Annex I: Description of Data Sources

MEYSSThe Ministerio de Empleo y Seguridad Social (MEYSS) is the Ministryfor Employment and Social Security and among others provides onlinestatistical data on Sociedades Laborales, such as number of companiesfounded per year and province, number of employees per company, peryear and province, sizes of companies and companies per sector.1 Datacan be found within the following link:http://www.empleo.gob.es/es/sec_trabajo/autonomos.

SEPEThe Servicio Público de Empleo Estatal (SEPE) is the State PublicService of Employment and provided statistical data on the capitalisationof unemployment benefits for the Basque country as well as for Spain ondemand.

INEThis is the Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE), that is the SpanishStatistical Office, which offers online information about the Spanisheconomy in general, including conventional companies.2 These statisticaldata can be found within the following link:http://www.ine.es/.

© The Author(s) 2017J. Lowitzsch et al., Spanish Sociedades Laborales—Activating the Unemployed,DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-54870-8

103

104 Annex I: Description of Data Sources

Basque Provincial Government—Departamento de Empleo yPolíticas SocialesThe most detailed and recent data on the population of SLs is providedby the Basque Provincial Government. It covers data on SociedadesLaborales founded between 2003 and 2013 at firm level which we usedfor calculating survival rates3 as well as the number of founding workingand investing partners of those companies including information abouttheir gender and capital. Information on subsidies for SociedadesLaborales as well as for ASLE has been provided on demand.

ASLEData provided by Agrupación Empresarial de Sociedades Laborales deEuskadi (ASLE—Business Association of Worker-Owned Companies ofthe Basque Country) have been used for the comparison of survival ratesof members of ASLE with that of non-members. ASLE also provideddata on subsidies of the Basque Government for continuous support.

Notes

1. The methodology for the survival rates of Sociedades Laborales aregiven by MEYSS as ‘the result of a calculation of the percentage of theexisting number of companies … that remain in activity at the end of theyear in which they are registered’.

2. With regard to the survival rates on conventional companies weassume that the INE dataset includes Sociedades Laborales under therespective category of corporations.

3. The initial dataset that was provided by the Basque ProvincialGovernment included only the set of companies that started in theyears 2003–2013. The dataset was augmented with data from theregistry of firms in Spain using the online portal of the firm Axesor(https://www.axesor.es/) to assess whether a company was (i) active ornot and (ii) still under the form of SLL or SAL, or converted to aconventional company. With regard to the database created for thisanalysis any company that was not active within three years wastreated as dormant and thus not counted as surviving.

4. Directive 2009/102/EC of 16 September 2009 in the area of companylaw on single-member private limited liability companies (OJ L 258/20).

Annex II: Overview of Low-ThresholdLimited Liability Companies in the EU-28

© The Author(s) 2017J. Lowitzsch et al., Spanish Sociedades Laborales—Activating the Unemployed,DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-54870-8

105

106 Annex II: Overview of Low-Threshold Limited …

Country

Defi

nitionan

dman

datory

componen

tofthe

corporate

nam

e(ifan

y)

Legal

basisfor

low-threshold

LLC

Minim

um

capital

requirem

ents

(ifan

y)/

registrationrequirem

ents

Req

uirem

ents

concerning

shareh

olders/balan

ceshee

trequirem

ents

Belgium

Sociétéprivéeà

responsabilité

limitée

—Starter(SPR

L-S);a

qualificationofthe

conve

ntional

LLC(SPR

L)

Codedes

Sociétés

Article

211Bis(amen

dmen

tsof

2010

L-20

10-01-12

/01,

2014

L-20

14-01-15

/10)

ForSP

RL-S:

from

EUR1—

18,550

(Article

214-2);

forSP

RLEU

R18

,550

(Article

214-1)

Single-m

ember

compan

y4

allowed

Bulgaria

Drujestvo

sogranichen

aotgovo

rnost

(OOD),i.e

.gen

eral

codificationof

LLC

BulgarianCommercial

Act

(CA)

Minim

um

sharecapital

BGN

2(*

EUR1.02

;Article

117CA)

Min.ofoneshareh

older

(naturalperson/le

gal

entity)in

case

ofsingle

shareh

older,nam

emust

contain

‘Single

Mem

ber

Limited

Liab

ility

Compan

y’(EOOD)

Cze

chRep

ublic

Společn

ost

sruče

ním

omez

eným

(s.r.o.),i.e

.gen

eral

codificationof

LLC

Law

no.90

/201

2Coll.,on

businessco

rporations

Since

2014

minim

um

sharecapital

CZK

1(*

EUR0.4;

until20

14CZK

200,00

0)

