Helpful resources:

1. https://www.youtube.com/user/ProfWeaver

2. https://www.youtube.com/user/mrfordsclass

3. Crash course biology: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL3EED4C1D684D3ADF

Anatomy and Physiology Sumer Assignment

There are two case studies in this assignment. These case studies are intended to help you recall basic chemistry and cell concepts. Generally, the answers to the questions are found in the text. Please use other resources to help you brush up and become familiar with the concepts and answer the questions. Don’t just read through and think that is enough. Please study the diagrams and memorize the charts. These things are foundational to understanding Anatomy and Physiology.

The assignment will be due within the first few weeks of school. There will also be a quiz based on the case studies!

Case Study 1: Chemistry

Sarah Mathews, an accountant, is sitting with her husband Tom having their after-dinner coffee, and asks, “Another cup, honey?” “No thanks; more than one seems to bother me these days, especially this late in the evening.” Sarah is about to express her concern when their son Paul, a high school junior, bursts in and says, “Mom, and Dad! Do you know what the pH is of that coffee you’re drinking?”“What’s pH?” asks Tom.“C’mon Dad, it’s a measure of acidity—and coffee is like a pH of 5!”“So, what does that mean, and will it hurt me? Don’t we eat other acid things?” responds Tom.At this point, Sarah interjects, “But I thought that neutral solutions, like plain water, are pH 7, which doesn’t seem like very far away from 5 to me ….” “Yeah, right, Mom; pH 5 is only 100-times more acidic than water. Or try that vinegar we put in our homemade salad dressing—it’s around pH 3, 100 times more acidic than this coffee is!” His dad asks, “I don’t get it. How can only two units, like the difference between 3 and 5, or 5 and 7, give you 100 times as much?” “’Cause, Dad, it’s a log scale—you know, like earthquakes—and the 2 units mean 2 powers of 10, like 10 squared; that’s where the 100 comes from!”Sarah chimes in (she is better at math than Tom), “So you mean if there were 3 pH units difference, that would be 10 cubed, or 1000 times? And if you went from pH 3.7 to pH 6.7 that would also be 1000-fold?” “Now you’re getting it! And here is the cool trick we learned today: just like 1.0 pH unit is a factor of 10 in acidity, 0.3 pH units is a factor of 2!” “Whoa, slow down, Paul,” replies Tom, “you’ve got my head spinning now. Besides, it’s getting late and you have school tomorrow, so off to bed with you!” Review: What are 3 things you have learned so far about acids, bases, and pH?

The next day brought a beautiful fall afternoon, and the maples were just starting to show their autumn colors. Sarah was enjoying her long late afternoon run and was only a few blocks away from home when she was surprised by the ringtone of her phone.

“Mom, it’s Paul! Get home quick! I was on the computer downstairs, so I didn’t hear Molly fall down in your bathroom—even though she’s only 3, she must have managed to climb onto the toilet seat, then the sink, and reach up to the medicine cabinet. She must have thought the pills in there were candy, and I think she started eating a whole bunch of aspirin tablets before she fell! Anyway, I finally heard her crying, and went upstairs where I found her curled up and whimpering on the bathroom floor, with colored pills and cracked bottles scattered around. I don’t think she broke anything, but it looks like she threw up. Oh, no! She just threw up again, this time on me! Hurry, Mom!”

Sarah immediately called 911 for an ambulance, then shifted her running into high gear, since Tom was at work across town. Fueled by adrenalin, Sarah essentially sprinted the rest of the way home, her mind racing as her heart pounded, her lungs ached, and her legs burned from the effort. She berated herself for leaving Molly alone with Paul, not fixing the recently broken latch on the medicine cabinet, and being so far from home without a car. She didn’t know how many tablets of aspirin Molly had consumed, but had recently read that a fatal dose for a child could be as little as 3g (10 300-mg tablets).

By the time she arrived home a few minutes later, Molly seemed sleepy, almost lethargic, and Paul said she had vomited several times. Sarah thought that was good, since bits of undissolved tablets could be seen—but just then the ambulance arrived, and after briefly checking Molly’s status, they rushed her to the nearby hospital’s Emergency Room.

Just as the eyes are the windows to the soul, the blood is a window to our body’s health. Molly’s blood chemistry can be examined to discover how well her kidneys, liver, and other organs are working. While we are waiting for the results of the blood work, let’s get some background knowledge about body chemistry. What are some common atoms found in Molly’s body, and yours? Study the chart carefully.

