Android (operating system) 1

Android (operating system)

Android

Android 4.2 "Jelly Bean" on the Nexus 4

Company / developer GoogleOpen Handset AllianceAndroid Open Source Project

Programmed in C, C++, Java[1]

OS family Unix-like

Working state Current

Source model Open source[2]

Initial release September 23, 2008[3]

Latest stable release 4.2.2 Jelly Bean / February 11, 2013[4][5]

Marketing target SmartphonesTablet computers

Available language(s) Multi-lingual

Package manager Google Play, APK

Supported platforms ARM, MIPS,[6] x86[7]

Kernel type Monolithic (modified Linux kernel)

Default user interface Graphical (Multi-touch)

License Apache License 2.0Linux kernel patches under GNU GPL v2[8]

Official website www.android.com [9]

Android is a Linux-based operating system designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphonesand tablet computers. Initially developed by Android, Inc., which Google backed financially and later purchased in2005,[10] Android was unveiled in 2007 along with the founding of the Open Handset Alliance: a consortium ofhardware, software, and telecommunication companies devoted to advancing open standards for mobile devices.[11]

The first Android-powered phone was sold in October 2008.[12]

Android is open source and Google releases the code under the Apache License.[13] This open source code and permissive licensing allows the software to be freely modified and distributed by device manufacturers, wireless carriers and enthusiast developers. Additionally, Android has a large community of developers writing applications ("apps") that extend the functionality of devices, written primarily in a customized version of the Java programming language.[14] In October 2012, there were approximately 700,000 apps available for Android, and the estimated

Android (operating system) 2

number of applications downloaded from Google Play, Android's primary app store, was 25 billion.[15][16]

These factors have allowed Android to become the world's most widely used smartphone platform[17] and thesoftware of choice for technology companies who require a low-cost, customizable, lightweight operating system forhigh tech devices without developing one from scratch.[18] As a result, despite being primarily designed for phonesand tablets, it has seen additional applications on televisions, games consoles and other electronics. Android's opennature has further encouraged a large community of developers and enthusiasts to use the open source code as afoundation for community-driven projects, which add new features for advanced users[19] or bring Android todevices which were officially released running other operating systems.Android became a huge success. In the fourth quarter of 2010, Android overtook Symbian to become the biggestsmartphone OS, from a worldwide market share.[20] Android had a worldwide smartphone market share of 75%during the third quarter of 2012,[21] with 500 million devices activated in total and 1.3 million activations perday.[22][23] The operating system's success has made it a target for patent litigation as part of the so-called"smartphone wars" between technology companies.[24]

HistoryAndroid, Inc. was founded in Palo Alto, California in October 2003 by Andy Rubin (co-founder of Danger),[25] RichMiner (co-founder of Wildfire Communications, Inc.),[26] Nick Sears[27] (once VP at T-Mobile),[28] and Chris White(headed design and interface development at WebTV)[10] to develop, in Rubin's words "smarter mobile devices thatare more aware of its owner's location and preferences".[10] Despite the past accomplishments of the founders andearly employees, Android Inc. operated secretly, revealing only that it was working on software for mobilephones.[10] That same year, Rubin ran out of money. Steve Perlman, a close friend of Rubin, brought him $10,000 incash in an envelope and refused a stake in the company.[29]

Google acquired Android Inc. on August 17, 2005, making it a wholly owned subsidiary of Google. Key employeesof Android Inc., including Rubin, Miner and White, stayed at the company after the acquisition.[10] Not much wasknown about Android Inc. at the time, but many assumed that Google was planning to enter the mobile phone marketwith this move.[10] At Google, the team led by Rubin developed a mobile device platform powered by the Linuxkernel. Google marketed the platform to handset makers and carriers on the promise of providing a flexible,upgradable system. Google had lined up a series of hardware component and software partners and signaled tocarriers that it was open to various degrees of cooperation on their part.[30][31][32]

Speculation about Google's intention to enter the mobile communications market continued to build throughDecember 2006.[33] Reports from the BBC and the Wall Street Journal noted that Google wanted its search andapplications on mobile phones and it was working hard to deliver that. Print and online media outlets soon reportedrumors that Google was developing a Google-branded handset. Some speculated that as Google was definingtechnical specifications, it was showing prototypes to cell phone manufacturers and network operators. In September2007, InformationWeek covered an Evalueserve study reporting that Google had filed several patent applications inthe area of mobile telephony.[34][35]

