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S.R.S.D. Memorial Shiksha Shodh Sansthan, Agra, India
About the Author
Abstract
Key Words% Bhand Pather, Folklore, Kashmir, Subversion, Survival.
Introduction
Our cultural values and beliefs are manifested through our lifestyle. Our life style and
moral values represent our social ethos. The importance of culture lies in its close association
with the ways of thinking and living. Understanding the cultural values of a society can be
feasible by looking at the interplay of various symbolic arts and artefacts through which
individuals in a community engage with their lived experiences.
ANNALS OF ART, CULTURE & HUMANITIES
A Peer Reviewed Refereed Research Journal
ONLINE ISSN-2455-5843 Volume II, Issue II, August 2017, pp. 01-13
www.srsshodhsansthan.org
From Subversion to Survival: A Study of Kashmir’s Folk Theatre
Arif Nisar
Research Scholar
Department of English, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
The valley of Kashmir is a place which has been fertile in cultivating different patterns of culture
through different artistic forms. Kashmir, in fact presents prosperity for study of historicity, folklore and
anthropology. A part of this rich and diverse culture is Bhand Pather- Kashmir’s traditional and
indigenous folk theatre. Bhand Pather forms an integral part of Kashmiri culture and art. This art form
is rich in its own history. Kashmiri folk theatre since long times back serves to reflect the lives of
common masses with an experimentation of everyday life. Bhand Pather, which used to articulate
resistance and discontent, is struggling to survive within the present conflicting situations. While looking
at the historical roots of Bhand Pather, the paper would also locate its routes, which would be an
answer to the question, how this art is relegated to the margins of obscurity?
The author after completing his M.Phil (in English studies) from Department of English, Jamia
Millia Islamia, New Delhi, is currently pursuing his Ph.D on Kashmiri folklore from the same
department. For M.Phil programme, the dissertation was titled A Study of Bhand Pather: A Cultural
Phenomenon, a subversive and a Dying Art Form. For his Ph.D the author is collectively looking at
folklore of Kashmir including other folklore forms, which for a long time have been thoroughly
unattended in present day scholarship.
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These lived experiences turn into folkloristic materials both material as well as spiritual
which are studied and looked upon through the discipline of folkloristics. The folkloristic
materials hold the social and cultural significance to any society through different endorsed
symbols, being transmitted, from distant past to the present social setup. These folkloristics
materials are the main vibrant cultural agents through which one can easily discern one‟s culture
and identity through consciousness and persistence. Therefore, the study of these folkloristics
materials i.e. folklore introduces us to cultures that we appreciate through an understanding of
traditional folk art forms. Without an understanding of folkloristic materials from diverse
cultures, people live with many delusions which create stereotypes. Folklore basically is oriented
to study the cultures in depth. In the world of technology and media, folklore makes us
understand the meaning and order of things present in a culture.
Within the debates of challenges and methodologies, the discipline of folklore conjures to
be study of people who have marginally being labelled as folk that is to say people who are
marginalised as illiterate and subaltern. The present paper does not venture into the debates and
challenges that folklore as a discipline has faced rather it creates an endeavour to study Kashmiri
folk theatre as an art of the subaltern and illiterate group within Kashmiri society. Moreover, the
focus would be given to trace the changing contours and paradigm shift of Kashmiri folk theatre,
which is thoroughly ignored and pushed to shades of obscurity within the cultural space and, in
academics as well.
From Roots to Routes
The valley of Kashmir is a place which has been fertile in cultivating different patterns of
culture through different artistic forms and genres. Kashmir, in fact presents prosperity for study
of historicity, folklore and anthropology. A part of this rich and diverse culture is Bhand Pather-
Kashmir‟s traditional and indigenous folk theatre. Folklore, in context of Kashmir, is one among
the cardinal resources available to understand the nature of Kashmiri society. Given Kashmir‟s
long oral traditions and its various indigenous performing arts and artefacts, the folklore of
Kashmir is immensely rich. Sadly, apart from the European scholastic initiative, no other
scholarship has paved its way to reach the folk treasure of Kashmir. Therefore, a lamentable gap
is observed for a long period of time in the native (regional) scholarship, especially in academic
institutions.