Atom Symbol Use in the bodyCarbon C Useful in forming organic compoundsHydrogen H Useful in forming chemical bondsOxygen O Useful for cellular respirationNitrogen N Making proteins and DNAPhosphorous P DNA and the energy molecule ATPPotassium K Muscle and nerve functionSulfur S Useful for making proteinsSodium Na Water and fluid balanceChlorine Cl Water and fluid balanceMagnesium Mg Needed in bloodCalcium Ca Blood clotting, bone strength, muscle contraction, and

moving materials

What is an atom? Atoms are the smallest units of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances. There are several atoms that are common and important in the human body. Elements are a pure form of matter containing only one kind of atom. But Molly’s body is made up of more than just atoms. Atoms join together to form molecules and compounds. Atoms are made up of a nucleus and orbiting electrons. Inside the nucleus are positively charged protons and neutrons with no charge. The negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus where only up to two fit into the first level and up to eight fit into the second level.

All atoms have a specific number of protons in the nucleus. The number of protons is called the atomic number. For example, carbon has an atomic number of 6. The atomic number cannot change. The atomic mass is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons. The atomic mass number for carbon is 12. The number of neutrons can be calculated by subtracting the number of protons from the atomic number. If the number

of neurons is increased the atom is called an isotope. Isotopes can be used for carbon dating, medical screening, and nuclear power. If the number of electrons changes the atom is called an ion. Ions either have a positive or negative charge. Molly’s body is being impacted by hydrogen ions (H+). Acids release hydrogen ions in water. Bases release OH- ions into water. 1. Study Molly’s blood work on the last page. List all the elements that are measured.

2. What are 7 things that all elements have in common? What makes one element different from

another?

Atoms join together by chemical bonding for stability. If the outer electron level is filled with electrons the atom is stable. Chemical bonds form by atoms either sharing or transferring electrons. Atoms that share electrons form a strong bond called a covalent bond. Atoms that gain or lose electrons form weaker ionic bonds.

Molly’s body, like most human bodies, is made up of around 67% water. The large water percentage is important for maintaining homeostasis. Because water takes a long time to heat up and cool down (heat capacity) and takes away a lot of heat energy when it evaporates (vaporization temperature) water helps to maintain the body’s temperature. But Molly’s body temperature is fine. Water is also the body’s main solvent that means it dissolves things. Molly’s body has dissolved the aspirin releasing the H+ ions. When we add water to solute we say that the concentration of the solute is diluted. Since Molly’s blood is made mostly of water it dilutes and dissolves many substances. 3. Which function of water is the most significant to

Molly in this scenario?

Sarah Mathews arrived at the Emergency Room with her daughter Molly, where the little girl immediately underwent a physical exam and lab samples were obtained for analysis. By this time, she was almost unarousable, and was breathing rapidly and deeply. The physician on duty, Dr. Pedro Martinez, intubated Molly’s trachea for airway protection and carried out hyperventilation, which he said was “to avoid hypoventilation and a worsening of her metabolic acidosis.”4. Acids and Bases are electrolytes that release ions (-/+) in water. The strength of an acid or base is

measured by the pH scale. What are the highest and lowest numbers on the scale? The more H+ that are released the stronger the acid. Give an example of a strong acid. Why is water neutral?

5. Hyperventilation (rapid breathing) is one way the body quickly gets rid of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide bonds with water to form carbonic acid. How might too much carbon dioxide make Molly’s condition worse?

“What does that have to do with aspirin?” asked Sarah, anxiously. Dr. Martinez replied, “Well, aspirin was originally a trademark for acetosalicylic acid, which can inhibit a pathway, leading to inflammation, but it is also a weak organic acid. That means at high levels it can lower the pH of your blood from its normal value of about 7.4—and any level below about 7 begins to be dangerous. Low blood pH levels lead to muscle wasting, slow heart rate, and worst of all, brain cell death. As you can see, the nurse is also starting to administer activated charcoal through a nasogastric tube to absorb any residual aspirin in Molly’s stomach and prevent its entry into the bloodstream.” “Oh,” said Sarah, “Our son Paul was trying to explain pH to my husband and me last night—but what do you mean by dangerous, and what can you do to get it back up again?”They were interrupted by another nurse who came in with lab results. Dr. Martinez frowned as he looked over the results. They revealed a pH of 6.8, together with a number of other electrolyte abnormalities. He hadn’t seen a pH that low for some time. It certainly explained Molly’s rapid and deep respiration.