On November 5, 2007, the Open Handset Alliance, a consortium of technology companies including Google, devicemanufacturers such as HTC and Samsung, wireless carriers such as Sprint Nextel and T-Mobile, and chipset makerssuch as Qualcomm and Texas Instruments, unveiled itself, with a goal to develop open standards for mobiledevices.[11] That day, Android was unveiled as its first product, a mobile device platform built on the Linux kernelversion 2.6.[11] The first commercially available phone to run Android was the HTC Dream, released on October 22,2008.[36]

Since 2008, Android has seen numerous updates which have incrementally improved the operating system, adding new features and fixing bugs in previous releases. Each major release is named in alphabetical order after a dessert or sugary treat; for example, version 1.5 Cupcake was followed by 1.6 Donut. The latest release is 4.2 Jelly Bean. In 2010, Google launched its Nexus series of devices—a line of smartphones and tablets running the Android operating

Android (operating system) 3

system, and built by a manufacturer partner. HTC collaborated with Google to release the first Nexus smartphone,[37]

the Nexus One. The series has since been updated with newer devices, such as the Nexus 4 phone and Nexus 10tablet, made by LG and Samsung, respectively. Google releases the Nexus phones and tablets to act as their flagshipAndroid devices, demonstrating Android's latest software and hardware features.

Description

InterfaceAndroid's user interface is based on direct manipulation,[38] using touch inputs that loosely correspond to real-worldactions, like swiping, tapping, pinching and reverse pinching to manipulate on-screen objects.[38] The response touser input is designed to be immediate and provides a fluid touch interface, often using the vibration capabilities ofthe device to provide haptic feedback to the user. Internal hardware such as accelerometers, gyroscopes andproximity sensors are used by some applications to respond to additional user actions, for example adjusting thescreen from portrait to landscape depending on how the device is oriented, or allowing the user to steer a vehicle in aracing game by rotating the device, simulating control of a steering wheel.[39]

Android devices boot to the homescreen, the primary navigation and information point on the device, which issimilar to the desktop found on PCs. Android homescreens are typically made up of app icons and widgets; appicons launch the associated app, whereas widgets display live, auto-updating content such as the weather forecast,the user's email inbox, or a news ticker directly on the homescreen.[40] A homescreen may be made up of severalpages that the user can swipe back and forth between, though Android's homescreen interface is heavilycustomisable, allowing the user to adjust the look and feel of the device to their tastes. Third party apps available onGoogle Play and other app stores can extensively re-theme the homescreen, and even mimic the look of otheroperating systems, such as Windows Phone.[41] Most manufacturers, and some wireless carriers, customise the lookand feel of their Android devices to differentiate themselves from the competition.Present along the top of the screen is a status bar, showing information about the device and its connectivity. Thisstatus bar can be "pulled" down to reveal a notification screen where apps display important information or updates,such as a newly received email or SMS text, in a way that doesn't immediately interrupt or inconvenience theuser.[42] In early versions of Android these notifications could be tapped to open the relevant app, but recent updateshave provided enhanced functionality, such as the ability to call a number back directly from the missed callnotification without having to open the dialer app first.[43] Notifications are persistent until read or dismissed by theuser.

ApplicationsAndroid has a growing selection of third party applications, which can be acquired by users either through an appstore such as Google Play or the Amazon Appstore, or by downloading and installing the application's APK file froma third-party site.[44] The Play Store application allows users to browse, download and update apps published byGoogle and third-party developers, and is pre-installed on devices that comply with Google's compatibilityrequirements.[45] The app filters the list of available applications to those that are compatible with the user's device,and developers may restrict their applications to particular carriers or countries for business reasons.[46] Purchases ofunwanted applications can be refunded within 15 minutes of the time of download,[47] and some carriers offer directcarrier billing for Google Play application purchases, where the cost of the application is added to the user's monthlybill.[48] As of September 2012, there were more than 675,000 apps available for Android, and the estimated numberof applications downloaded from the Play Store was 25 billion.[49]

