeanpeople, the Luwians, came to the fore, circa 2000 BC.Their language was closely related to Hittite.[22] Thegeneral consensus amongst scholars is that Luwian wasspoken—to a greater or lesser degree—across a largearea of western Anatolia, including (possibly) Wilusa(Troy), the Seha River Land (to be identified with theHermos and/or Kaikos valley), and the kingdom ofMira-Kuwaliya with its core territory of the Maeander

4 3 HISTORY

valley.[23] From the 9th century BC, Luwian regions co-alesced into a number of states such as Lydia, Caria andLycia, all of which had Hellenic influence.

3.2.7 Neo-Assyrian Empire (10th-7th centuries BC)

From the 10th to late 7th centuries BC, much of Anato-lia (particularly the east, central, southwestern and south-eastern regions) fell to the Neo-Assyrian Empire, includ-ing all of the Neo-Hittite and Syro-Hittite states, Phry-gia, Urartu, Nairi, Tabal, Cilicia, Commagene, Caria,Lydia, the Cimmerians and Scythians and swathes ofCappadocia.The Neo-Assyrian empire collapsed due to a bitter seriesof civil wars followed by a combined attack by Medes,Persians, Scythians and their own Babylonian relations.The last Assyrian city to fall was Harran in southeast Ana-tolia. This city was the birthplace of the last king ofBabylon, the Assyrian Nabonidus and his son and regentBelshazzar. Much of the region then fell to the short-lived Iran-based Median Empire, with the Babyloniansand Scythians briefly appropriating some territory.

3.2.8 Cimmerian and Scythian invasions (8th-7thcenturies BC)

From the late 8th century BC, a new wave of Indo-European-speaking raiders entered northern and north-east Anatolia: the Cimmerians and Scythians. The Cim-merians overran Phrygia and the Scythians threatened todo the same to Urartu and Lydia, before both were finallychecked by the Assyrians.

3.2.9 Greek West

Achaean/Mycenaen culture (20th century-c. 1200 BC)

The north-western coast of Anatolia was inhabited byGreeks of the Achaean/Mycenaean culture from the 20thcentury BC, related to the Greeks of south eastern Europeand the Aegean.[24]

Achaean/Mycenaen culture (after c. 1200BC)

Beginning with the Bronze Age collapse at the end of the2nd millennium BC, the west coast of Anatolia was set-tled by Ionian Greeks, usurping the area of the relatedbut earlier Mycenaean Greeks. Over several centuries,numerous Ancient Greek city-states were established onthe coasts of Anatolia. Greeks started Western philoso-phy on the western coast of Anatolia (Pre-Socratic phi-losophy).[24]

3.3 Classical antiquity

MysiaTroad

Aeolis Lydia

Ionia

Caria

LyciaPamphylia

Cilicia

Bithynia

Phrygia

LycaoniaPisidia

PaphlagoniaThrace

Cappadocia

Pontus

Lesbos

Chios

BLACK SEA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

Doris

CreteCyprus

Samos

Naxos

Rhodes

ABC = Traditional region of AnatoliaABC = Region of Greek settlement

Galatia

Ancient regions of Anatolia (500 BC)

Lycian rock cut tombs of Kaunos (Dalyan)

In classical antiquity, Anatolia was described byHerodotus and later historians as divided into re-gions named after tribes such as Lydia, Lycia, Caria,Mysia, Bithynia, Phrygia, Galatia, Lycaonia, Pisidia,Paphlagonia, Cilicia, and Cappadocia. By that time,the populations were a mixture of the ancient Anatolianor "Syro-Hittite” substrate and post-Bronze-Age-collapse“Thraco-Phrygian” and more recent Greco-Macedonianincursions.

The Dying Gaul c. 230 BC, a Roman copy of a Greek statuecommemorating the victory over the Celtic Galatians in Anatolia

3.4 Early Christian period 5

Anatolia is known as the birthplace of minted coinage(as opposed to unminted coinage, which first appears inMesopotamia at a much earlier date) as a medium ofexchange, some time in the 7th century BC in Lydia.The use of minted coins continued to flourish during theGreek and Roman eras.[25][26]

During the 6th century BC, most of Anatolia was con-quered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the Persianshaving usurped the Medes as the dominant dynasty inIran. Also in the 6th century BC, the Indo-EuropeanArmenians founded the Orontid Dynasty in Urartu. In499 BC, the Ionian city-states on the west coast of Ana-tolia rebelled against Persian rule. The Ionian Revolt, asit became known, though quelled, initiated the Greco-Persian Wars, which ended in a Greek victory in 449 BC,and the Ionian cities regained their independence.In 334 BC, the Macedonian Greek king Alexander theGreat conquered the peninsula from the Achaemenid Per-sian Empire.[27] Alexander’s conquest opened up the in-terior of Asia Minor to Greek settlement and influence.