Buffers are chemical substances that keep pH levels from changing dramatically. The doctor immediately ordered emergency treatment with intravenous bicarbonate (to correct the systemic acidosis), hydration (fluid replacement to compensate for Molly’s vomiting), and hemodialysis (to correct electrolyte imbalance and remove dissolved salicylate—aspirin—from her body).

6. How can hydration impact Molly’s pH levels? Buffers?

7. Would the salts in Moly’s IV fluid be classified as a solution or suspension?

He continued with his explanation to Sarah, “We use bicarbonate—the same compound as in baking soda—as a ‘buffer,’ that is, a substance that can combine with the ‘acid’ ions (which, you may know, are

protons in solution), thus soaking them up to reduce the acidity and raise the pH. One of the good things about bicarbonate is that it is a ‘natural’ substance. Your body in fact normally uses moderate amounts of bicarbonate all the time, and that is how the CO2 produced in your tissues by metabolism is transported to your lungs to be exhaled. In fact, bicarbonate is produced whenever you dissolve carbon dioxide in water, but hydrogen ions are also produced, which makes the solution more acidic. I can show you the simple formula indicating the chemical equilibrium, or perhaps you’d like to ask your son Paul to do it?” They saw that Molly’s breathing was returning to a more normal rate, and they breathed a collective sigh of relief. “She’s out of danger now, but we’ll keep a close eye on her for a while yet,” said Dr. Martinez. Sarah, however, still curious, asked, “So does that mean when you remove CO2 from a solution, it becomes less acidic and the pH goes back up?” “Gee, Mrs. Mathews,” replied Dr. Martinez, “you’d make a terrific chemist!” “And that’s why Molly’s breathing was that way? Her body was trying to raise its pH by getting rid of as much CO2 as it could, even though it didn’t really help much, because the problem was all that aspirin, which she couldn’t get rid of!”8. What did the doctor do to help Molly deal with her metabolic acid levels?

The doctor answered, “Yes, and in medical terminology we call that the difference between metabolic acidosis, which is Molly’s problem—lots of acidic compounds in her bloodstream—and respiratory acidosis, which can occur if too much dissolved CO2 builds up in the bloodstream.” “But that must mean that in your tissues, where metabolism is going on and resulting in all that CO2 and water, the pH is lower than in your lungs, where your body is getting rid of CO2! Is that why my leg muscles got so sore after my 10-minute sprint home this afternoon—though I’ve always heard it is from lactic acid buildup?”Dr. Martinez answered, “Well, you’re correct about pH of your tissues being lower than your lungs. When you run the low pH is from the lactic acid, not from CO2, —but my pager is going off, and I have to rush over to check on another patient. Molly will be fine, but don’t hesitate to give me a call if you have any further questions—and fix that latch on your medicine cabinet!” 9. Why does lactic acid cause muscles to “burn”?

10. What is the normal pH range of blood? How does breathing fast during exercise help keep your blood pH in the normal range?

Living things are made of organic molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Macromolecules are really large molecules that are significant to all living things. Dr. Martinez inspected Molly’s blood chemistry report. “The pH levels are looking really good, but her sugar levels are really high.” Sarah was surprised. “Is that related to her blood pH?” she asked. “Not directly,” said Dr. Martinez “it may be that the acid levels in her blood damaged her liver, kidneys, or pancreas temporarily. We will have to monitor her for the next couple of days.”

This is a chart that shows the major macromolecules, what they are used for and how they are classified.

Carbohydrates Lipids Nucleic acids ProteinsStructure- what elements are in it?

CHO CHO CHONPS CHONSMade up of 20 amino acids

Categories- more than one kind or type?

SimpleComplex

SaturatedUnsaturated

DNARNAATP

StructuralChemicalEnzymes

Examples of Glucose +glucose makes maltoseGlucose +galactose makes lactoseGlucose +fructose makes sucrose

Olive oilBacon fat

DNARNAATP

KeratinActinCollagenHemoglobin

How does the body use it?

