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Anatomy Revision
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
ANATOMICAL POSITION
O This is described as follows:
O The body is in the erect position.
O Head, eyes and toes facing forward.
O Arms at the side.
O Palms facing forward.
O Thumbs pointing outward.
PLANES OF THE BODY
O Sagittal (Median) plane
O this passes through the body from front to back, dividing it into right
and left
O Coronal (Frontal) plane
O this passes through the body from top to bottom, dividing it into front
and back.
O Transverse (Horizontal) plane
O this passes through the body at right angles, dividing it into top and
bottom.
Plane Movement Definition
Extension Increasing the angle between 2 structures
Abduction Movement away from the midline
Inversion Lifting the medial edge of the foot
Supination Rotating the wrist and hand laterally from
the elbow
Flexion Decreasing the angle between 2 structures
Elevation Movement of the scapula superiorly
Rotation Turning around the vertical axis of a bone
Dorsiflexion Moving the foot towards the shin
Eversion Lifting the lateral edge of the foot
Adduction Movement towards the midline
O 1. Sagittal
O 2. Coronal
O 3. Coronal
O 4. Transverse
O 5. Sagittal
O 6. Coronal
O 7. Transverse
O 8. Sagittal
O 9. Coronal
O 10. Coronal
CHARATERISTICS OF LIVING
O Organization
O Responsiveness
O Growth and differentiation
O Movement
O Reproduction
O Metabolism & excretion
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
O Cellular level
O Tissue level
O Organ level
O Organ system level
O Organism level
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
O Major Organs
O Skin
O Hair
O Sweat glands
O Nails
O Functions
O Protects against environmental hazards.
O Helps regulate body temperature
O Provides sensory information
NERVOUS SYSTEM O Major Organs
O Brain
O Spinal cord
O Peripheral nerves
O Sense organs
O Functions
O Directs immediate responses to stimuli
O Coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems
O Provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions
SKELETAL SYSTEM O Major Organs
O Bones
O Cartilages
O Associated ligaments
O Bone marrow
O Functions
O Provides support and protection for other tissues
O Stores calcium and other minerals
O Forms blood cells
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM O Major Organs
O Pituitary gland
O Thyroid gland
O Pancreas
O Adrenal glands
O Gonads (testes and ovaries)
O Endocrine tissues in other systems
O Functions
O Directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems
O Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body
O Controls many structural and functional changes during development
MUSCULAR SYSTEM O Major Organs
O Skeletal muscles
O Associated tendons
O Functions
O Provides movement
O Provides protection and support for other tissues
O Generates heat that maintains body temperature
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
O Major Organs
O Heart
O Blood
O Blood vessels
O Functions
O Distributes:
O blood cells
O water, and
O dissolved materials:
O including nutrients
O waste products
O oxygen
O carbon dioxide
O Distributes heat and assists in control of body temperature
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM O Major Organs
O Spleen
O Thymus
O Lymphatic vessels
O Lymph nodes
O Tonsils
O Functions
O Defends against infection and disease
O Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream
URINARY SYSTEM O Major Organs
O Kidneys
O Ureters
O Urinary bladder
O Urethra
O Functions:
O Removal of waste product from the body
O Regulation of electrolyte balance
O Regulation acid-base homeostasis
O Controlling blood volume and maintaining blood pressure
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM O Major Organs:
O Nasal cavities
O Sinuses
O Larynx
O Trachea
O Bronchi
O Lungs
O Alveoli
O Functions:
O Delivers air to alveoli
O Provides oxygen to bloodstream
O Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream
O Produces sounds for communication
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM O Major Organs
O Teeth
O Tongue
O Pharynx
O Esophagus
O Stomach
O Small intestine
O Large intestine
O Liver
O Gallbladder
O Pancreas
O Functions
O Processes and digests food
O Absorbs and conserves water
O Absorbs nutrients
O Stores energy reserves
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
O Major Organs
O Testes
O Epididymis
O Ductus deferens
O Seminal vesicles
O Prostate gland
O Penis
O Scrotum
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
O Major Organs
O Ovaries
O Uterine tubes
O Uterus
O Vagina
O Labia
O Clitoris
O Mammary glands
CHAPTER 2
SKELETAL SYSTEM
O 206 bones in the body
O Framework of the body
O Axial:
O Central core of the body or its axis.