Sanctuary of Commagene Kings on Mount Nemrut (1st centuryBC)

The temple of Athena (funded by Alexander the Great) in theGreek city of Priene

Following the death of Alexander and the breakup ofhis empire, Anatolia was ruled by a series of Hellenis-tic kingdoms, such as the Attalids of Pergamum and the

Seleucids, the latter controlling most of Anatolia. A pe-riod of peaceful Hellenization followed, such that the lo-cal Anatolian languages had been supplanted by Greek bythe 1st century BC. In 133 BC the last Attalid king be-queathed his kingdom to the Roman Republic, and west-ern and central Anatolia came under Roman control, butHellenistic culture remained predominant. Further an-nexations by Rome, in particular of the Kingdom of Pon-tus by Pompey, brought all of Anatolia under Roman con-trol, except for the eastern frontier with the Parthian Em-pire, which remained unstable for centuries, causing a se-ries of wars, culminating in the Roman-Parthian Wars.During the 1st century BC the Arsacid dynasty of Arme-nia (which itself was a branch of the eponymous Arsaciddynasty of Parthia) under Tigran, reigned throughoutmuch of eastern Anatolia between the Caspian, Black,and Mediterranean Seas. Areas of the southeast such asHarran and the Hakkari mountains continued to be in-habited by remnants of the Assyrians, but these regionsremained under Parthian and then Sassanid Persian rule.For centuries, from the 3rd century AD up to includingthe course of the 7th century AD, the frequent Byzantine-Sassanid Wars razed over parts of Anatolia.

3.4 Early Christian period

After the division of the Roman Empire, Anatolia be-came part of the East Roman, or Byzantine Empire. Ana-tolia was one of the first places where Christianity spread,so that by the 4th century AD, western and central Anato-lia were overwhelmingly Christian and Greek-speaking.For the next 600 years, while Imperial possessions inEurope were subjected to barbarian invasions, Anatoliawould be the center of the Hellenic world. Byzantinecontrol was challenged by Arab raids starting in the 8thcentury (see Byzantine–Arab Wars), but in the 9th and10th century a resurgent Byzantine Empire regained itslost territories, including even long lost territory such asArmenia and Syria (ancient Aram).

3.5 Islamic rule replacing Byzantium

Byzantine Anatolia and the Byzantine-Arab frontier zone in themid-9th century

6 3 HISTORY

Beyliks and other states around Anatolia, c. 1300.

In the 10 years following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071,the Seljuk Turks from Central Asia established them-selves over large areas of Anatolia, with particular con-centrations around the north western rim.[28] The Turkishlanguage and the Islamic religion were gradually intro-duced as a result of the Seljuk conquest, and this periodmarks the start of Anatolia’s slow transition from pre-dominantly Christian and Greek-speaking, to predomi-nantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking (although some eth-nic groups such as Armenians, Greeks, Assyrians re-mained numerous and retained Christianity and their na-tive languages). In the following century, the Byzantinesmanaged to reassert their control in western and northernAnatolia. Control of Anatolia was then split between theByzantine Empire and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm, withthe Byzantine holdings gradually being reduced.[29]

In 1255, the Mongols swept through eastern and centralAnatolia, and would remain until 1335. The Ilkhanategarrison was stationed near Ankara.[29][30] After the de-cline of the Ilkhanate from 1335–1353, the Mongol Em-pire's legacy in the region was the Uyghur Eretna Dynastythat was overthrown by Kadi Burhan al-Din in 1381.[31]