The body’s main source of energy

Cell membranesSteroid hormonesInsulation

DNA- stores genetic informationRNA- protein synthesisATP- energy currency

Hair, nails, muscles, antibodies, hormones, cell receptors

Calories per gram

4 9 X 4

11. Which organic molecule has the most energy? Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are used for

energy but why are carbohydrates used first?

The following day Paul stopped by to visit his sister. “We are still learning about chemistry in school,” he said. “Today we started learning about organic chemistry, molecules that contain carbon.” Molly stared back at him blankly. “I’m not even sure what carbon is, let alone the other things you are talking about,” she groaned. Paul chuckled. He loved showing off the new things he learned, even if his sister was only 3. He decided he would take a stab at explaining some things to her. “Well, do you like eating lollipops?” Molly nodded. “How about drinking milk?” Paul asked. Molly nodded again. “Lollipops and milk have things in them that your body needs. Lollipops have sugar for energy and milk has this stuff

called protein that helps your bones and muscles grow strong. Milk also has fat in it that is used to store energy.” “Mommy doesn’t let me have much candy,” said Molly, “it must be because she doesn’t want me to have too much energy.” Paul smiled and ruffled Molly’s hair, “Of course she wants you to have energy, just not when its nap time!” The nurse came in with Molly’s blood chemistry results. She showed them to Paul and pointed out what was wrong with Molly’s levels.

12. What happens to sugar that the body does not use right away for energy? What does the body use for energy if there are no carbohydrates or fats available?

13. Eating lots of high fat foods can be the cause of many health related issues. Completely eliminating fat from your diet is also dangerous. List some benefits of lipids to your body.

14. Tom Matthews claims that cellulose in fruits and vegetables cannot be digested and eating those things is pointless. Why is it important to include cellulose in our diet? List some arguments that support eating cellulose.

References:

“Acids, pH and Buffers” by Terry Platt, National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science, May 27, 2010

http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/chemical/bond.html

http://academic.cuesta.edu/gbaxley/chem1A/notes/ph_scale.htm

15. Find the bars that are over 50. These levels are high for Molly. Which of these are organic and which are inorganic? (ignore the RDW test)

Molly Age: 3

16. High blood sugar levels mean that glucose is not getting into the body’s cells. Why is that a problem?

Case Study 2: the Cell

Susan, a new intern at the local hospital, was working the admissions desk one Monday morning. A man and a woman rushed through the doors, carrying a second woman. “Help! Can you help us?” one called. Susan and a nurse rushed them into an exam room.

“What happened?” Susan asked while examining the patient. “We don’t know!” the female student sobbed. “Brittany started feeling sick at a party last night. She came home and went to sleep, but then couldn’t wake up this morning. She was acting so weird we decided to bring her here.”

Susan carefully observed the woman lying on the table. She was rolling her head and clearly seemed confused. However, there were no obvious signs of trauma. “Has Brittany taken any drugs recently?” Susan asked. The two students hesitated and looked at each other. Finally one of them nodded. “I think she took some Ecstasy last night.”

Susan thought for a moment. Ecstasy had been fairly popular on the party scene for several years now. She had seen people on the drug become somewhat confused, but not delirious. Maybe Brittany was having an adverse reaction to the drug. It was a start. To be safe, Susan ordered a series of blood tests. In the meantime, she checked her medical references to find out as much as she could about how Ecstasy affected the body.

What do you notice about the use of Ecstasy over the course of time? According to the graph, how many times has the mention of ecstasy in the ER doubled from one year to the next?

Ecstasy Facts:

MDMA (3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine) is a synthetic, psychoactive drug chemically similar to the stimulant methamphetamine and the hallucinogen mescaline. MDMA acts as both a stimulant and psychedelic. It produces an energizing effect, distorts both physical and cognitive sensations, and may impair memory.

MDMA affects a nerve cell’s ability to use the chemical serotonin. Serotonin plays an important role in regulating mood, aggression, sexual activity, sleep, and sensitivity to pain. Research in animals indicates that MDMA is a neurotoxin. MDMA is potentially harmful to health and, on rare occasions, may be lethal.

1. MDMA may affect: Blood pressure, Pulse rate, Body temperature, Hyperthermia, Hypothermia, Water Balance, Dehydration, Excess water, Blood sugar level, Vision. Which test results may indicate MDMA use?