O Consists of skull, vertebrae, sternum and ribs.
O Provides core which limbs hang from.
O Appendicular:
O Parts hanging off axial skeleton.
O Consists of shoulder girdle, pelvic girdle, upper & lower limbs.
FUNCTION OF SKELETAL O Provides a bony framework for the
body.
O Allows movement of the body as a
whole & individual parts.
O Offers protection to organs found
within the skeleton.
O Produces blood cells.
O Stores minerals and fats.
O Attaches to soft tissue.
STERNUM
O Flat bone in middle front part of the rib cage
O Dagger shaped.
O Protects heart.
O Gives attachment point for ribs & clavicle.
HAND O 3 areas made up of different types of bones.
O Wrist – 8 carpals, small bones arranged in 2 rows
of 4.
O 5 long bones between the wrist & fingers are
metacarpals.
O Bones in fingers – phalanges.
O 14 phalanges all together with 3 in each finger
and 2 in the thumb.
O Total of 30 bones in the upper limb
CLASSIFIACATIONS OF BONES
O Long bones
O Short bones
O Flat bones
O Sesamoid bones
O Irregular bones
LONG BONES O Provide framework for body
O Make movement possible
O Longer than they are wide
O Work as levers
O Long bone has a shaft
O Diaphysis
O 2 large prominences
O epiphysis
O Bones of the arm, humerus, radius & ulna
SHORT BONES
OShort
Ocube-shaped
OFound in wrist & ankles.
OCarpals & tarsals.
FLAT BONES
O Not totally flat
O Broad, smooth surface
O Function is primarily to protect organs
& to attach muscles.
O Ribs, cranial bones and scapulae.
SESAMOID BONES
O Bones located within a tendon,
O Person who named this type of bone
gave it this name because they though it
looked like a sesame seed.
O The patella.
IRREGULAR BONES
O All bones that do not fall into the previous
categories.
O Varied shapes, sizes & surface features.
O Vertebra.
STRUCTURE OF LONG BONE O Epiphysis: this is the end of the bone.
O Diaphysis: this is the long shaft of the bone.
O Hyaline cartilage: this is the thin layer of bluish cartilage covering each end of the bone.
O Periosteum: this is the thin outer layer of the bone. It contains nerves and blood vessels that feed the bone.
O Compact bone: this is hard and resistance to bending.
O Cancellous bone: this lies in layers within the compact bone. It has a honeycomb appearance and gives the bone their elastic strength.
O Medullary cavity: this is the hollow space down the middle of the compact bone and contains bone marrow.
CONECTIVE TISSUE
O Cartilage
O Ligament
O Tendon
CARTILAGE
O Dense & tough tissue which cushions
joints.
O 3 types:
O Hyaline – found at the ends of bones.
O Fibro (articular)– thick chunks found
in the knee & between vertebrae.
O Elastic – gives shape to structures
such as ear & nose.
LIGAMENTS
O Attach bone to bone
O Act to give stability to joints
O Tough
O white
O inelastic
TENDONS
O Attach muscle to bone.
O Carry the force from muscle
contraction to the bone.
O Tough
O greyish
O inelastic.
Fixed joints
O Allow no movement.
O Types of joints found between plates in the
skull.
Slightly movable
O Allow small movement,
O Held in place by ligaments &
cushioned by cartilage.
O Found between vertebrae in the
spine.
Movable
O 6 Types of these joints:
O Hinge
O Ball & socket
O Pivot
O Condyloid
O Sliding
O Saddle
Hinge joint
O Found in the elbow & knee.
O Allow flexion & extension.
O Move in only 1 direction.
Ball & socket joint
O Found at the shoulder & hip.
O Allow movement in almost every direction.
O Made up of a round end of 1 bone that fits
into a small cup-like area of another.
Pivot joint
O Found in the neck, between atlas & axis.
O Allows only rotational movement.
O Moving your head side-to-side:
O saying no.
Condyloid joint O Found at wrist.
O Allows movement in two planes –
called biaxial.
O Allows to bend & straighten joint,
& move it from side to side.
O Joints between metacarpals &
phalanges.
Saddle joint O Found only in the thumbs.
O Allows movement in three planes:
O forward & backwards
O side to side
O across.
O Joint is specific to humans.
O Holding a cup.