By the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was con-trolled by various Anatolian beyliks. Smyrna fell in 1330,and the last Byzantine stronghold in Anatolia, Philadel-phia, fell in 1390. The Turkmen Beyliks were underthe control of the Mongols, at least nominally, throughdeclining Seljuk sultans.[32][33] The Beyliks did not mintcoins in the names of their own leaders while they re-mained under the suzerainty of the Mongol Ilkhanids.[34]The Osmanli ruler Osman I was the first Turkish rulerwho minted coins in his own name in 1320s, for it bearsthe legend “Minted by Osman son of Ertugul”.[35] Sincetheminting of coins was a prerogative accorded in Islamicpractice only to a sovereign, it can be considered that theOsmanli, or Ottoman Turks, became formally indepen-dent from the Mongol Khans.[36]

3.6 Ottoman Empire

Among the Turkmen leaders the Ottomans emerged asgreat power under Osman and his son Orhan I. The Ana-

tolian beyliks were successively absorbed into the risingOttoman Empire during the 15th century. It is not wellunderstood how the Osmanli, or Ottoman Turks, cameto dominate their neighbours, as the history of medievalAnatolia is still little known.[37] The Ottomans completedthe conquest of the peninsula in 1517 with the takingof Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum) from the Knights ofSaint John.

3.7 Modern times

Ethnographic map of Anatolia from 1911.

With the acceleration of the decline of the Ottoman Em-pire in the early 19th century, and as a result of theexpansionist policies of Czarist Russia in the Caucasus,many Muslim nations and groups in that region, mainlyCircassians, Tatars, Azeris, Lezgis, Chechens and sev-eral Turkic groups left their ancestral homelands andsettled in Anatolia. As the Ottoman Empire furthershrank in the Balkan regions and then fragmented dur-ing the Balkan Wars, much of the non-Christian pop-ulations of its former possessions, mainly Balkan Mus-lims (Bosnians, Albanians, Turks, MuslimBulgarians andGreekMuslims such as the Vallahades fromGreekMace-donia), were resettled in various parts of Anatolia, mostlyin formerly Christian villages throughout Anatolia.[38]

A continuous reverse migration occurred since theearly 19th century, when Greeks from Anatolia, Con-stantinopole and Pontus area migrated toward the newlyindependent Kingdom of Greece, and also towards theUnited States, southern part of the Russian Empire, LatinAmerica and rest of Europe. Following the Treaty ofTurkmenchay (1828) and the incorporation of the East-ern Armenia into the Russian Empire, another reversemigration involved the large Armenian population ofAnatolia, which recorded significant migration rates fromWestern Armenia (Eastern Anatolia) toward the RussianEmpire, especially toward its newly established Arme-nian provinces.Anatolia remained multi-ethnic until the early 20th cen-tury (see the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Em-pire). During World War I, the Armenian Genocide, the

4.3 Ecoregions 7

Greek genocide (especially in Pontus), and the AssyrianGenocide almost entirely removed the ancient indigenouscommunities of Armenian and Assyrian populations inAnatolia, as well as a large part of its ethnic Greek popu-lation. Following the Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1922,most remaining ethnic Anatolian Greeks were forced outduring the 1923 population exchange between Greeceand Turkey. Many more have left Turkey since, leav-ing less than 5,000 Greeks in Anatolia today. Since thefoundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, Anatoliahas become Turkey, its inhabitants being mainly Turksand Kurds (see demographics of Turkey and history ofTurkey).

4 Geography

Main article: Geography of Turkey

4.1 Geology

Main article: Geology of Turkey

Anatolia’s terrain is structurally complex. A centralmassif composed of uplifted blocks and downfoldedtroughs, covered by recent deposits and giving the ap-pearance of a plateau with rough terrain, is wedged be-tween two folded mountain ranges that converge in theeast. True lowland is confined to a few narrow coastalstrips along the Aegean, Mediterranean, and Black Seacoasts. Flat or gently sloping land is rare and largely con-fined to the deltas of the Kızıl River, the coastal plainsof Çukurova and the valley floors of the Gediz River andthe Büyük Menderes River as well as some interior highplains in Anatolia, mainly around Lake Tuz (Salt Lake)and the Konya Basin (Konya Ovasi).

4.2 Climate

Main article: Climate of Turkey

• Temperatures of Anatolia

• Ankara (central Anatolia)

• Antalya (southern Anatolia)

• Van (eastern Anatolia)

Anatolia has a varied range of climates. The centralplateau is characterized by a continental climate, withhot summers and cold snowy winters. The south andwest coasts enjoy a typical Mediterranean climate, withmild rainy winters, and warm dry summers.[39] The BlackSea and Marmara coasts have temperate oceanic climate,

with cool foggy summers and much rainfall throughoutthe year.