Item and measure Normal Brittany Which indicate MDMA use?

Heart Rate (beats/min) 60-100 90

Blood Pressure (mmHg) 120/80 135/87

Temperature (°F) 98.6 100.2

Glucose (mg/dl) 60-109 72

Sodium-Na+

(mM/L)135-146 115

Potassium-K+

(mM/L)3.5-5.5 2.9

Chloride-Cl- (mM/L)

95-109 88

O2

(mmHg) 80-100 93

CO2

(mM/L) 22-32 24

MDMA impacts the body at a cellular level. There are two basic cell types in the world; prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells don’t have membranes surrounding their internal parts, are smaller and mostly belong to bacteria. Eukaryotic cells have membranes surrounding their internal parts and belong to plants and animals. Most eukaryotic cells have many components that do specific jobs for the cell. These cell parts are called organelles and act as “little organs” for the cell.

Cells consist of many smaller parts; each has specific jobs to do. MDMA interferes with some of the jobs of these organelles. What are the parts of a cell and what are the functions?Name of organelle FunctionPlasma membrane Controls movement of materials into and out of the cell

NucleusContains all of the DNAControls the cell processes

Smooth ER Detoxifies drugs and alcoholProduces the materials needed for the cell membranes

Rough ER Covered with ribosomes that make proteinsProduces the materials needed for cell membranes

Golgi complex Proteins that are made in the cell are sorted, modified and surrounded with a membrane to be exported by the cell

Lysosomes Destroy foreign invadersBreak down old cell partsTay-Sacs is a genetic disease where the lysosomes can’t break down lipids in nerve cells. As the lipids accumulate in the cell it causes paralysis and death

Mitochondria Generate energy for the cell by cellular respirationCytoskeleton: Microtubules give the cells shape

provide the tracks used by packaged products to move around the cell

Cytoskeleton: microfilaments Is important for muscle contraction and cell divisionCilia Short extensions that line the outside of the cell and work together

to sweep debrisFlagella Long, whip-like, extension used to propel sperm cellsCentrioles Function during cell divisionVacuoles Store materials in the cellCytoplasm Gel like material that surrounds the nucleusNucleolus Located inside of the nucleus and produces parts of the ribosomesRibosomes Non membrane covers organelles and the most common organelle

Makes protein

Cell Drawing: The blood test showed that Brittany’s red blood cells appeared swollen. To notice abnormalities in cells the doctors need to have an idea of what typical cells look like.

2. Which organelle would be responsible for detoxifying Brittany’s body?a. Which organelle would store excess water in the cell?b. Serotonin is a hormone that is made in endocrine and nerve cells. The hormone is protein

based. What organelle makes protein? c. Which organelle would package and prepare serotonin for transport?

Susan spoke to the students in the waiting area. “Did Brittany have much to drink last evening?” “Just one beer,” replied one. “She had a test today and wanted to study. She did drink a lot of water. You’re supposed to do that to prevent a hangover aren’t you? She seemed really thirsty.” Brittany has been drinking a lot of water.

3. Think about the role of Brittany’s muscle cells and bone cells and explain which organelles would be the most essential to the function of those cells.

Cell membranes perform an important role in maintaining the health of the body. The cell membrane is what regulates the things that enter and leave the cell. The membrane also has chemical markers on its surface. These markers help to identify the type of cell, allows communication between cells and allows cells to stick together to form tissues.

What does lipid bilayer mean? The cell membrane is made up of two layers of lipids. The lipid tails face inward and do not come into direct contact with the watery environment of the cell, as the old adage states: “oil and water don’t mix”. Phosphates form a crust on the inside and outside of the lipid bilayer. A double stuffed Oreo cookie is a useful analogy. The outer crust represents the phosphates and the double layer of inner cream represents the two layers of lipid tails.

What does fluid mosaic mean? Fluid mosaic is a term used to describe how the items embedded in the plasma membrane are not stationary. The protein channel, for example, in the diagram would be constantly moving to new locations. What does semipermeable mean? The plasma membrane will only allow certain things to pass through. Water cannot go through membrane because of the fatty layer. Large molecules typically cannot cross the membrane, but lipid based hormones can easily enter and leave. Brittany’s problem is related to the selectively permeable cell membrane. 4. Can water move easily through the plasma membrane? Why or why not?

