Ancient Chinese Schools of. Thought:

Confucianism, Legalism and Daoism (Taoism) Historical Background

The gradual decline and

fall of the Zhou (Chou) dynasty,

beginning in the eighth century

B.C.E. and culminating in the

''Warring States Era" (403-221

B.C.E.), brought chaos and

turmoil to China. Powerful states

crushed weak ones. States

formed alliances to improve

their positions or simply to

survive. Generations of Chinese

were born, grew up and died

knowing nothing but warfare.

Rulers had little time worry

about the plight of their subjects.

Suffering was deep and

widespread.

China During the Warring States Era, c.300 B.C.£.

(Hucm27).

Ironically, this was the period that produced China's most profound philosophical ideas.

A civilization at its apex rarely produces timeless philosophies. It is only when the very fabric of a

civilization starts to come apart that its people begin to ask fundamental questions about their lives

and their society. What is causing the deaths and devastation sweeping across the land? What is the

meaning and purpose of a single life amidst all of the chaos and turmoil? Can peace and order be

restored? Is an ideal state possible (or even desirable)? Who should lead the country and why? What

are the duties of responsible subjects? What does it mean to "live the good life?" A ''hundred

schools of thought" emerged in response to these questions. The most influential of these were

Confucianism, Legalism and Daoism.

Confucianism

Confucius (Latinized form of Kung Fuci or K'ung Fu-tzu, 551-479 B.C.E.) was a minor

nobleman who aspired to become an adviser to one of the great rulers of his time. Failing this, he

turned to teaching. It is as a teacher that Confucius is most important in world history. Confucius'

teachings looked to the past, when China was supposedly ruled by sage kings and the people

possessed the Dao (Tao). For Confucius, the Dao meant the proper Way of living. He hoped to

restore the Dao by reviving ideas and practices that were neglected. during the years of warfare.

Central to Confucius' teachings were the concepts of Ii (duty, etiquette or proper action) and

jen (compassion, empathy or human heartedness). Li required individuals to subordinate their

interests to the needs of the family and the community. Li also compelled individuals to understand

and accept their places in society. The son, for example, is expected to obey his father. The father, in

turn, is expected to protect his son and provide for his welfare. Confucius defined similar

obligations for relationships between ruler and subject, elder brother and younger brother, husband

and wife, friend and friend. Emphasizing the social nature of human beings, Confucius told his

students, "Virtue is never isolated; it always has neighbors (Cleary translation IV:25)." Confucius

wanted Ii to extend beyond the family. He therefore taught his students to "behave when away from

home as though you were in the presence of important guests. Deal with the common people as

though you were officiating at an important ceremony (Waley translation XII:2)." If everyone

fulfilled the duties of his or her position in society, there would be harmony and order. Confucius

saw the neglect of these rites/obligations as a root cause of the problems of his age:

Unless a man has the spirit of the rites (proper observance of Ii), in being respectful

he will wear himself out, in being careful he will become timid, in having courage

he will become unruly, and in being forthright he will become intolerant (Lau

translation VT.JI:2).

Li has sometimes been compared to the framework of a house and jen to its interior.

Without jen, Ii becomes a hollow gesture or a mere formality. Ideally, it is jen - compassion,

empathy and human heartedness -that drives individuals to act with Ii. "As for the humane,"

Confucius taught, "while they want to be established themselves, they establish others. While they

want to succeed themselves, they help others to succeed (Cleary translation VI:30)." Confucius

admitted that he was not able to achieve jen in all of his relationships and doubted that anyone

could. He nevertheless taught his students to always strive for jen. Above all, he urged, "Do not do

to others what you would not like (done to) yourself (Waley translation XII:2)."

Confucius believed that harmony and order could not be restored unless individuals

embodied and practiced Ii and jen. If everyone adhered to these virtues, there would be no need for

laws. Conversely, if everyone turned away from them, no amount of laws (and punishments) could

create a harmonious and orderly society. Confucius therefore believed that society had to be led by

virtuous individuals, whom he called "gentlemen." Living in a turbulent era, when traditional titles of

nobility no longer applied, Confucius transformed the title of gentleman from a person of noble birth to

a person of noble behavior. ''When good men are in office," Confucius stated "government is efficient,

just as when the earth is fertile, plants flourish. Therefore, good government depends upon good men.