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Kashmiri folklore therefore lacks the institutional support throughout its development. A
scarcity is observed in collecting the original folklore, at the same time the significance of
folklore is never highlighted at academic level. After a long lamentable gap, Kashmiri folklore is
now paving its way to bigger audience, but an objective study of Kashmiri folklore is still left
unattended.
Locating the origin of any folk form would bring in many fallacies, as Alan Dundes
observes that it is not an easy task to find the origin of folklore. In his own words, “since origins
are almost unknown despite the centuries of speculative historical reconstruction efforts”
(Dundes 181). Bringing in the notions of Alan Dundes it can be argued that it will be always an
intricacy for a researcher to situate the evolutionary and originating point of Kashmir folk
theatre. Bhand Pather including other folk art forms has undergone through the challenges of
identity and alienation. Bhands according to The World Encyclopaedia of Contemporary Theatre
are the traditional folk entertainers found in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Nepal. The Bhands
are associated with Muslim community, which has lost all its traditional notions of folk
entertainment. One would hardly find the exact dates of roots about Bhand Pather, but the
mention of various references in many historical books and manuscripts lead us to the fact that
Kashmir had rich tradition of folk arts with a strong religious sanctity. Ramesh Tamiri
maintaining these notions writes that, “Music, dance and drama have remained part of the social
life of Kashmir‟s since time immemorial, this had strong religious sanction. Dances and dramas
used to be performed in temples during religious festivals and at the Royal court” (32). It can be
argued here, that this theatre must have been there from the very beginning of religious activities.
From historical perspective, this relationship is not seen as a matter of heritage only but
an association of shared experience is sought from its ritualistic modes. While reaching to the
historical perspective, it is substantiated that Bhand Pather essentially is a socio-cultural activity
that has evolved from ancient religious rituals. Growing out of religious rituals, thereby Bhand
Pather forms a multifarious web reflecting different aspects of political, social and economic
life. Going by the belief that Bhand Pather in the past, functioned as a representation of religious
beliefs; it is then a complex exploration to locate its origin from the inter-religious associations
throughout the shifting times in Kashmir. This would not be an inference to link it to particular
religion, rather what seems to be appropriate is to locate a unique site to discern its true nature.
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The conventional and ritualistic values of Bhand communities gave permanence to this folk art
by presenting either the mythological themes or relevant social subjects.
The changes, of course, are important for any art to grow and evolve, but it is very
essential to understand paradigm shift of indigenous folk arts. However the changes from its
indigenous form have not paved a platform for this theatre form to evolve and develop rather,
they have limited its vitality to limited audience. Bhand Pather has evolved as an artistic
expression of everyday life in Kashmir. Indeed Bhand Pather has “dramatised historyi” of
Kashmir but the mainstream narratives, especially the written word, from the Vale have pushed
this folk theatre form to the margins. Within these debates of mainstream discourse, the Bhand
patrons fear that, this art form might become a topic for history books only. Indeed, this folk
theatre form has evolved across the history of Kashmir with different changes to reflect the
different social circumstances at different times. The result of these changes has narrowed its
pertinence. For example, the social significance of this art form lies in the ritualistic modes that
represent all social relations. Looking at the present position of Bhand Pather, the traditional and
ritualistic notions are considered less important compared to the present modes of entertainment
only, where its position has been reduced to a simple act buffoonery or clownery. The apparent
changes of bringing Bhand Pather from the traditional approach of performances from open
fields to the small screens have limited its vitality and vibrancy. “They were loved in the local
circles for bringing to fore the sufferings of people,” says Arshad, “But they no longer can do
that, for they have been made dependent on the government instead of the common people, who
gave them a share of their crop as a token of their love”(Bhand Diplomacy).
Now, the orientation is centred towards modern fashions, which in the first place has
narrowed down the actor-spectator relationships. Secondly, Bhand Pather which used to enjoy
the open-field performance is pushed to small screens where an absence of actor-spectator
communication is observed. It has now the mute spectators or no spectators at all. Whatever
Bhand performances we have now preserved through small screen, documentaries, it can be
argued here, have no spectators at all. Spectators have had to be the active participants and
commentators throughout the performances and they are immediate critics to relate the symbolic
with the social reality that they have been part of.
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Lastly, this theatre form existed initially as indigenous and independent but with the
passage of time it has been taken under government policies, this could be said that such changes
has limited its strength to explore the social reality with much emancipation.