4.3 Ecoregions

There is a diverse number of plant and animal communi-ties.The mountains and coastal plain of northern Anatolia ex-periences humid and mild climate. There are temperatebroadleaf, mixed and coniferous forests. The central andeastern plateau, with its drier continental climate, has de-ciduous forests and forest steppes. Western and southernAnatolia, which have a Mediterranean climate, containMediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregions.

• Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests: These temperatebroadleaf and mixed forests extend across northernAnatolia, lying between the mountains of northernAnatolia and the Black Sea. They include the en-claves of temperate rainforest lying along the south-eastern coast of the Black Sea in eastern Turkey andGeorgia.[40]

• Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests:These forests occupy the mountains of northernAnatolia, running east and west between the coastalEuxine-Colchic forests and the drier, continental cli-mate forests of central and eastern Anatolia.[41]

• Central Anatolian deciduous forests: These forestsof deciduous oaks and evergreen pines cover theplateau of central Anatolia.[42]

• Central Anatolian steppe: These dry grasslandscover the drier valleys and surround the saline lakesof central Anatolia, and include halophytic (salt tol-erant) plant communities.[43]

• Eastern Anatolian deciduous forests: This ecoregionoccupies the plateau of eastern Anatolia. The drierandmore continental climate is beneficial for steppe-forests dominated by deciduous oaks, with areas ofshrubland, montane forest, and valley forest.[44]

• Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests:These forests occupy the western, Mediterranean-climate portion of the Anatolian plateau. Pineforests and mixed pine and oak woodlands andshrublands are predominant.[45]

• Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous andmixed forests: These Mediterranean-climate forestsoccupy the coastal lowlands and valleys of west-ern Anatolia bordering the Aegean Sea. The ecore-gion has forests of Turkish pine (Pinus brutia), oakforests and woodlands, and maquis shrubland ofTurkish pine and evergreen sclerophyllous trees andshrubs, including Olive (Olea europaea), StrawberryTree (Arbutus unedo), Arbutus andrachne, Kermes

8 8 REFERENCES

Oak (Quercus coccifera), and Bay Laurel (Laurusnobilis).[46]

• Southern Anatolian montane conifer and decidu-ous forests: These mountain forests occupy theMediterranean-climate Taurus Mountains of south-ern Anatolia. Conifer forests are predominant,chiefly Anatolian black pine (Pinus nigra), Cedarof Lebanon (Cedrus libani), Taurus fir (Abies cili-cica), and juniper (Juniperus foetidissima and J. ex-celsa). Broadleaf trees include oaks, hornbeam, andmaples.[47]

• Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests: This ecoregion occupies thecoastal strip of southern Anatolia between theTaurus Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea.Plant communities include broadleaf sclerophyllousmaquis shrublands, forests of Aleppo Pine (Pinushalepensis) and Turkish Pine (Pinus brutia), anddry oak (Quercus spp.) woodlands and steppes.[48]

5 Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Turkey

Almost 80% of the people currently residing in Anatoliaare Turks. Kurds constitute a major community in south-eastern Anatolia,[49] and are the largest ethnic minority.Abkhazians, Albanians, Arabs, Arameans, Armenians,Assyrians, Azerbaijanis, Bosniaks, Circassians, Gagauz,Georgians, Serbs, Greeks, Hemshin, Jews, Laz,Levantines, Pomaks, Zazas and a number of other ethnicgroups also live in Anatolia in smaller numbers.

6 See also

7 External Links

8 References[1] Adalian, Rouben Paul (2010). Historical dictionary of Ar-

menia (2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. pp.336–8. ISBN 0810874504.

[2] Grierson, OttoMørkholm ; edited by Philip; Westermark,Ulla (1991). Early Hellenistic coinage : from the acces-sion of Alexander to the Peace of Apamea (336-188 B.C.)(Repr. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.175. ISBN 0521395046.

[3] Hooglund, Eric (2004). “Anatolia”. Encyclopedia of theModern Middle East and North Africa. Macmillan/Gale –via Encyclopedia.com. Anatolia comprises more than 95percent of Turkey’s total land area.