Such men should be chosen on the basis of character (Bahm 91)." When asked whether an ignoble man

could effectively serve government, he replied, "No. He worries about getting something, and once he

has got it he worries about losing it. As long as her worries about losing it, there's no telling what he

might do (Cleary translation XVII: 15)." In public service, Confucius taught that there is a distinction

between virtue and popularity:

A disciple asked Confucius, "How is it when everyone in your hometown

likes you?"

Confucius said, "Not good enough."

The disciple then asked, "How about it if everyone in your hometown dislikes

you?"

Confucius said, "Not good enough. It is better when the good among the

people like you and the bad dislike you (Cleary translation XIII:24)."

Confucius believed that the trust of the people was the most essential element of any government

A disciple asked Confucius about government.

Confucius said, "See to it that there is enough food, enough arms, and the

trust of the people in government."

The disciple asked, "If one of these unavoidably had to be omitted, which of

the three would be first?"

Confucius said, "Omit arms."

The disciple asked, "If one of the remaining two unavoidably had to be

omitted, which would go first?" .

Confucius said, "Omit food. Since ancient times people have died, but

nothing can be established without the trust of the people (Cleary translation

Xll:7)." .

Trust, according to Confucius, cannot be maintained by tyrants and demagogues, whom the people merely fear or support out of self-interest. Only a true gentleman can gain the trust of the people.

Confucius was frequently asked to describe the gentleman. He often did so by contrasting him

with a lesser person:

The gentleman calls attention to the good points in others; he does not call attention to

their defects. The small man does just the reverse of this (Waley . translation XII: 16)

The demands that a gentleman makes are upon himself, those that a small man makes

are upon others (Waley translation XV:20).

A gentleman takes as much trouble to discover what is right as lesser men take to

discover what will pay (Waley translation IV: 16).

Cultivated people are easy to work for but hard to please. If you try to

please them in the wrong way, they are not pleased. When they employ people,

they consider their capacities.

.. Petty people are hard to work for but easy to please. Even if you please

them by something that is wrong, they are still pleased. When they employ people,

they expect everything (Cleary translation xm:25). ..•. . .-'.. ....

Confucius also stressed constant self-improvement:

Master Zeng, one of the pupils of Confucius, said, ''I examine myself three times a

day: have I been unfaithful in planning for others? Have I been unreliable in conversation with friends? Am I preaching what I haven't practiced myself (1:4

Cleary)."

The Master said, ''When you meet someone better than yourself: turn your

thoughts to becoming his equal. When you meet someone not as good as you are,

look within and examine you own self (Lau translation JV: 17)."

Confucius wanted his gentlemen to serve as role models for the rest of society to follow. They would teach virtue by living it, not preaching it:

Wealth and rank are what every man desires; but if they can only be retained to the

detriment of the Way he professes, he must relinquish them. Poverty and obscurity

are what every man detests; but if they can only be avoided to the detriment of the

Way he professes, he must accept them. The gentleman who ever parts company

with Goodness does not fulfill that name. Never for a moment does a gentleman

quit the way of Goodness. He is never so harried but that he cleaves to this; never

so tottering but that he cleaves to this (Waley translation IV:5).

Confucius also hoped that his students would transform Chinese society. Consequently, he

had little time or patience with lazy and unintelligent students. "I do not teach the uninspired or

enlighten the complacent," Confucius stated, ''When I bring out one corner (of a problem) to show

people, if they do not come back with the other three, I do not repeat the lesson (Cleary translation

VII:8)." He also said, "I can do nothing for those who do not ask themselves what to do (Cleary

translation xv: 16)." -

Early Confucianism was practical and provisional rather than metaphysical and dogmatic.

It is said that "there were four things the Master refused to have anything to do with: he refused to

entertain conjectures or insist on certainty; he refused to be inflexible or to be egotistical (Lau

translation IX:4)." It was also a human-centered philosophy. Confucius located the source of human

problems within the individual and the society in which he or she lived. As a result, he assumed that

solutions were also to be found there. Thus when a pupil asked Confucius how he should serve the

spirits of the dead, he replied, "You are not able even to serve man. How can you serve the spirits

.... You do not understand even life. How can you understand death (Lau translation XI: 12)?"

While no great ruler was interested in Confucius' advice, the counsel of his disciples and

their disciples were sought throughout China. Mencius (Meng Zi or Meng Tzu, 372-289 B.C.E.),

was the most influential early Confucian scholar-teacher. He lived when China entered the fiercest

phase of its ''Warring States Era". Many rulers sought the advice of the best brains in China to

give them an edge over their rivals. Mencius was constantly in demand. Mencius claimed that he

followed Confucius' teachings to the letter. But in fact he extended Confucius' ideas in an idealistic

direction, emphasizing his concept of jen. He taught that human beings are essentially and innately

good. This nature can be corrupted by bad ideas and practices that exist in their environment:

The tendency of human nature to do good is like that of water to flow downward.