An Activity and Art of Subversion
Jisha Menon in an interview with Frontline stated the relationship of indigenous folk art
forms and their political orientation in different contexts.
Indigenous theatre offers its own array of dramatic tools to grapple with the
asymmetries of class, caste and power. For instance, several folk forms have used
theatre to mock and ridicule those who subjugate. For instance, Jatra of Bengal,
Tamasha of Maharashtra, Burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh and Bhand Pather of
Kashmir are forms that use humour to mock and ridicule those in power. These
folk forms reveal the subversive power of comedy, its ability to question and de-
naturalise figures of authority. (Menon)
Certainly, Jisha Menon‟s observation holds true to Kashmir‟s folk theatre. In the history
of existence of theatre in Kashmir, if one looks at the tradition of Bhand performances, one
realises that these performances have been addressing issues of common masses that are central
to Kashmiri society and have been raising voice for social consciousness and change. To
understand the nature of any society it is pertinent to see the patterns of experienced and lived
world around reflected through the culture and art forms. These cultural forms in a society have
the power to confer and question the social and political institutions. In order to understand the
true historical nature of Kashmir‟s culture and artistic life, one can explore the conventions folk
arts and traditions that manifest the actual facets of social life of Kashmir. Julie Hakim Azzam in
The Alien Within: Postcolonial Gothic and the Politics of Home has talked about the praxis of
folk theatre of Kashmir in Rushdie‟s Shalimar the Clown. She remarks:
Balwant Gargi writes that the Bhand Pather “mirrors social evils” such as “the
cunning money lender, the dowry system, the corrupt police, ... [and] haughty
officials. . . . Some plays are about legendary heroes and gallant lovers. But it is
the incisive satire that characterizes” the form. Clowns play the most important
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role in the Bhand Pather as they are “the preservers of this tradition.” Clowns,
also called jesters. (Azzam 198)
Both historically as well as culturally, one of the main purposes of Bhand Pather
along with other social awareness was to bring the changes from an individual-consciousness
into group consciousness. It has always attempted to bring forth the struggle of marginalised
classes of society at different levels of oppression. Intentionally or unintentionally, the Bhand
performers used this art form to fight against different forms of social injustices. Subsequently
in the contemporary theatrical realm, we observe the theatre practitioners like Bertolt Brecht
and Augusto Boal relating the real life to theatre and subsequently to politics of our times.
These theatre practitioners have opened up the limited notions of conventional theatre, by
relating it to the political life. These modern attributions of modern day theatre have
undoubtedly opened up the new possibilities of folk and regional theatres. Shafi Shauq who
writes about Bhand Pather has rightly observed:
Bandhi Paethir is and has been a powerful medium of social transformation and
has the potential of being a medium of mass education in times to come. In the
past, it has been the most popular and effective strategy of revolt against various
social evils and exploitation, and in the contemporary complex world when
mankind is beset by numerous hazards like over population, AIDS, pollution,
noise, joblessness, and terror, we hope that the Bandhi Paethir becomes a popular
form of street theatre to bring out attitudinal education among the masses. It has
the power to involve artists as well as the audiences in a participatory hermeneutic
activity. Seen against the elitist forms of art and literature, a Bandhi Paethir
counteracts appropriation and privacy of meaning by setting up a dialogical
relation between identification and distance. (Shauq)
Indeed the sufferings and miseries of common people cannot be shared through passive
modes of writing only. There is no doubt that performances at common level be it street theatre
or Forum Theatreii, share the feelings of common masses by actively engaging with spectators.
Spectators take part directly or indirectly to convey their problems by conveying the messages to
others, in order to make them aware of their own problems. In earlier times, since most people in
Kashmir were illiterate, they were not equipped with proper mediums of expression through
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which they could have shared their problems. Bhand Pather served as an effective oral medium
for conveying their problems to the public. This is how Bhand performances and other folk art
forms like Ladi Shah iii
provided a voice to the spectators, enabling and empowering them to
share their views and ideas. It is indeed through the direct engagement of audience or spectators
that they used to convey the grief and sorrow directly. Shafi Shauq writes that, “It is an open
stage drama in which sometimes the spectators also partake” (Shauq 165). It can be argued here,
that these notions of Bhand Pather can be found identical with the theatrical notions of Augusto
Boal. The 20th
century Brazilian playwright Augsto Boal, whose theatrical notions went
reactionary, for he introduced a theatre against the conventional theatre which renders all the
power to actors only. His theatre is the theatre of pedagogy, a voice to the downtrodden and
oppressed section of society. One can draw a parallel between Theatre of the Oppressed and folk
theatre of Kashmir. Bhand Pather is not essentially meant to be performed at playhouses with
walled stage; it can be performed anywhere and everywhere, like the Theatre of the Oppressed.