Applications are developed in the Java language using the Android software development kit (SDK). The SDK includes a comprehensive set of development tools,[50] including a debugger, software libraries, a handset emulator based on QEMU, documentation, sample code, and tutorials. The officially supported integrated development

Android (operating system) 4

environment (IDE) is Eclipse using the Android Development Tools (ADT) plugin. Other development tools areavailable, including a Native Development Kit for applications or extensions in C or C++, Google App Inventor, avisual environment for novice programmers, and various cross platform mobile web applications frameworks.In order to work around limitations on reaching Google services due to Internet censorship in the People's Republicof China, Android devices sold in the PRC are generally customized to use state approved services instead.[51]

DevelopmentAndroid is developed in private by Google until the latest changes and updates are ready to be released, at whichpoint the source code is made available publicly.[52] This source code will only run without modification on selectdevices, usually the Nexus series of devices.[53] With many devices, there are proprietary components which have tobe provided by the manufacturer, in order for Android to work.[54]

Linux

Architecture diagram

Android consists of a kernel based on Linux kernel version 2.6 and,from Android 4.0 Ice Cream Sandwich onwards, version 3.x, withmiddleware, libraries and APIs written in C, and application softwarerunning on an application framework which includes Java-compatiblelibraries based on Apache Harmony. Android uses the Dalvik virtualmachine with just-in-time compilation to run Dalvik 'dex-code' (DalvikExecutable), which is usually translated from Java bytecode.[55] Themain hardware platform for Android is the ARM architecture. There issupport for x86 from the Android x86 project,[7] and Google TV uses aspecial x86 version of Android.

Android's linux kernel has further architecture changes by Googleoutside the typical Linux kernel development cycle.[56] Android does not have a native X Window System by defaultnor does it support the full set of standard GNU libraries, and this makes it difficult to port existing Linuxapplications or libraries to Android.[57] Support for simple C and SDL applications is possible by injection of a smallJava shim and usage of the JNI[58] like, for example, in the Jagged Alliance 2 port for Android.[59]

Certain features that Google contributed back to the Linux kernel, notably a power management feature calledwakelocks, were rejected by mainline kernel developers, partly because kernel maintainers felt that Google did notshow any intent to maintain their own code.[60][61][62] Google announced in April 2010 that they would hire twoemployees to work with the Linux kernel community,[63] but Greg Kroah-Hartman, the current Linux kernelmaintainer for the stable branch, said in December 2010 that he was concerned that Google was no longer trying toget their code changes included in mainstream Linux.[61] Some Google Android developers hinted that "the Androidteam was getting fed up with the process," because they were a small team and had more urgent work to do onAndroid.[64]

In August 2011, Linus Torvalds said that "eventually Android and Linux would come back to a common kernel, butit will probably not be for four to five years".[65] In December 2011, Greg Kroah-Hartman announced the start of theAndroid Mainlining Project, which aims to put some Android drivers, patches and features back into the Linuxkernel, starting in Linux 3.3.[66] Linux included the autosleep and wakelocks capabilities in the 3.5 kernel, aftermany previous attempts at merger. The interfaces are the same but the upstream Linux implementation allows fortwo different suspend modes: to memory (the traditional suspend that Android uses), and to disk (hibernate, as it isknown on the desktop).[67]

The flash storage on Android devices is split into several partitions, such as "/system" for the operating system itself and "/data" for user data and app installations.[68] In contrast to desktop Linux distributions, Android device owners

Android (operating system) 5

are not given root access to the operating system and sensitive partitions such as /system are read-only. However,root access can be obtained by exploiting security flaws in Android, which is used frequently by the open sourcecommunity to enhance the capabilities of their devices,[69] but also by malicious parties to install viruses andmalware.[70]

Memory managementSince Android devices are usually battery-powered, Android is designed to manage memory (RAM) to keep powerconsumption at a minimum, in contrast to desktop operating systems which generally assume they are connected tounlimited mains electricity. When an Android app is no longer in use, the system will automatically suspend it inmemory - while the app is still technically "open," suspended apps consume no resources (e.g. battery power orprocessing power) and sit idly in the background until needed again. This has the dual benefit of increasing thegeneral responsiveness of Android devices, since apps don't need to be closed and reopened from scratch each time,but also ensuring background apps don't waste power needlessly.[71]