There is no man who does not tend to do good; there is no water that does not flow

downward. Now you may strike water and make it splash over your forehead, or you

may even force it up the hills. But is this in the nature of water? It is of course due to

the force of circumstances. Similarly, man may be brought to do evil, and that is

because the same is done to his nature (de Bary 102-03).

If the innate goodness of human beings can be diverted by society, Mencius believed that it was the

duty of the ruler and the sage prevent that from happening. They should do everything in their power to

insure that the inner goodness of the people prevails.

Legalism

Some scholars trace the origins of the Legalist or Realist school to the seventh century B.C.E .

Its most important proponents - Lord Shang (died 338 B.C.E.), Han Fei Zi (Han Fei Tzu, died 233

B.C.E.) and Li Si (Li Ssu, died 208 B.C.E.) - lived during the height of the Warring States Era. Lord

Shang served as high minister to the state of Qin (Ch'in). He greatly strengthened the state by

controlling its people with strict laws, increasing its agricultural output and strengthening its army. In

order to bring about domestic order, Shang "organized the people into groups of five and ten families

that would spy on each other and be corporately responsible (including being punished for) crimes

committed by their members (Watson 82)." To strengthen Qin's military forces, Shang tied all advances

in society to how well an individual fought in battle. "Concentrate the people upon warfare, and they

will be brave," Shang stated, "let them care about other things, and they will be cowardly (Waley 168)."

When a prince he had chastised earlier became the king of Qin, however, Shang was executed – torn

apart by four chariots.

Han Fei Zi was a royal prince of the state of Han. He compensated for his stuttering by writing

down his thoughts on government. Han Fei urged rulers to stop modeling themselves after ancient kings

and use only methods that would work in their own times. Above all, Han Fei recommended that rulers

reward those who strengthened the state and punish those who weakened it. The king of Han showed no

interest in Han Fei's ideas. But his rival, the king of Qin, admired them. When war between the two

kingdoms became imminent, Han Fei was sent as an envoy to the state of Qin. There, he gained the

king's favor. Unfortunately, this made Li Si, a Qin minister and fellow Legalist scholar, envious and

suspicious of him. He ordered Han Fei to be put to death as a spy.

Li Si went on to-become Qin's chief minister. Meanwhile, his king subdued all of his rivals and

reunified China in 221 B.C.E He then proclaimed himself Shi Huang Di (Shih Huang Ti) or first

emperor (of China). Li Si convinced the emperor to adopt Legalism as China's official philosophy, ban

the teachings of all competing philosophies and have their books burned. Li Si himself was killed in an

uprising after the emperor's death.

All Chinese schools of thought during this era were concerned, in varying degrees, with

politics. What made the Legalists unique was that they were concerned only with politics. All Legalist

writings boil down to one problem: how to preserve and strengthen the state. This was central to Lord

Shang's thoughts:

The sole aim of a State is to maintain and if possible to expand its frontiers. Food-

production and military preparations are the only activities which the State should

support; the agricu1tura1labourer and the soldier, the only classes of citizen that it

should honour and encourage. Unfortunately, agricu1ture is toilsome and war

dangerous, whereas what the people want is ease and safety. Fortunately, however,

they also covet gain while they are alive and long for fame after they are dead., and

by taking these two factors into due account the ruler can induce them to endure

the toil from which they shrink and face the dangers that they dread.

Shang therefore recommended making farming and soldiering the only viable occupations within

the state:

If there is no hope of gain except from the soil, the people will work hard in their

fields; if there is no hope of fame except through services in warfare, the people

will be ready to lay down their lives. If at home they work to their uttermost, then

land will not be left uncultivated; if abroad they are ready to lay down their lives,

then the enemy will be defeated. If the enemy is defeated and land is not left

uncultivated, then without more ado a country becomes rich and strong (Waley

165-66).