Diffusion is the moving of materials from areas of greater concentration to areas of lesser concentration. When Brittany sprayed her perfume on the night before the perfume molecules diffuse from the high concentration on her body into the air around her. Diffusion does not require any energy; it simply is the result of the random movement of molecules. Because Brittany’s cells have a membrane that is selectively permeable, only certain substances can diffuse into and out of her cells. Assume that both shapes can cross the membrane boundary in Diagram 1.

5. What will happen to the concentration of diamond shapes outside of the cell? If this were Brittany’s cell, would the diamond shapes be water or salt?

The nurse started to mix up some saline solution to use in Brittany’s IV. She measures out 100ml of pure water and places 10g of salt into the water. In this example, the water dissolves the salt and is called the solvent. The salt is being dissolved and is called the solute. If the nurse were to add more salt the solution would have a higher concentration of salt in it.

Concentration: Amount of one substance (solute- square) dissolved in a given volume of another substance (solvent- circle). What would happen to the concentration of the salt outside of the cell if some of the water were to be

removed?

The nurse is trying to make the saline solution so that the solute concentration of the solution is identical to the solute concentration of the cells in Brittany’s body. If the concentration of salts and water is the same across the cell membrane then the cell is in a normal environment and will not change. If the concentration of the solution is hypotonic then the cell will swell. A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solutes and a higher concentration of water molecules than the cell. The water molecules move from the high concentration outside of the cell to the lower concentration inside the cell causing the cell to swell and maybe burst. If the concentration of the solution is hypertonic the cell will shrink. A hypertonic solution has a higher concentration of solute and a lower concentration of water molecules than the cell. A cell in a hypertonic solution will lose water because it moves to the area of lesser concentration. Sea water is hypertonic and drinking it can dehydrate the body’s cells. 6. In diagram 2, would the cell be in a hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic solution?

Susan thought for a minute. Normally, Brittany’s kidneys would normally respond to the excess water by producing large amounts of dilute urine. However, Ecstasy acts as an anti-diuretic and forces the kidneys to make concentrated urine instead. This would prevent Brittany’s body from getting rid of the excess water and could cause her to lose lots of electrolytes, creating a hypotonic solution for her body’s cells. 7. How would Brittany’s brain cells respond if they were in a hypotonic solution? How would that

explain some of her symptoms?

8. How would this excess water in Brittany explain her low Na, K and Cl levels on page 2?

To find the concentration of a solution simply divide the solute concentration by the amount of solvent. 10g of sugar mixed in 100 ml creates a solution of .1g/ml. But the nurse needs to mix up a solution. The nurse referred to the blood work to figure out Brittany’s blood solute level: 5%, slightly lower than normal. How could she mix a 5% isotonic solution? Since one gram of mass is the same as one milliliter of volume, 5 grams of salt in a 95ml of solution would make the concentration 5%. But Brittany is suffering from too much water and needs to increase her electrolyte concentration. Water moves into the cell by facilitated diffusion. Since water cannot move across the cell membranes directly the water must enter through special protein gates and channels in the plasma membrane.

Active transport is when the cell must use energy to transport materials. The sodium and potassium level in Brittany’s cells is regulated by active transport. The sodium-potassium pump in the plasma membrane uses energy to move the ions into an area of higher concentration. Another example is when the cell packages proteins or hormones in a vesicle and releases that hormone by exocytosis. White blood cells engulf invading bacteria by endocytosis. Endocytosis is the process of bringing materials into the cell as seen in the diagram. Exocytosis is the opposite. “How’s Brittany doing?” the familiar voice startled Susan. “She is still recovering from the effects of the party.” Some of Brittany’s cells transport materials across the plasma membrane using vesicles. Bacteria are often engulfed and destroyed by white blood cells using this process.

9. What organelle in the white blood cell would destroy the bacteria?

Brittany was treated for hyponatremia, or water intoxication, which disrupts homeostasis in the body because the high concentration of water in the bloodstream results in the movement of water into cells. "Mild" hyponatremia is defined as a serum sodium concentration between 130 and 135 mmol/L, "moderate" hyponatremia as a concentration between 125 and 129 mmol/L, and "profound" hyponatremia as a concentration less than 125 mmol/L. The excess water interferes with the cells’ functions and may even destroy the cell. The extra volume of water in the blood could raise the blood pressure to dangerous levels.