Android manages the apps stored in memory automatically: when memory is low, the system will begin killing appsand processes that have been inactive for a while, in reverse order since they were last used (i.e. oldest first). Thisprocess is designed to be invisible to the user, such that users do not need to manage memory or the killing of appsthemselves.[72] However, confusion over Android memory management has resulted in third-party task killersbecoming popular on the Google Play store; these third-party task killers are generally regarded as doing more harmthan good.[73]

Update schedule

From left to right: HTC Dream (G1), Nexus One,Nexus S, Galaxy Nexus

Google provides major updates, incremental in nature, to Androidevery six to nine months, which most devices are capable ofreceiving over the air.[74] The latest major update is Android 4.2Jelly Bean.[75]

Compared to its chief rival mobile operating system, namely iOS,Android updates are typically slow to reach actual devices. Fordevices not under the Nexus brand, updates often arrive monthsfrom the time the given version is officially released.[76] This iscaused partly due to the extensive variation in hardware ofAndroid devices, to which each update must be specifically

tailored, as the official Google source code only runs on their flagship Nexus phone. Porting Android to specifichardware is a time- and resource-consuming process for device manufacturers, who prioritize their newest devicesand often leave older ones behind.[76] Hence, older smartphones are frequently not updated if the manufacturerdecides it is not worth their time, regardless of whether the phone is capable of running the update. This problem iscompounded when manufacturers customize Android with their own interface and apps, which must be reapplied toeach new release. Additional delays can be introduced by wireless carriers who, after receiving updates frommanufacturers, further customize and brand Android to their needs and conduct extensive testing on their networksbefore sending the update out to users.[76]

The lack of after-sale support from manufacturers and carriers has been widely criticised by consumer groups and the technology media.[77][78] Some commentators have noted that the industry has a financial incentive not to update their devices, as the lack of updates for existing devices fuels the purchase of newer ones,[79] an attitude described as "insulting".[78] The Guardian has complained that the complicated method of distribution for updates is only complicated because manufacturers and carriers have designed it that way.[78] In 2011, Google partnered with a number of industry players to announce an "Android Update Alliance", pledging to deliver timely updates for every

Android (operating system) 6

device for 18 months after its release.[80] As of 2012, this alliance has never been mentioned since.[76]

Open source communityAndroid has an active community of developers and enthusiasts who use the Android source code to develop anddistribute their own modified versions of the operating system.[81] These community-developed releases often bringnew features and updates to devices faster than through the official manufacturer/carrier channels, albeit without asextensive testing or quality assurance;[19] provide continued support for older devices that no longer receive officialupdates; or bring Android to devices that were officially released running other operating systems, such as the HPTouchpad. Community releases often come pre-rooted and contain modifications unsuitable for non-technical users,such as the ability to overclock or over/undervolt the device's processor.[82] CyanogenMod is the most widely usedcommunity firmware,[83] and acts as a foundation for numerous others.Historically, device manufacturers and mobile carriers have typically been unsupportive of third-party firmwaredevelopment. Manufacturers express concern about improper functioning of devices running unofficial software andthe support costs resulting from this.[84] Moreover, modified firmwares such as CyanogenMod sometimes offerfeatures, such as tethering, for which carriers would otherwise charge a premium. As a result, technical obstaclesincluding locked bootloaders and restricted access to root permissions are common in many devices. However, ascommunity-developed software has grown more popular, and following a statement by the Librarian of Congress inthe United States that permits the "jailbreaking" of mobile devices,[85] manufacturers and carriers have softened theirposition regarding third party development, with some, including HTC,[84] Motorola,[86] Samsung[87][88] andSony,[89] providing support and encouraging development. As a result of this, over time the need to circumventhardware restrictions to install unofficial firmware has lessened as an increasing number of devices are shipped withunlocked or unlockable bootloaders, similar to the Nexus series of phones, although usually requiring that userswaive their devices' warranties to do so.[84] However, despite manufacturer acceptance, some carriers in the US stillrequire that phones are locked down.[90]

The unlocking and "hackability" of smartphones and tablets remains a source of tension between the community andindustry, with the community arguing that unofficial development is increasingly important given the failure ofindustry to provide timely updates and/or continued support to their devices.[90]