Gliding joint
O Found in carpals of the hand.
O Occur between surfaces of two flat bones.
O Allow very limited movement in a range of
directions.
STRUCTURE OF A SYNOVIAL JOINT
O Synovial capsule
O Keeps contents of the synovial joint in place.
O Synovial Membrane
O Releases synovial fluid on to the joint.
O Synovial Membrane
O Releases synovial fluid on to the joint.
O Synovial Fluid
O A thick oil-like solution which lubricates the
joint & allows free movement.
O Articular Cartilage
O A bluish-white covering of cartilage which
prevents wear & tear on bones.
TYPES OF MOVEMENT
O Flexion:
O decreasing the angle between two joints.
O Extension:
O increasing the angle between two joints.
O Hyperextension:
O occurs beyond extended position.
O Abduction:
O moving away from the midline of the body or body
part.
O Adduction:
O moving toward midline of body or body part.
O Circumduction:
O moving in a circle - flexion, abduction, extension &
adduction in a sequence.
O Rotation:
O Turning about the vertical axis of the bone.
O Supination:
O rotating forearm laterally
O Turning hand up
O Pronation:
O Rotating forearm medially
O Turning hand down
O Dorsiflexion:
O moving the top of the foot toward the shin.
O Plantar flexion:
O moving the sole of the foot downward
O pointing toes
O Inversion:
O lifting the medial border of the foot.
O Eversion:
O lifting the lateral border of the foot.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM O Works in conjunction with the skeleton to produce
O movement of the limbs & body.
O It has to work with nervous system because it produces
O a nervous impulse to initiate movement.
O 3 types of muscles:
O Smooth muscles
O Cardiac muscles
O Skeletal muscles
Smooth muscles O Involuntary muscles
O out or our conscious control.
O Found in the:
O digestive system
O circulatory system
O urinary system.
O Contract with peristaltic action:
O fibres contract consecutively rather than at the same time.
O Produce a wave-like effect.
Cardiac muscles O Involuntary muscle.
O Makes up the heart muscle or myocardium.
O Has it’s own nerve supply via the sino-atrial
node
O works by sending nervous impulse through
consecutive cells.
O Heart always contracts fully.
O +/- 60 – 80 times a minute.
O Function is to pump blood around body.
Skeletal muscles O Voluntary muscles
O we decide when to contract muscles
O produce movement.
O Muscle attached to skeleton across joints.
O Arranged in rows of fibres.
O Called striated or stripy.
O Coordinated contractions of skeletal muscle allow us to:
O move smoothly & produce sports skills.
O Over 700 skeletal muscles in the human body & make
up +/- 40% of our body weight (slightly less in females).
Skeletal muscles O Skeletal muscle is responsible for the
following functions:
O Producing movement
O Maintaining body posture
O Generating heat to keep us warm
O Storage of glycogen for energy
FIBRE TYPES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
O 2 types of muscle fibres:
O Fast twitch
O slow twitch
Odue to speed they contract.
Slow twitch fibres O Type 1.
O Red in colour – have good blood supply.
O Dense network of blood vessels.
O Suited to endurance work.
O Slow to fatigue.
O Contain many mitochondria
to make them more efficient
at producing energy using
oxygen.
Mitochondria – energy-producing
organelles with in cells.
Fast twitch fibres O Type 2.
O Contract twice as fast and
are thicker in size.
O Poor blood supply.
O Whiter in appearance:
O due to lack of oxygen.
O Fatigue fairly quickly.
O Suitable for:
O producing fast,
O powerful actions such as
O sprinting &
O lifting heavy weights.
Fast twitch fibres O Within the group of fast twitch fibres there are 2
types: 2A & 2B.
O Type 2B work when a person is working very close to
their maximum intensity, eg. 100 m sprint.
O Type 2A work at a slightly lower intensities but higher
intensities than slow twitch, eg. 400 m sprint.
ANATOMY OF THE HEART
O The heart is divided into right and left hand side by the
septum.
O The 2 sides are separate & have no communication with
each other.
Septum
ANATOMY OF THE HEART
O Each side is further divided into 2 chambers.
O Atrium – the upper chamber.
O Smaller chamber.
O It receives blood from the veins.
O Ventricle – lower chamber.
O A pump which drives blood into the arteries.
O The connection between the 2 chambers is through the
atrio-ventricular valve.