Legalists believed that human beings were essentially evil. Left alone, people would act

greedily, selfishly and lazily. "'The reason you cannot rely upon the wisdom of people," according

to Han Fei, "is that they have the minds of little children. If the child's ... boil is not lanced, it will

become sicker than ever. But when it is having ... its boil lanced, someone must hold it while the

loving mother performs the operation, and it yells and screams incessantly, for it does not

understand that the little pain it suffers now will bring great benefit later (Watson 128)." Han Fei

noted that "severe laws and heavy punishments are what the people hate; but they are the only

means by which order can prevail. Compassion and sympathy on the part of the ruler towards his

subjects are what the people approve of; but it is through these that a country falls into danger

(Waley 162)." Rather than trying to reason with the people, Han Fei recommended that rulers

employ rewards and punishments. Unlike someone professing love or camaraderie, which the ruler

cannot always validate, he can be confident about the motives of someone working for a reward.

Besides, according to Han Fei, people naturally do things for profit:

The charioteer Wang Liang was good to his horses, and Kou-chien, the

king of Yueh, was good to his men, the one so that they would run for him, the

other so that they would fight for him. A physician will often suck men's wounds

clean and hold the bad blood in his mouth, not because he is bound to them by any

tie of kinship but because he· knows there is profit in it. The carriage maker

making carriages hopes that men will grow rich and eminent; the carpenter

fashioning coffins hopes that men will die prematurely. It is not that the carriage

maker is 'kindhearted and the carpenter a knave. It is only that if men do not

become rich and eminent, the carriages will never sell, and if men do not die, there

will be no market for coffins. The carpenter has no feeling of hatred towards

others; he merely stands to profit by their death (Watson 86).

Legalists recommended harsh punishments because they saw them as the only reliable

deterrence against individuals taking actions that would hurt the state. It is also fairer to would-be

law breakers because they know exactly what they face if they are caught. They therefore will not be

enticed by an uncertain justice system to become criminals. ''If the punishments are sufficiently heavy,"

Lord Shang contends, ''no one will dare to transgress the law." That is the desired goal because "the

ultimate goal of penalties is that there should be no penalties (Waley 160)." Han Fei supported harsh

punishments because "to try to use the ways of a generous and lenient government to rule the people of

a critical age is like trying to drive a runaway horse without using reins or whip (Waley 101)."

Gorge of

Legislation

Dong Anyu, a magistrate of the Upper land in Zhao, came to the brink of a deep gorge on a tour of the mountains.

(Tsai 51).

1

2

''The best laws," according to Han Fei, "are those which are uniform and inflexible, so that

the people can understand them (Watson 104)." He believed that law codes must necessarily be

very long and very detailed. "If their text-book is too summary," Han Fei noted, "pupils will be able

to twist its meaning; if a law is too concise the common people dispute its intentions. A wise man

when he writes, a book sets forth his arguments fully and clearly; an enlightened ruler, when he

makes his laws, sees to it that every-contingency is provided for in detail {Waley 159-60)." Han Fei

maintained that the letter of the law should be enforced in every case, 'regardless of motives or

circumstances. Reminiscent of Herman Melville's Billy Budd, Han Fe believed that this was the

only way that a civil society could be maintained. Furthermore, Han Fei pointed out that if

individuals, especially ministers, are permitted side-step laws or overstep the responsibilities of

their positions in society, the ruler's authority will be undermined:

Once in the past Marquis Chao of Han got drunk and fell asleep. The

keeper of the royal hat, seeing that the marquis was cold, laid a robe over him.

When the marquis awoke, he was pleased and asked his attendants, ''Who covered

me with a robe?" "The keeper of the hat," they replied. The marquis thereupon

punished both the keeper of the robe for failing to do his duty, and the keeper of 'the

hat for overstepping his office. It was not that he did not dislike the cold, but he

considered the trespass of one official upon the duties of another to be a greater

danger than the cold (Watson 32).

Legalists criticized the Confucians' reliance on the past as a guide. "The sage," according to

HanFei, "does not try to practice the ways of antiquity or to abide by a fixed standard, but examines

the affairs of the age and takes what precautions are necessary (Watson 96-97)." Han Fei believed

that people in the past were more benevolent because they were fewer in number and resources

were greater:

In ancient times ... the people were few, there was abundance of goods, and so no

one quarreled. Therefore, no rich rewards were doled out, no harsh punishments

were administered, and yet the people of themselves were orderly. But nowadays

no one regards five sons as a large number, and these five sons in turn have five

sons each, so that before the grandfather has died, he has twenty-five

grandchildren. Hence the number of people increases, goods grow scarce, and men

have to struggle and slave for a meager living. Therefore they fall to quarreling,

and though rewards are doubled and punishments piled on, they cannot be

prevented from growing disorderly (Watson 97).