Security and privacy

App permissions in the Play Store

Android applications run in a sandbox, an isolated area of the system that doesnot have access to the rest of the system's resources, unless access permissionsare explicitly granted by the user when the application is installed. Beforeinstalling an application, the Play Store displays all required permissions: a gamemay need to enable vibration or save data to an SD card, for example, but shouldnot need to read SMS messages or access the phonebook. After reviewing thesepermissions, the user can choose to accept or refuse them, installing theapplication only if they accept.[91]

The sandboxing and permissions system lessens the impact of vulnerabilities andbugs in applications, but developer confusion and limited documentation hasresulted in applications routinely requesting unnecessary permissions, reducingits effectiveness.[92] Several security firms, such as Lookout Mobile Security,[93]

AVG Technologies,[94] and McAfee,[95] have released antivirus software forAndroid devices. This software is ineffective as sandboxing also applies to suchapplications, limiting their ability to scan the deeper system for threats.[96]

Android (operating system) 7

Research from security company Trend Micro lists premium service abuse as the most common type of Androidmalware, where text messages are sent from infected phones to premium-rate telephone numbers without the consentor even knowledge of the user.[97] Other malware displays unwanted and intrusive adverts on the device, or sendspersonal information to unauthorised third parties.[97] Security threats on Android are reportedly growingexponentially; however, Google engineers have argued that the malware and virus threat on Android is beingexaggerated by security companies for commercial reasons,[98][99] and have accused the security industry of playingon fears to sell virus protection software to users.[98] Google maintains that dangerous malware is actually extremelyrare,[99] and a survey conducted by F-Secure showed that only 0.5% of Android malware reported had come fromthe Google Play store.[100]

Google currently uses their Google Bouncer malware scanner to watch over and scan the Google Play storeapps.[101] It is intended to flag up suspicious apps and warn users of any potential issues with an application beforethey download it.[102] Android version 4.2 Jelly Bean was released in 2012 with enhanced security features,including a malware scanner built into the system, which works in combination with Google Play but can scan appsinstalled from third party sources as well, and an alert system which notifies the user when an app tries to send apremium-rate text message, blocking the message unless the user explicitly authorises it.[103]

Android smartphones have the ability to report the location of Wi-Fi access points, encountered as phone users movearound, to build databases containing the physical locations of hundreds of millions of such access points. Thesedatabases form electronic maps to locate smartphones, allowing them to run apps like Foursquare, Google Latitude,Facebook Places, and to deliver location-based ads.[104] Third party monitoring software such as TaintDroid,[105] anacademic research-funded project, can, in some cases, detect when personal information is being sent fromapplications to remote servers.[106]

LicensingThe source code for Android is available under free and open source software licenses. Google publishes most of thecode (including network and telephony stacks)[107] under the Apache License version 2.0,[108][109] and the rest,Linux kernel changes, under the GNU General Public License version 2. The Open Handset Alliance develops thechanges to the Linux kernel, in public, with source code publicly available at all times. The rest of Android isdeveloped in private by Google, with source code released publicly when a new version is released. TypicallyGoogle collaborates with a hardware manufacturer to produce a 'flagship' device (part of the Google Nexus series)featuring the new version of Android, then makes the source code available after that device has been released.[110]

In early 2011, Google chose to temporarily withhold the Android source code to the tablet-only 3.0 Honeycombrelease. The reason, according to Andy Rubin in an official Android blog post, was because Honeycomb was rushedfor production of the Motorola Xoom,[111] and they did not want third parties creating a "really bad user experience"by attempting to put onto smartphones a version of Android intended for tablets.[112] The source code was onceagain made available in November 2011 with the release of Android 4.0.[113]

Even though the software is open-source, device manufacturers cannot use Google's Android trademark unlessGoogle certifies that the device complies with their Compatibility Definition Document (CDD). Devices must alsomeet this definition to be eligible to license Google's closed-source applications, including Google Play.[114] AsAndroid is not completely released under a GPL compatible license, e.g. Google's code is under the Apachelicense,[8] and also because Google Play allows proprietary software, Richard Stallman and the Free SoftwareFoundation have been critical of Android and have recommended the usage of alternatives such asReplicant.[115][116]