[4] Merriam-Webster’s Geographical Dictionary. 2001. p.46. ISBN 0 87779 546 0. Retrieved 18 May 2001.

[5] Stephen Mitchell, Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in AsiaMinor. The Celts in Anatolia and the impact of Romanrule. Clarendon Press, Aug 24, 1995 - 296 pages. ISBN978-0198150299

[6] Ali Yiğit, “Geçmişten Günümüze Türkiye'yi BölgelereAyıran Çalışmalar ve Yapılması Gerekenler”, AnkaraÜniversitesi Türkiye Coğrafyası Araştırma ve UygulamaMerkezi, IV. Ulural Coğrafya Sempozyumu, “Avrupa Bir-liği Sürecindeki Türkiye'de Bölgesel Farklılıklar”, pp. 34-35.

[7] “Anatolia”. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 18 May2012.

[8] "Anatolia entries from Encyclopedia of the Modern Mid-dle East and North Africa, The Columbia Encyclopedia,and A Dictionary of World History". Encyclopedia.com.Retrieved 19 May 2012.

[9] Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, Ἀσία, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

[10] Henry George Liddell; Robert Scott. “A Greek-EnglishLexicon”.

[11] Online Etymology Dictionary

[12] “On the First Thema, called Anatolikón. This theme iscalled Anatolikón or Theme of the Anatolics, not becauseit is above and in the direction of the east where the sunrises, but because it lies to the East of Byzantium and Eu-rope.” Constantine VII Porphyogenitus, De Thematibus,ed. A. Pertusi. Vatican: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana,1952, pp. 59–61.

[13] John Haldon, Byzantium, a History, 2002. Page 32

[14] "Çatalhöyük added to UNESCO World Heritage List”.Global Heritage Fund. 3 July 2012. Retrieved 9 February2013.

[15] Stiner, Mary C.; Kuhn, Steven L.; Güleç, Erksin (2013).“Early Upper Paleolithic shell beads at Üçağızlı Cave I(Turkey): Technology and the socioeconomic context ofornament life-histories”. Journal of Human Evolution 64(5): 380–398. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.01.008. ISSN0047-2484. PMID 23481346.

[16] Bryce 2005:12

[17] Freeman, Charles (1999). Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civi-lizations of the Ancient Mediterranean. Oxford UniversityPress. ISBN 0-19-872194-3.

[18] Carruba, O. Das Palaische. Texte, Grammatik, Lexikon.Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1970. StBoT 10

[19] Georges Roux - Ancient Iraq

[20] Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books, 1966.

[21] Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq, p. 229. Penguin Books,1966.

[22] Melchert 2003

9

[23] Watkins 1994; id. 1995:144–51; Starke 1997; Melchert2003; for the geography Hawkins 1998

[24] Carl Roebuck, The World of Ancient Times

[25] Howgego, C. J. (1995). Ancient History fromCoins. ISBN0-415-08992-1.

[26] Asia Minor Coins - an index of Greek and Roman coinsfrom Asia Minor (ancient Anatolia)

[27] Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2010). ACompanionto Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 1-4051-7936-8.

[28] Angold, Michael (1997). The Byzantine Empire 1025-1204. p. 117. ISBN 0-582-29468-1.

[29] H. M. BalyuziMuḥammad and the course of Islám, p.342

[30] John Freely Storm on Horseback: The Seljuk Warriors ofTurkey, p.83

[31] Clifford Edmund Bosworth-The new Islamic dynasties: achronological and genealogical manual, p.234

[32] Mehmet Fuat Köprülü, Gary Leiser-The origins of the Ot-toman Empire, p.33

[33] Peter PartnerGod of battles: holy wars of Christianity andIslam, p.122

[34] Osman’s Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire, p.13

[35] Artuk - Osmanli Beyliginin Kurucusu, 27f

[36] Pamuk - A Monetary History, p.30-31

[37] Finkel, Caroline (2007). Osman’s Dream: The History ofthe Ottoman Empire. Basic Books. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-465-00850-6. Retrieved 6 June 2013.

[38] Justin McCarthy, Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansingof Ottoman Muslims, 1821-1922, 1996, ISBN 0-87850-094-4

[39] Prothero, W.G. (1920). Anatolia. London: H.M. Sta-tionery Office.

[40] “Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests”. Terrestrial Ecore-gions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved May 25, 2008.