Han Fei maintained that rulers should determine the utility of a law or custom, not by how long it

has been incorporated, but by how useful it is in their own times.

Legalists also criticized Confucians for their dependence on righteousness and

benevolence. Han Fei stated that "the realist knows that Goodness (jen) alone does not enable a

father to keep unruly children in order, still less can it enable a ruler to govern a mass of people to

whom he is bound by no ties of kinship. Force can always secure obedience; and appeal to

morality, very seldom (Waley 155)." He observed that the common people sought men of integrity

and good faith "because they value men who have no deceit, and they value men who have no

deceit because they themselves have no means to protect themselves from deceit (Watson 108)."

The ruler, on the other hand, do not have to depend on honest men to help run his state. ''The

enlightened ruler," according to Han Fei, "unifies the laws instead of seeking wise men, to lay

down firm policies instead of longing for men of good faith (Watson 109)." He told rulers that

they were above moral considerations and advised them use whatever measures necessary to hold and

expand their powers:

In ancient times Duke Wu of Cheng wanted to attack the state of Hu, and so

he first married his daughter to the ruler of Hu in order to fill his mind with thoughts

of pleasure. Then he told his ministers, "I want to launch a military campaign. What

would be a likely state to attack?" The high official Kuan Chi'issu replied, "Hu could

be attacked," where-upon Duke Wu flew into a rage and had him executed, saying Hu

is a brother state! The ruler of Hu, hearing of this, assumed that Cheng was friendly

towards him and therefore took no precautions to defend himself against Cheng. The

men of Cheng then made a surprise attack on Hu and seized it (Watson 77).

Daoism

Little is known about Lao Zi (Lao Tzu) or Old Master, the legendary founder of Daoism.

According to Daoist tradition, Lao Zi was born in 604 B.C.E. and left China at the age of 160, having

grown tired of its many conflicts and intrigues. At the last Chinese outpost in the West, the garrison

commander asked Lao Zi to write down his thoughts on the Dao (the Way). The result was the Dao De

Jing (Tao Te Ching), the classic text of the Daoist philosophy. Most scholars doubt that Lao Zi was

the author of the Dao De Jing, since it contains references to ideas that did not appear in China until

the third century B.C.E.. Many believe that there was no single charismatic founder of Daoism. They

feel it was a genuine folk religion which grew out of the villages of ancient China. Regardless of its

origins, Daoism, with its keen insights and deep wisdom, has played an important role in the

development of Chinese culture.

Central to Daoism is the belief that human-centered philosophies, such as Confucianism and

Legalism, missed a very important fact - that human beings might not be the center of all things. For

them, the Dao is found in nature and, as noted in the Dao De Jing, is often elusive to human inquiry:

The way that can be spoken of

Is not the constant way;

The name that can be named Is not the constant name (Lau translation I).

While it may be elusive, Daoists believed that the Dao is the source of all things:

The nameless was the beginning of heaven and earth; The named was the mother of the myriad creatures (Lau translation I).

Why refer to the primordial Dao as "the nameless?" Everything is part of the whole until we give it a

name. Then it gains a particularity - a rock, a tree, Sally, John - which separates it from the whole (the

nameless): Hence the source of all things, is the nameless or nothingness. Can there be something

without nothing? If not, which do you suppose came first?

Chinese landscape paintings influenced by Daoism depict human beings as tiny objects in an

immense and awesome natural setting. Such paintings suggest that human beings should not try to

make the Dao fit their lives. Instead, they should live their lives according to the Dao. This means

living simply and naturally. One way is to be like water. Water gives life to ten thousand creatures. Yet,

it is pliant - flowing where nature directs it. And it is content to reside in lowly

places that everyone dislikes. Another way is to be like little blades of grass that sway back and

forth in the wind, unlike strong trees that stand firm against weak winds, but fall victim to strong

winds or the woodcutter's ax. Still another way is to return to being an uncarved block of wood or a

baby who had not yet made any distinctions.

How would you know

if you are living according to the

Dao? If you think you are, you

probably are not. Rational thinking

is shaped by

society - through the

particular thought and

language patterns that it has created.

Such an act, according to Daoists, is

at least a few steps removed from

encountering nature as it is.