Android (operating system) 8

ReceptionAndroid received a lukewarm reaction when it was unveiled in 2007. Although analysts were impressed with therespected technology companies that had partnered with Google to form the Open Handset Alliance, it was unclearwhether mobile phone manufacturers would be willing to replace their existing operating systems with Android.[117]

The idea of an open source, Linux-based development platform sparked interest,[118] but there were additionalworries about Android facing strong competition from established players in the smartphone market, such as Nokiaand Microsoft, and rival Linux mobile operating systems that were in development.[119] These established playerswere skeptical: Nokia was quoted as saying "we don't see this as a threat,"[120] and a member of Microsoft'sWindows Mobile team stated "I don't understand the impact that they are going to have."[120]

Since then Android has grown to become the most widely used smartphone operating system[18] and "one of thefastest mobile experiences available."[121] Reviewers have highlighted the open source nature of the operatingsystem as one of its defining strengths, allowing companies such as Amazon (Kindle Fire), Barnes & Noble (Nook),Ouya, Baidu, and others to fork the software and release hardware running their own customised version of Android.As a result, it has been described by technology website Ars Technica as "practically the default operating system forlaunching new hardware" for companies without their own mobile platforms.[18] This openness and flexibility is alsopresent at the level of the end user: Android allows extensive customisation of devices by their owners and apps arefreely available from non-Google app stores and third party websites. These have been cited as among the mainadvantages of Android phones over others.[18][122]

Despite its success on smartphones, Android tablet adoption has been slow.[123] This is primarily blamed on achicken or the egg situation where consumers are hesitant to buy an Android tablet due to a lack of high qualitytablet apps, but developers are hesitant to spend time and resources developing tablet apps until there's a significantmarket for them.[124][125] Other factors included high prices[126] and the dominance of Apple's iPad.[125] This beganto change in 2012 with the release of the successful Nexus 7 and a push by Google for developers to write bettertablet apps.[127] Android tablets are expected to overtake the iPad within a few years.[128]

Market share and rate of adoptionResearch company Canalys estimated in the second quarter of 2009 that Android had a 2.8% share of worldwidesmartphone shipments.[129] By the fourth quarter of 2010 this had grown to 33% of the market, becoming thetop-selling smartphone platform.[17] By the third quarter of 2011 Gartner estimated that more than half (52.5%) ofthe smartphone market belongs to Android.[130] By the third quarter of 2012 Android had a 75% share of the globalsmartphone market according to the research firm IDC.[21]

In July 2011, Google said that 550,000 new Android devices were being activated every day,[131] up from 400,000per day in May,[132] and more than 100 million devices had been activated[133] with 4.4% growth per week.[131] InSeptember 2012, 500 million devices had been activated with 1.3 million activations per day.[22][23]

Android market share varies by location. In July 2012, Android's market share in the United States was 52%,[134]

and rises to 90% in China.[135]

Android (operating system) 9

Usage share of Android versions

Usage share of the different versions as of December 3, 2012

Usage share of the different versions as of February 5,2013.[136] Most Android devices to date still run theolder OS version 2.3 Gingerbread that was released onDecember 6, 2010, due to many lower-end devices stillbeing released with it.

Version Code name Release date API level Distribution (February 5, 2013)

4.2.x Jelly Bean November 13, 2012 17 1.4%

4.1.x Jelly Bean July 9, 2012 16 12.2%

4.0.x Ice Cream Sandwich December 16, 2011 15 29.0%

3.2 Honeycomb July 15, 2011 13 1.0%

3.1 Honeycomb May 10, 2011 12 0.3%

2.3.3–2.3.7 Gingerbread February 9, 2011 10 45.4%

2.3–2.3.2 Gingerbread December 6, 2010 9 0.2%

2.2 Froyo May 20, 2010 8 8.1%

2.0–2.1 Eclair October 26, 2009 7 2.2%

1.6 Donut September 15, 2009 4 0.2%

Application piracyThere has been some concern about the ease with which paid Android apps can be pirated.[137] In a May 2012interview with Eurogamer, the developers of Football Manager stated that the ratio of pirated players vs legitimateplayers was 9:1 for their game Football Manager Handheld.[138] However, not every developer agreed that piracyrates were an issue; for example, in July 2012 the developers of the game Wind-up Knight said that piracy levels oftheir game were only 12%, and most of the piracy came from China, where people cannot purchase apps fromGoogle Play.[139]