ANATOMY OF THE HEART
Septum
Right Atrium
Left Atrium
Right Ventricle
Left Ventricle
ANATOMY OF THE HEART O Blood circulation is dependent upon the
action of the myocardium, which varies in
thickness:
O it is thickest in the left ventricle (to
produce power to pump oxygenated blood
around the body),
O thinner in the right ventricle and
O thinnest in the atria.
SUMMARY & FUNCTIONS
O Right Atrium (RA)
O receives deoxygenated blood from the organs of the body.
O Right Ventricle (RV)
O pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
O Left Atrium (LA)
O receives oxygenated blood from the lungs.
O Left Ventricle (LV)
O pumps oxygenated blood to all organs of the body
O larger & stronger than RV
O as it pumps blood through the body.
SUMMARY & FUNCTIONS O Valves:
O there are 4 one
O way valves in the heart that open or close in response to
pressure of blood flow:
O Bicuspid Valve:
O separates the left atrium from the left ventricle.
O Tricuspid Valve:
O separates the right atrium from the right ventricle.
O Aortic Valve :
O separates the left ventricle from the aorta.
O Pulmonary Valve:
O separates the right ventricle from the pulmonary artery.
SUMMARY & FUNCTIONS O Blood vessels leading to and from the heart are as
follows:
O Aorta – carries oxygenated blood out of the left ventricle to the body.
O Superior Vena Cava – returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium from the head & upper body.
O Inferior Vena Cava – returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium from the lower body.
O Pulmonary Vein – carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.
O Pulmonary Artery – carries deoxygenated blood from body to lungs.
BLOOD VESSELS O Arteries:
O Arteries carry blood away from the heart.
O Thick muscular walls.
O Carry predominantly oxygenated blood, except
pulmonary artery.
O Arterioles are small branches off arteries.
BLOOD VESSELS
O Capillaries:
O Tiny blood vessels one cell thick.
O Small spaces in the walls to allow for
diffusion.
O Oxygen & nutrients diffuse into the cells.
O Carbon dioxide & lactic acid flow from the
cells into capillaries.
BLOOD VESSELS O Veins & Venules:
O Veins always take blood towards the heart.
O Veins have thin, muscular walls.
O They have non-return valves to prevent backflow.
O Predominantly carry deoxygenated blood, except the pulmonary vein.
O Venules are smaller branches which feed into veins.
BLOOD O The medium in which all cells are carried to transport
nutrients & oxygen to cells.
O Blood transports the following, among other things:
O Oxygen
O Glucose
O Proteins
O Fats
O Vitamins
O Hormones
O Enzymes
O Platelets
O Carbon dioxide
O Electrolytes
O Blood is made up of 4 components:
O Red blood cells
O White blood cells
O Platelets
O Plasma
O Blood can be described:
O as thick
O gloopy substance due to the high concentration of solids it
carries.
O Blood is made up of 55% plasma & 45% solids.
RED BLOOD CELLS
O Erythrocytes.
O +/- 99% of blood cells are red blood cells.
O Red in colour due to presence of
haemoglobin.
O Main role to take on & transport oxygen to
cells.
WHITE BLOOD CELLS O Leucocytes, colourless or transparent.
O +/- 1:700 – ratio white to red blood cells.
O Role to fight infection & form part of body’s immune
system.
O Destroy bacteria & other dangerous organisms & thus
remove disease from the body.
PLATELETS O Thrombocytes.
O Not full cells, but rather parts of cells.
O Become sticky when contact air to form initial stage of
repair to damaged tissue.
O Need substance called factor 8 to enable them to clot.
O A haemophiliac is a person whose blood doesn’t clot.
PLASMA
O Liquid part of blood.
O Straw-coloured in appearance.
O Solution in which all solids are carried.
O Also carries:
O Fats
O Amino acids
O Glucose
O Hormones
O Enzymes
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
O The Respiratory System is what controls
breathing.
O It brings in the oxygen your body needs
O Gets rid of the carbon dioxide that is left over.
O If you didn’t breathe you would pass out or
die.
O Transports oxygen from the air to our body.
O Body uses oxygen with food to produce energy.
O 2 lungs running the length of the ribcage.
O Right lung slightly larger.
O Left lung makes space for the heart in an area called the cardiac notch.