Daoists say '"Only he that rids

~:~(

himself forever of desire (which is

liberally translated here to include

the desire to make rational sense of

things) can see the Secret Essences

(Waley translation 1)."- Daoists also disagree with

the Confucianists' and Legalists'

emphases on action. These schools,

according to Daoists, often overlook

the negative repercussions of the

actions they advocate. Confucianists

identifying who is a superior

person, create envy, insecurity and

competitiveness among those who

are not considered superior. When

Legalists make new laws, they also

create new law-breakers, as well as

new ways to get around laws. One

of the most lucrative jobs for

lawyers in the United States today is

finding ways for corporations to

avoid or minimize paying taxes.

Some are at work even as tax laws

they will try to circumvent are being

drafted

by the Congress or state (Froncek 144).

legislatures.

In a more fundamental way, Daoists wonder why there is greed, jealousy and thievery. Is it

not, they ask, because society decided to make certain things valuable? ''Not putting high value on rare

goods," according to Daoists, "prevents the people from being bandits (Mair translation ill). Also,

would this not stop the garish display of these "precious" goods as well as people envying those who

display them?

Why, Daoists ask, are some people considered stupid? Their answer would be because society

decided to identify certain people as being smart. Why are some people called ugly? Their answer

would be because society decided to call certain people beautiful. Why does society contain unworthy

people? Their answer would be because society sees them as not measuring up

to their image of a virtuous person. .

Noting the yin-yang principle, Daoists point out that you cannot have light without darkness,

high without low, hard without soft. They feel that other schools, such as Confucianists and Legalists,

overly emphasize what is strong, hard, masculine and complete. Daoists feel that they not only neglect

the value of what is soft, feminine and empty, but also fail to realize that each value cannot exist

without its counterpart:

It is because every one under Heaven recognizes beauty as beauty, that the idea of

ugliness exists.

And equally if every one recognized virtue as virtue, this would merely create

fresh conceptions of wickedness.

For truly "Being and Not-being grow out of one another;

Difficult and easy complete one another.

Long and short test one another;

High and low determine one another.

The sounds of instrument and voice give harmony to one another.

Front and back give sequence to one another."

Therefore the Sage relies on actionless activity,

Carries on wordless teaching,

But the myriad creatures are worked upon by him; he does not disown them.

He rears them, but does not lay claim to them,

Controls them, but does not lean upon them,

Achieves his aim, but does not call attention to what he does;

And for the very reason that he does not call attention to what he does

He is not ejected from fruition of what he has done (Waley translation ii).

Since action often results in undesirable consequences, Daoists suggest that inaction (wu wei)

is sometimes preferable to action. Daoists place great value in doing nothing. As discussed earlier,

nothingness is central to their concept of the Dao. They would ask, for example, what is the most

important parts of a house? Their answer would be the empty spaces we call doors, without which we

cannot enter or leave it; also the empty spaces we call windows, without which air and light cannot

enter it. How do you measure the valuable of a computer? Their answer would be by the empty

memory spaces that you can fill with data. Can this also be said of the human brain?

Thirty spokes converge on a single hub,

but it is in the space where there is nothing

that the usefulness of the cart lies.

Clay is molded to make a pot,

but it is in the space where there is nothing

II

that the usefulness of the clay pot lies.

Cut out doors and windows to make a room,

but it is in the spaces where there is nothing

that the usefulness of the room lies.

Therefore,

Benefit may be derived from something,

but it is in nothing that we find usefulness (Mair translation XI).

Daoists also advocate non-action for affairs of state. As noted earlier, if you create laws, you

create law-breakers. Does it not follow then that the more laws you create, the more criminals you

create. Is this not an argument for not making so many laws? The Daoists say, "through his (the ruler's)

actionless activity all things are duly regulated (Waley translation ill):' What kind of ruler is best? The

Daoists have a suggestion:

The best of all rulers is but a shadowy presence to his subjects (they do

not even know he is around).

Next comes the ruler they love and praise;

Next comes one they fear;

Next comes one with whom they take liberties (because they neither

fear nor respect him) ....

When (the best of all ruler's) task is accomplished and his work done

The people all say, (''We did it ourselves" or) "It happened to us naturally

(Lau translation XVII)."

In his The Tao of Leadership, John Heider compares the ideal leader to a midwife:

Imagine that you are a midwife; you are assisting at someone else's birth ....

Remember that you are facilitating another person's process. It is not your

process. Do not intrude. Do not control. Do not force your own needs and insights into

the foreground.

If you do not trust a person's process, that person will not trust you ....

Do good without show or fuss. Facilitate what is happening rather than what

you think ought to be happening. If you must take the lead. lead so that the mother is

helped, yet still free and in charge.

When the baby is born, the mother will rightly say: ''We did it ourselves (33):'

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