In 2010, Google released a tool for validating authorised purchases for use within apps, but developers complainedthat this was insufficient and trivial to crack. Google responded that the tool, especially its initial release, wasintended as a sample framework for developers to modify and build upon depending on their needs, not as a finishedsecurity solution.[140] In 2012 Google released a feature in Android 4.1 that encrypted paid applications so that theywould only work on the device on which they were purchased, but this feature has been temporarily deactivated dueto technical issues.[141]

Android (operating system) 10

Copyrights and patentsBoth Android and Android phone manufacturers have been involved in numerous patent lawsuits. On August 12,2010, Oracle sued Google over claimed infringement of copyrights and patents related to the Java programminglanguage.[142] Oracle originally sought damages up to $6.1 billion,[143] but this valuation was rejected by a UnitedStates federal judge who asked Oracle to revise the estimate.[144] In response, Google submitted multiple lines ofdefense, counterclaiming that Android did not infringe on Oracle's patents or copyright, that Oracle's patents wereinvalid, and several other defenses. They said that Android is based on Apache Harmony, a clean roomimplementation of the Java class libraries, and an independently developed virtual machine called Dalvik.[145] InMay 2012 the jury in this case found that Google did not infringe on Oracle's patents, and the trial judge ruled thatthe structure of the Java APIs used by Google was not copyrightable.[146][147]

In addition to lawsuits against Google directly, various proxy wars have been waged against Android indirectly bytargeting manufacturers of Android devices, with the effect of discouraging manufacturers from adopting theplatform by increasing the costs of bringing an Android device to market.[148] Both Apple and Microsoft have suedseveral manufacturers for patent infringement, with Apple's ongoing legal action against Samsung being aparticularly high-profile case. In October 2011 Microsoft said they had signed patent license agreements with tenAndroid device manufacturers, whose products account for 55% of the worldwide revenue for Android devices.[149]

These include Samsung and HTC.[150] Samsung's patent settlement with Microsoft includes an agreement thatSamsung will allocate more resources to developing and marketing phones running Microsoft's Windows Phoneoperating system.[148]

Google has publicly expressed its frustration for the current patent landscape in the United States, accusing Apple,Oracle and Microsoft of trying to take down Android through patent litigation, rather than innovating and competingwith better products and services.[151] In 2011-12, Google purchased Motorola Mobility for US$12.5 billion, whichwas viewed in part as a defensive measure to protect Android, since Motorola Mobility held more than 17,000patents.[152] In December 2011 Google bought over a thousand patents from IBM.[153]

Beyond smartphones and tablets

The Sony SmartWatch: an example ofhow Android is used on electronics other

than smartphones and tablets

The open and customizable nature of Android allows it to be used on otherelectronics, including laptops and netbooks, smartbooks[154] smart TVs(Google TV) and cameras (Nikon Coolpix S800c and GalaxyCamera).[155][156] In addition, the Android operating system has seenapplications on smart glasses (Project Glass), wristwatches,[157]

headphones,[158] car CD and DVD players,[159] mirrors,[160] portable mediaplayers[161] and landlines[162] and Voice over IP phones.[163] Ouya, anupcoming videogames console running Android, became one of the mostsuccessful Kickstarter campaigns, crowdfunding US$8.5m for itsdevelopment,[164][165] and was later followed by other Android-based videogames consoles such as Project Shield from NVIDIA.

In 2011, Google demonstrated "Android@Home", a new home automatontechnology which uses Android to control a range of household devicesincluding light switches, power sockets and thermostats.[166] Prototype lightbulbs were announced that could be controlled from an Android phone ortablet, but Android head Andy Rubin was cautious to note that "turning alightbulb on and off is nothing new," pointing to numerous failed homeautomation services. Google, he said, was thinking more ambitiously and the intention was to use their position as acloud services provider to bring Google products into customers' homes.[167]

Android (operating system) 11

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Android (operating system) 17

[167] Nilay Patel (2012-02-27). "Home in the clouds: Google's home automation platform to have major services integration" (http:/ / www.theverge. com/ 2012/ 2/ 27/ 2827615/ android-home-automation-cloud-services-andy-rubin). The Verge. . Retrieved 2012-11-02.