DIFFUSION OF GASES O Gases move around through process of diffusion.
Def: the movement of a gas from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration.
O Lungs have high concentration of oxygen.
O Muscles have high concentration of carbon dioxide.
DIFFUSION OF GASES O Gases diffuse across semi-permeable membrane.
O Oxygen is attracted into blood by haemoglobin.
O Oxygen then diffuses into muscle & is attracted by
myoglobin (Myoglobin is an iron- and oxygen-binding
protein found in the muscle tissue)
O Carbon dioxide diffuses into blood.
O Carbon dioxide taken to lungs to be breathed out.
NB – Learn diagram of the respiratory
system!
ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1. Air enters the body through the mouth & nose.
2. It passes through the pharynx, which is the back of
the throat area.
3. It then passes through the larynx, which is
responsible for voice production.
4. Air passes over the epiglottis. The epiglottis closes
over the trachea when we swallow food to stop the
food going down ‘the wrong way’ into our trachea &
down into our lungs.
ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
5. Air enters the trachea, which is a cartigenous tube
that delivers air to the lungs.
6. The trachea divides into two bronchi, on into each
lung.
7. The two main bronchi divide into bronchioles, which
further subdivide 23 times & result in 8 million
terminal bronchioles in each lung.
ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
8. Around the bronchioles are the groups of
air sacs called alveoli. There are around
600 million alveoli in each lung & it is here
that the exchange of gases occurs. Each
alveolus is in contact with a capillary
where the blood is present.
ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
O Respiratory system includes 2 types of
muscles which work to move air in & out the
lungs.
O The diaphragm – is a sheet of muscle which
runs along the bottom of the lungs.
O Intercostal muscles – are found between the
ribs.
MECHANISMS OF BREATHING
O Breathing – term given to inhaling air into
lungs & exhaling air out.
1. Respiratory muscles
2. Breathing in (inhalation)
3. Breathing out (exhalation)
4. Respiratory volumes
MECHANISMS OF BREATHING
1. Respiratory Muscles:
O Diaphragm – large dome-shaped (at rest) muscle
which covers bottom of ribcage. When contracted it
flattens & pushes the 2 sides of ribcage away from
each other.
O Intercostal Muscles – attach between ribs & when
they contract, push the ribs up & out & increase the
size of the chest cavity drawing air in.
MECHANISMS OF BREATHING
2. Breathing in (inhalation):
O At rest, diaphragm contracts & moves downwards.
O Results in increase size of thoracic cavity & air forced into lungs.
O During exercise, diaphragm & intercostal muscles contract.
O Makes ribs move upwards & outwards & results in more air taken into lungs.
MECHANISMS OF BREATHING
3. Breathing out (exhalation):
O At rest, diaphragm relaxes & returns upwards to domed position.
O Thoracic cavity gets smaller, results in increase in air pressure within lungs so air is breathed out of lungs.
O During exercise, intercostal muscles contract to help decrease size of the thoracic cavity; results in a more forcible breath out.
MECHANISMS OF BREATHING
4. Respiratory volumes:
O We use a spirometer to assess an
individual’s lung function.
O We have a lung capacity of +/- 5 litres.
O Slightly lower for female, due to differing
sizes of male & female ribcage.
MECHANISMS OF BREATHING
4. Respiratory volumes:
O Tidal volume – amount of air breathed in with each breath.
O Inspiratory reserve volume – amount of space available for air to be inhaled.
O Expiratory reserve volume – amount of air that could be exhaled after you have breathed out.
MECHANISMS OF BREATHING
4. Respiratory volumes:
O Vital capacity – maximum amount of air that can be breathed in & out during one breath. (tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume + expiratory reserve volume).
O Residual volume – amount of air left in lungs after full exhalation. (+/- 1 litre remains, else lungs will deflate & stop breathing)
MECHANISMS OF BREATHING
4. Respiratory volumes:
O Total lung volume – vital capacity +
residual volume, measures maximum
amount of air that could be present in the
lungs at any moment.
O Breathing rate – number of breaths taken
per minute.
O Respiratory volume – amount of air moving
through the lungs every minute.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Digestive Processes
O The processing of food by the digestive system
involves six essential activities:
O The digestive tract can be viewed as a disassembly
line
O Food becomes less complex at each step of
processing
O Nutrients become available to the body.