Min.ofoneshareh

older

(natural/leg

alperson);

founded

by

Mem

orandum

of

AssociationorDee

dof

Foundationin

case

ofa

sole

founder

Den

mark

Iværksæ

tterselska

b(IVS)

or

entrep

reneu

rial

limited

compan

y;aqualification

oftheco

nve

ntional

LLC

(Anpartsselska

b,ApS)

Act

onPu

blic

andPrivate

Limited

Compan

ies,

amen

ded

01.01.20

14(A

ctNo61

6of12

.06.13

)

Minim

um

sharecapital

DKK1(*

EUR0.13

);co

ntributionsin

kind

notallowed

Single-m

ember

compan

yallowed

;ove

rtimean

IVSmust

dev

elopinto

aApSwithasharecapital

of50

,000

DKKbuilt

up

bysavingat

least25

%ofthean

nual

profit

(untilthen

nodividen

ds

arepaidout)

(continued

)

(continued

)

Country

Defi

nitionan

dman

datory

componen

tofthe

corporate

nam

e(ifan

y)

Legal

basisfor

low-threshold

LLC

Minim

um

capital

requirem

ents

(ifan

y)/

registrationrequirem

ents

Req

uirem

ents

concerning

shareh

olders/balan

ceshee

trequirem

ents

German

yUnterneh

mergesellsch

aft

(haftungsbesch

ränkt),

abbreviation‘UG

(haftungsbesch

ränkt)or

Entrep

reneu

rial

compan

y(lim

ited

liability);a

qualificationofthe

conve

ntional

LLC(G

mbH)

IntroducedbyArticle

1Nr.

6MoMiG

of23

.10.08

into

§5a

Limited

Liab

ility

Compan

iesAct

Minim

um

sharecapital

EUR1—

24,999

,§5a

V(EUR25

,000

for

conve

ntional

GmbH);

sharecapital

has

tobe

paidin

fullbefore

registration;

contributionsin

kind

notallowed

Single-m

ember

compan

yallowed

;25

%ofthe

annual

surplus(m

inus

theloss

carriedforw

ard

from

previousye

ar)isto

bepaidinto

astatutory

reservewhichmay

only

beusedto

(a)increa

sethesharecapital;

(b)balan

cethenet

loss;

or(c)balan

celoss

carriedforw

ardfrom

previousye

arEstonia

Osaüh

ing(O

Ü),i.e

.gen

eral

codificationofLL

CPa

rtIV

§13

5ff

Commercial

Code(CC)

Minim

um

sharecapital

EUR2,50

0(§

236CC);

contributionsin

kind

possible

Single-m

ember

compan

ypossible

(natural/leg

alperson)

Irelan

dPrivateLtd.,i.e

.gen

eral

codificationofLL

CCompan

iesAct

2014

Nominim

um

sharecapital

forpriva

teltd.

compan

ies

Single-m

ember

compan

ypossible

(continued

)

Annex II: Overview of Low-Threshold Limited … 107

(continued

)

Country

Defi

nitionan

dman

datory

componen

tofthe

corporate

nam

e(ifan

y)

Legal

basisfor

low-threshold

LLC

Minim

um

capital

requirem

ents

(ifan

y)/

registrationrequirem

ents

Req

uirem

ents

concerning

shareh

olders/balan

ceshee

trequirem

ents

Greece

Idiotiki

Kefaleo

uhikiEteria

(IKE)

orPrivateCompan

y(A

rticle

43para.

4ofLa

w40

72/201

2);a

qualification

oftheco

nve

ntional

LLC

(EPE

)

Law

4072

/201

2Minim

um

sharecapital

EUR1,

Article

43para3

a;co

ntributionsin

kind

possible;canbeform

edwithapriva

tedocu

men

t,unless

notarial

dee

disrequired

Ifsingle-m

ember

compan

ymust

be

included

innam

e;must

annually

withhold

1/20

ofitsprofits

asareserve

(Article

100par.2);

gen

erally,duration

limited

to12

yearsby

law

Spain

Socied

adde

responsabilidad

limitad

aen

régim

endeform

ación

sucesiva

(SLFS);a

qualificationofthe

conve

ntional

LLC(SRL)

Rev

ised

text

ofLa

won

capital

compan

ies

amen

ded

byLa

won

support

for

entrep

reneu

rsan

dtheir

internationalisationof

14/201

3

Possibility

ofderogative

inco

rporationwith

reducedsocial

capital,

Article

4bis,(EUR3,00

0forco

nve

ntional

SRL)

conditional

on:

(a)tran

sfer

of20

%of

theye

arly

profitto

legal

reserve;

(b)no

distributionofdividen

ds

aslongas

thenet

assets

arebelow

60%

of

required

minim

um

capital

Single-m

ember

compan

ypossible

‘Socied

adunipersonal

de

responsabilidad

limitad

a’Article

12,w

ith

personal

unlim

ited

liability;gen

erally

two

ormore

shareh

olders,

Article

19;ye

arly

remunerationof

partnersan

dad

ministrators

cannot

bemore

than

20%

of

yearly

net

assets

(continued

)