The paradigms that it possesses make it the theatre for the oppressed and Theatre of the
Oppressed at the same time, as we can relate it to the Boalian theatrical notions whose approach
to call a theatre as oppressed is appropriate until, it is at people‟s service. Bhand Pather like
Theatre of the Oppressed is a distinctive theatre practice that aims at teaching the common
people that „everyday life is nothing but a self-contained theatre‟.
Going by the historical references, Javaid Iqbal Bhat‟ s view renders a backdrop of
Bhand Pather with specific purpose to withstand against any form of oppression at tough times
in Kashmir. With the limited resources available to them, the folk artists have given expression
through spectacle to the sufferings of the peasants. Maintaining distance from the centres of
power, they could vent their anger against the oppressive rulers through comic satire. The
political masters were not the only targets of satire but it was also creatively directed at their
local collaborators, a Munshi for example, or a Daroga. Very rich in rustic humour and satire,
produced from their costumes, body movements, and the linguistic turns and twists, these
performers have been described by Walter Lawrence, as “remover of sorrows” (Bhat 51).
The traditional theatre of Kashmir could not retain its indigenous characteristics that
might be the reason why this art form has not been taken up by most of the writers with much
integration. Though it has not retained an independent status in the cultural domain of Kashmir,
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the promising features of this art form are still noteworthy. It has been used as a medium to
reflect the social, political, religious and economic predicament of different times. Any form of
subjugation and social austerity has been presented in symbolic expressions through spectacle.
Moreover, Bhand Pather did not only present the cultural and social life of Kashmir but at the
same time it portrayed Kashmir‟s tough times such as the conflicts, epidemics and struggles that
have been given visual representation in the performances. Perhaps the history books might have
missed some aspects of Kashmir‟s society but Bhand Pather has always been there, dramatising
the political, social and religious life through spectacle.
Take for example any form of Pather like Dard Pather, the performance aims at
portraying the oppression of Kashmiri‟s under the Dards, which is say the Afghan rule in
Kashmir. In this Pather, the action begins by showing the king‟s oppression on the common
masses. The king is an outsider, a foreign ruler, whose oppression on local peasantry is
extremely unbearable. The performance shows how the local peasantry turns against the
womaniser King‟s oppression. Moreover, the performance portrays the love of Kashmiri‟s for
their native language and land too. The Bhand performances always attempt to raise the
consciousness of the oppressed people to speak up and assert themselves. Bhand Pather as an
important form of Kashmiri folklore will never be adequately comprehended unless it is studied
within the debates of subversion throughout the different trajectories of time and history. Bhand
Pather which used to reflect the lives of common masses with an experimentation of everyday
life presents people‟s incredulous, tyrannical and catastrophic times faced in the times of non-
native ruler-ship from time and again has become a victim of non-existence. The performative
mode of Bhand Pather has dramatised different historical dilemmas of Kashmir‟s history.
Though the Bhand plays have descended orally, but they considerably present different scenarios
of Kashmir‟s past. With the rise of political conflict in the later years of 1980s, almost all art
forms in the valley have suffered, and it holds true to Bhand-Pather as well. The long conflict
and its adverse effects on art and theatre forms since decades of conflict have raised a
consciousness among people who now often tend to scrutinize this art form as an „Oppressed
Art‟ form. Apart from dramatising the socio-cultural history of Kashmir‟s past, Bhand Pather
has been acting a symbolic artefact for Kashmir‟s syncretic tradition. With the coming of
nationalist debates the Bhand performers try to incorporate the ethnic themes to their
performances. The performances somehow managed to spread discontent among the audience
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against considering the dilemma of conflict. Indeed, Bhand performances were used as conscious
political instruments in highlighting the concurrent situations within the valley.