10. Look carefully at Brittany’s sodium levels in her blood work. What level of hyponatremia does she have? What type of solution should be in her IV? How would the nurse mix up a 40% solution?

One of the reasons Brittany’s cells are small is because of the surface-to-volume ratio. How does the surface area-to-volume ratio relate to diffusion? If a cell has a lot of surface area it is able to interact well with the

environment and exchange wastes and nutrients. If the cell gets bigger than the volume inside of the cell starts producing more wastes and demanding more nutrients. If it takes too long for the wastes to diffuse out or the nutrients to diffuse in the cell will die or divide. 11. Since Brittany’s cells are swelling with excess water how will that impact the diffusion process and

the health of the cell?

A problem associated with acute (sudden) hyponatremia, or water intoxication, is swelling of tissues because of water diffusing into the cells. Fortunately, because she received treatment, they were able to reverse the swelling effects before her brain stem was damaged. Hyponatremia can be very serious because of the possibility of brain damage. Which incident of hyponatremia do you find most surprising?

Problem with hyponatremia

Brittney Chambers of Colorado (2001), Leah Betts of Great Britain (1995), and Anna Wood of Australia (1995) died after reportedly taking Ecstasy and drinking large amounts of water.

Fraternity hazing killed Matthew Carrington, a student at California State Chico February 2005. In Sacramento, Jennifer Strange died after a water-drinking contest "Hold your wee for a Wii”

sponsored by a local radio station, January 2007. A 28-year-old female Boston marathoner died in 2002. Artist Andy Warhol died after hospital staff accidentally administered excess water after gall

bladder surgery (1987). Infants fed diluted formula for extended periods of time can suffer from hyponatremia.

12. Had Brittany been drinking a sports drink with electrolytes how would her condition have been different?

“The excess water and high temperatures have caused many of the mitochondria in Brittany’s muscle tissue to function poorly” Susan continued. “Can I come in and see her?” “Sure” Susan replied. A few minutes later Brittany’s roommate Margret showed up and introduced herself. Her first question caught Susan off guard, “How will the damage to the mitochondria impact Brittany’s metabolism?”

“You must be a Bio major” “Yep, how’d you guess?” Susan smiled. “No one asks questions like that unless they have a little biology background. Brittany’s cells need energy and can get energy a variety of ways and from a variety of sources” Susan replied, “those are called metabolic pathways.” “So enzymes must be somehow involved” Margret reflected. “Exactly” exclaimed Susan.

“Ahhhhh, and the cell must be after energy stored as ATP, right?” Margret asked. “That is correct,” said Susan. “But can you refresh my memory and tell me all of the places Brittany’s cells will get ATP?” “There are four major sources. After the cell uses the ATP it has stored the first thing that it does is recycle the used ATP by energizing it with creatine phosphate.” “Is that why athletes take it as a supplement?” asked Margret? “Yep, it allows them to have energy for their muscles to contract a little while longer. The second source is the process of glycolysis, splitting a glucose molecule.” Glucose is stored as a larger molecule called glycogen. Glycogen is stored in the liver, bloodstream and muscle cells. 13. What are the four stages of Cellular respiration? How much ATP is gained from each stage?

14. “The third source is cellular respiration. Respiration is the primary way that cells get energy. As long as oxygen is present the cell can produce 36 ATP”. Carefully observe the respiration reaction. Why would excess water in the cell inhibit cellular respiration, causing Molly to feel lethargy? HINT: think about osmosis.

15. “The fourth source is fermentation. This only happens if there is not enough oxygen present!” How is fermentation different than cellular respiration?

“Will Brittany be OK?” Margret was concerned. “Yes, she will be just fine so long as she has good friends, like you, looking after her!” Susan commented. “Well, first I will make sure she stays off the MDMA and second I will make sure she gets plenty of electrolytes and aerobic exercise once she gets back on her feet.” “That sounds like a good plan” affirmed Susan, “aerobic exercise will build her endurance and has good overall health benefits. Just don’t push it too hard.” “You can count on me” Said Margret.

“The Agony and the Ecstasy” by Norris Armstrong, National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science

http://www.docstoc.com/docs/16826883/Cell-Diagram

http://g11-bioa-2011-12.wikispaces.com/(d)+Active+transport