[41] “Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests”. Ter-restrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved May25, 2008.

[42] “Central Anatolian deciduous forests”. Terrestrial Ecore-gions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved May 25, 2008.

[43] “Central Anatolian steppe”. Terrestrial Ecoregions. WorldWildlife Fund. Retrieved May 25, 2008.

[44] “Eastern Anatolian deciduous forests”. Terrestrial Ecore-gions. World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved May 25, 2008.

[45] “Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests”. Terres-trial Ecoregions. WorldWildlife Fund. RetrievedMay 25,2008.

[46] “Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixedforests”. Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund.Retrieved May 25, 2008.

[47] “Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduousforests”. Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund.Retrieved May 25, 2008.

[48] “Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleafforests”. Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund.Retrieved May 25, 2008.

[49] http://www.ibtimes.com/kurdish-majority-turkey-within-one-generation-705466

9 Bibliography• Steadman, Sharon R.; McMahon, Gregory (2011).McMahon, Gregory; Steadman, Sharon, eds. TheOxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia:(10,000-323 BCE). Oxford University Press Inc.doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.001.0001.ISBN 9780195376142

10 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text• Anatolia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia?oldid=679142448 Contributors: Jeronimo, DanKeshet, Amillar, Andre Engels,Peterlin~enwiki, Olivier, Leandrod, Stevertigo, Edward, Michael Hardy, Llywrch, Gdarin, Mic, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Cather-ineMunro, Andres, Schneelocke, Hike395, Hashar, Crusadeonilliteracy, Adam Bishop, WhisperToMe, DJ Clayworth, Haukurth, Pere-grine981, Paul-L~enwiki, Wetman, Eugene van der Pijll, Jamesday, Mrdice, Robbot, The Phoenix, Altenmann, Ajd, Merovingian, Bkell,Levzur, Wikibot, Wereon, Centrx, DocWatson42, Yak, Tom Radulovich, Maroux, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Guanaco, Jorge Stolfi, Macrakis,Pgan002, Eregli bob, Mukerjee, Adamsan, Bumm13, Karl-Henner, Arcturus, Neutrality, Klemen Kocjancic, Trevor MacInnis, Switisweti,D6, CALR, Pasquale, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Hidaspal, Florian Blaschke, Dbachmann, Paul August, Bender235,Bennylin, FirstPrinciples, El C, Miraceti, Kwamikagami, QuartierLatin1968, Quantumstream, Bobo192, Circeus, Man vyi, La gouttede pluie, Darwinek, RaffiKojian~enwiki, Polylerus, Spryom~enwiki, Alansohn, Mu5ti, Rd232, Bamber Gascoigne, Moanzhu, Lectonar,Fritzpoll, Alex '05, 82.32.22.235, Noosphere, Garrisonroo, Kober, SteinbDJ, Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, Hello5959us, Natcase, SP-KP, Is-now, , JohnJohn, Sin-man, Magister Mathematicae, Cuchullain, BD2412, Amir85, Rjwilmsi, Kinu, Craig Sunderland, InFairness,Lairor, Olessi, Reinis, Yuber, QBay, Watcharakorn, Miskin, FlaBot, Nivix, RexNL, CJLL Wright, Chobot, Frappyjohn, 334a, Bgwhite,YurikBot, Wavelength, Butsuri, Hairy Dude, TSO1D, TodorBozhinov, RussBot, PetrosGreek, Fabartus, Pigman, Wbfergus, Marcus Cyron,Megistias, Vis Viva, Grafen, Tommiks, Sylvain1972, Botteville, Ribbentrop, Kelovy, Zello, Zzuuzz, Closedmouth, SMcCandlish, Curpsbot-unicodify, Tajik, Kungfuadam, Saltmarsh, Aldourin, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Pamir~enwiki, Astavrou, David Kernow, Lapis, Lifebaka,KocjoBot~enwiki, Big Adamsky, Adammathias, Jab843, Maroxelois, Alsandro, Hmains, Honbicot, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Hibernian,Colonies Chris, Ahassan05~enwiki, Cplakidas, Teemeah, OrphanBot, Anthon.Eff, Khoikhoi, MrPMonday, Iblardi, Lpgeffen, Dave-ros,MartinRe, LoveMonkey, Manojlo~enwiki, Just plain Bill, Frank C. 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