The very famous Dard Pather and Raaze Pather shows the excessive oppression and
tyranny of Afghan rule and another important Pather about English colonisers i.e. Angrez Pather
raises public awareness about the oppression of the British occupation in Kashmir. According to
Farooq Fayaz, these performances used to reflect the oppression in every period of turmoil in
Kashmir from old times, he mentions about the Kashmir‟s Karkota dynasty that, “During the
period of political crisis which followed the fall of Karkota rule in Kashmir, Pathers began to
reflect in a symbolic manner the court intrigues, religious conservatism, social rigidity, feudal
exploitation of Damaras and bureaucratic vandalism of official cadre known as Kayasthas” (115-
16). Bakerwal Pather- the Pather about Bakerwals/nomads bears a close likeness to Dard Pather
where the local Bakerwals are exploited in the hands of merchants. In addition, the ignorance of
the language spoken by the merchants helps them to loot the Bakerwals. The element of
oppression in all forms of Bhand Pather is present with a mixture of social significance. In fact,
all the Pathers have the themes and messages that deal with oppression and social injustice in
Kashmiri society. The performances thus bear a close relationship to the true picture of the
society and aim at the social changes at the same time. Any form of Pather highlights the evil,
corruption, misery, mischief, and all the shortcomings in socio–political order. All these notions
bear closeness to the Theatre of the Oppressed. It would not be inappropriate to call Kashmiri
folk theatre a theatre of the oppressed as it holds nearness and likeness to the Theatre of the
Oppressed.
Conclusion: From Subversion to Survival
Bhand Pather has struggled to survive from the historical dilemmas to the political and
turbulent times of conflict within Kashmir Valley. Within these existential crises, Bhand Pather
did not evolve and develop its boundaries across the nations. The question „Why and how this art
form has almost disappeared prior to and during the years of conflict‟, still haunts the Bhand
communities and theatre patrons. Ramesh Tamiri has mentioned in his book Painting and
Theatre in Kashmir that Kashmir has remained destitute in art during medieval period. In the
foreword of this book, Ratan Parimoo observes that Tamiri “has made a significant observation
that Kashmiri society for the most part of the medieval period remained devoid of any
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developments within performing arts, although the dance forms of Hafiza and Bhand Jashan
survived”(xi). Dr. Tamiri‟s references to surviving arts shows how the, Bhand Jashan i.e. Bhand
Pather, has struggled for survival. Bhand Pather has thus struggled for its existence along the
different trajectories of turbulent times. Although, most of the performers of Bhand Pather are
not „intellectual‟ but their performances orient instructions to common people. They are common
people, who are given very sarcastic names such as Bhands, Kasibs. These names imply as
someone who is „illiterate‟, whose social status is very low, and they are treated as mere street
exhibitionists or fools. People are forgetting the role of Bhands and their performances whose
efforts have preserved the distinct nature of the Kashmiri culture and language i.e. bestowing it
with a privileged identity throughout the history.
The word Pather in Kashmir‟s context connotes resistance; it is used to convince the
people who do not agree. Bhand Pather as an art form has repeated its conviction regarding
social calamites from time to time with no reservations. It has crossed and touched upon every
form of oppression. Earlier Bhand Pather was a celebrated tradition with satire and mockery on
the social and political institutions. Since the period of turmoil and turbulence started in
Kashmir, Bhand artists have changed their story-lines in their performances. As an art form, it
has depicted the resistance by criticising the regime, whether it is the Indian occupation and the
paramilitary forces or the 1947 rule of Dogra‟s and Dards. This art form which once used to
articulate resistance and discontent trough subversion is pushed to shades of obscurity and
oblivion.