External links• Official website (http:/ / www. android. com/ )• Sergey Brin introduces the Android platform (https:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=1FJHYqE0RDg) on

YouTube

Article Sources and Contributors 18

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Jcogbil, Jdthood, JeR, Jeff G., Jeffq, Jeffrey Sharkey, Jeffwang, Jenova20, Jenskristian, Jerebin, JeremyA, Jeromeds99, Jerrinsg, Jerryobject, Jesant13, Jessica23, Jeysaba, Jhonnyx1000, Jiess, Jim1138, Jimmin, Jimthing, Jimv1983, Jinmyo, Jmcdon10, Jmecimore, JobiWan144, Joconnor, Joe Sewell, Joeblow398847232, Joeinwap, Joemalt1832, Joepearson, Johantheghost, John Ericson, JohnSawyer, Johnathe, Johnconorryan, Johndburger, JohnnotJon, Jokonek, Jonabbey, Jonathan-Morris711, JonathonSimister, Jonhope123, Jonkerz, Jontintinjordan, Jopo, Jordi Burguet Castell, Jorge Stolfi, Joriki, JosJuice, Josh.e.stroud, JoshDuffMan, Jpvinall, Jreferee, Jrishel, Jtalledo, Jtangsw, Jtfcobra, Jubeidono, Julesd, Jurisnipper, Jusses2, Jvosika, Jwkilgore, KAMiKAZOW, KDesk, KSEltar, Kaicarver, Kaisersushi, Karam.Anthony.K, Karthickmad, Katherine, Katoh, Kawasakik, KayoWikiP069, Kenny Strawn, Kentyman, Kepwick, Kevin James Field, Kevthegreat55, Kforeman1, Khalid hassani, Khanayub1986, Khr0n0s, Kiddington, Kien64, KimDabelsteinPetersen, King Arthur6687, Kingdowney, Kingpin13, Kinkate18nic, Kiore, Kitsunegami, Kkm010, Klemen Kocjancic, Klingoncowboy4, Kmdowns, Knud Winckelmann, Koavf, Kokken Tor, Koman90, Komitsuki, Kontar, Korkut00, Korkut000, Kozuch, Kraftlos, Krazywrath, Krc1185, Kris cs1, Kronox android, Krushia, Ksyrie, KumardipSarkar, Kungming2, Kushal one, Kylelnny, Kylesamani, L.tak, LSUniverse, LafinJack, LancerEvolution ;, Lanilsson, Larrymcp, LarsHolmberg, LarsPensjo, Lbstone27, Legoboy920, Lenar, Lesmin, Lester, Lethe, Leuk he, Leuko, Levineps, Lexischemen, Lfcohen, Libcub, LightSpeed3, Lightenoughtotravel, Lightmouse, Lindamilton, Lindberg, LinuxOne, Lkt1126, Llancast, Llewelyn MT, Logan, Logical Cowboy, Lokpest, Lolametro, Longhornkate, LookingGlass, Lopifalko, LorenzoB, Lotje, Lovetinkle, Lucas.Yamanishi, Luckerr, Lukini, Lun Esex, M0sia1, MER-C, MKar, MZMcBride, Mac, Macungie, Madeincat, Magioladitis, Mahanga, Male1979, Manop, Mantrik00, Mappum, Marc Lacoste, Marcus Brute, Marcus 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Android robot.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Android_robot.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: GoogleFile:Android.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Android.svg  License: Trademarked  Contributors: AndroidFile:Android-System-Architecture.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Android-System-Architecture.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:SmiehFile:G1, Nexus One, Nexus S, Galaxy Nexus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:G1,_Nexus_One,_Nexus_S,_Galaxy_Nexus.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Duke Q, FlickreviewR, Infrogmation, Materialscientist, OspreyPL, 2 anonymous editsFile:PlayStorePermissions.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PlayStorePermissions.png  License: unknown  Contributors: SmurfyFile:Android chart.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Android_chart.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Android Open Source projectFile:SmartWatch MN2 auf der Internationalen Funkausstellung 2012 in Berlin 1 PD.JPG  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SmartWatch_MN2_auf_der_Internationalen_Funkausstellung_2012_in_Berlin_1_PD.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Bin im Garten

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