Arup Kumar Sen highlights about the decadence of Bhand Pather “The 1990s was the
decade of "disappearances" in Kashmir and the Bhands and their plays disappeared as well. The
intense violence of the 1990s left no space for folk theatre (82)”. These existing conditions of
conflict, since decades, within Kashmir valley have shattered the commitment to memory and
history about the lost, neglected and dying art forms. The entire structure of social, religious and
cultural life suffered a disruption since the years of conflict. Besides the political and social life,
the valley has witnessed the cultural disintegration too. The cultural art forms have received a
great setback during the long years of conflict and Bhand Pather is one of the living examples of
such intimidation. However, some perceptible attempts have been made to revive these dying
folk art forms, but they (art forms) hardly would find the wings again. This is to suggest that
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even the art forms that have some presence, are still in a state of oblivion. Kashmir, the land of
prosperity and synchronization has become the land of terror, where everything is buried under
the weight of „conflict‟. This artistic form as a whole has suffered major setback and has failed to
revive its past glory. The conflict, which is the result of Indo-Pak nationalistic engagements, has
repressed the social and cultural life of Kashmir. Both militancy as well as the paramilitary
forces are the two main bodies silencing the Kashmir‟s artistic life. This silence has been noticed
in Kashmir‟s folk arts including Bhand Pather as well. The artistic life of Kashmir, which is
known for its inquisitive past glory, is shoved towards shades of obscurity. The hostility and
mounting of tension thus have its impact on artistic life of Kashmir. M.K. Raina observes this
silence to Bhand Pather:
With the rise of terrorism in this region came violence and killing. The militants
issued new dictates regarding how to behave and what to wear. The first casualty
was of terrorism was cultural space. Musical instruments were broken and folk
singers and musicians were beaten up. The folk theatre of Bhands was attacked;
its members tried by terrorists and told not to perform any of their traditional
plays or songs, etc, since all this was considered un-Islamic. Hence, for nearly ten
years nobody performed; marriage that used to be community affairs became drab
and boring without any singing and dancing. The same happened to Bhand
Pather- the folk play. It was not performed for almost a decade (286).
It can be argued here from the above observation that, within the existing conditions of
disturbance, the existing art forms are in a state of extinction. The survival of art forms has
remained a challenge for Kashmir in present times. The question of identity and alienation has
become main concern for these art forms. A victim of such concern is Bhand Pather.
The theatre patrons have found it difficult to retain the originality of Bhand Pather and
they started practising it with modern sensibilities and also gave it a new shape. In order to
restrain the decline of this folk art form contemporary theatre persons like M.K.Raina and others
started adopting the modern techniques and thematic concerns to give it life again. To revive this
art form, many theatre companies were invited to perform for the public. Theatre companies such
as Elfred Theatre Company of Bombay and Parsi Theatre Company were introduced to Jammu
and Kashmir. Later Kashmir‟s own theatre productions came into existence, among these
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Kashmir Theatres Ltd, Maharaja Drama Company, Saraswati Drama Club, Ram Natak
Company, and Amateur Drama Company were popular. Amateur drama club was engaged with
staging not only Kashmiri plays but also the Urdu dramas. Later the educational institutions such
as S.P. College started taking interest in dramatic arts. Apart from the support of the
Government, the common masses have also shown considerable interest in theatre activities.
People, who were unfamiliar with the folk theatre that was once the indigenous theatre in itself,
have received its popularity as forms of drama. It can be argued here that, the Kashmiri
indigenous folk theatre i.e. Bhand Pather that exist in the form of performances have taken the
dramatic shape, even without performance. Such manifestations within this folk art realm have
pulled its indigenous status from collective work to the individual interest of writing dramas.
Although these changes from traditional notions to the modern connotations have somehow
helped this art form to survive but at the same time it has lost its aesthetic imagination and direct
manifestations.
Notes i See “Bhand Pather: History Dramatised” Farooq, Fayaz. Kashmir Folklore: A Study in
Historical Perspective. Srinagar : Gulshan Publishers, 2008.
ii Forum theatre is the novel idea of introducing the theatre practice, introduced by the theatre
practitioner Augusto Boal in his Theatre of the Oppressed. It is a form of education for the
people to change their world. In this form of theatre practice, the actors or audience members
could stop a performance to show how people are being oppressed. The audience or the
spectators get a chance to suggest different actions for the actors to carry out on-stage in an
attempt to change the outcome of what they were seeing. By doing so sometimes the spectators
get on stage to perform with the actors, so they become spect-actors.
iii Ladi Shah is an old oral art that has been preserved by recounting the stories from village to
village. The purpose of this art is primarily to mock in a humorous tone. The people engaged
with this art form are like street performers, who are uneducated. Ladishah‟s are though
uneducated people but the stories they narrate form home to home, are the historical narratives of
Kashmir.
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