108 Annex II: Overview of Low-Threshold Limited …

(continued

)

Country

Defi

nitionan

dman

datory

componen

tofthe

corporate

nam

e(ifan

y)

Legal

basisfor

low-threshold

LLC

Minim

um

capital

requirem

ents

(ifan

y)/

registrationrequirem

ents

Req

uirem

ents

concerning

shareh

olders/balan

ceshee

trequirem

ents

Fran

ceSo

ciétéàresponsabilité

limitée

(SARL),i.e

.gen

eral

codificationofLL

C

Article

L223

-2co

dede

commerce;introduced

byArticle

1.La

wn°

2003

-721

dated

1stof

August

2003

Minim

um

sharecapital

EUR1(until20

03EU

R7,50

0)

Min.one,

max

.10

0shareh

olders,Article

223-1,

223-3;

ifsingle-m

ember

compan

ynam

e‘Entrep

rise

Unipersonnelle

àResponsabilité

Limitée

’(EURL)

Croatia

Jednostav

noDrustvo

sOgranicen

om

Odgovo

rnoscu(jD.o.o.),a

qualificationofthe

conve

ntional

LLC(D

.o.o.)

Compan

iesAct

(CA)

Minim

um

sharecapital

HRK10

(*EU

R1.31

)(until20

13HRK20

,000

);to

bepaidin

cash;

notarisedform

san

nex

edto

theCA

(OG

152/11

,11

1/12

)co

mpulsory

for

registration

Min.one,

max

.three

shareh

olders

(natural/leg

alpersons);

must

crea

teaminim

um

reservebyded

uctionof

atleast5%

from

net

profitofprevious

finan

cial

year;once

sharecapital

reaches

HRK20

,000

provisions

onco

nve

ntional

LLC

apply

Italy

Societàaresponsabilità

limitata(Srl),i.e

.gen

eral

codificationofLL

C

ItalianCivilCode

Minim

um

sharecapital

EUR1

Single-m

ember

compan

ypossible

(then

‘Società

Uninominale’

with

shareh

older’slia

bility

dee

med

tobe

unlim

ited

)

(continued

)

Annex II: Overview of Low-Threshold Limited … 109

(continued

)

Country

Defi

nitionan

dman

datory

componen

tofthe

corporate

nam

e(ifan

y)

Legal

basisfor

low-threshold

LLC

Minim

um

capital

requirem

ents

(ifan

y)/

registrationrequirem

ents

Req

uirem

ents

concerning

shareh

olders/balan

ceshee

trequirem

ents

Cyp

rus

PrivateLtd.,i.e

.gen

eral

codificationofLL

CCyp

rusCompan

iesLa

w,

Cap

.11

3Nominim

um

share

capital;co

ntributionsin

kindpossible;LL

Cmay

notacquireitsown

shares

Min.one,

max

.50

shareh

olders

Latvia

Maz

kapitālaSa

biedrībaar

ierobežotu

atbild

ību

(Maz

kapitālaSIA),a

qualificationofthe

conve

ntional

LLC(SIA)

LatvianCommercial

Code,

amen

ded

2014

Minim

um

sharecapital

EUR1—

2,80

0(until01

January20

14,2

000lats);

conditional

onjoint

liability

upto

EUR2,80

0in

case

ofinsolven

cy;

canonly

bepaidin

cash

Oneto

five

shareh

olders

(naturalpersonsonly);

must

crea

teaminim

um

reservebyded

uctionof

atleast25

%from

net

profitofprevious

finan

cial

year

Lithuan

iaUžd

arojiak

cinėben

drovė

(UAB),i.e

.gen

eral

codificationofLL

C

Law

onCompan

iesofthe

Rep

ublic

ofLithuan

iaMinim

um

sharecapital

EUR2,50

0(A

rticle

2)Single-m

ember

compan

ypossible;min.one,

max

.25

0shareh

olders

Luxe

mbourg

Sociétéàresponsabilité

limitée

(SRL),i.e

.gen

eral

codificationofLL

C

Loides

societies

commerciales

(Business

compan

iesact)

Minim

um

sharecapital

EUR12

,394

.68(A

rticle

182)

Single-m

ember

compan

ypossible

Article

179-(2);

gen

erally

min.tw

o,

max

.40

shareh

olders;if

less

than

25share-

holdersnoan

nual

gen

eral

mee

ting

required

Hungary

Korlátoltfelelősség

űtársaság

(Kft),i.e

.gen

eral

codificationofLL

C

HungarianCivilCode

Minim

um

sharecapital

HUF3,00

0,00

0(*

EUR

9,60

3.23

);co

ntributions

inkindpossible

Single-m

ember

compan

ypossible

(continued

)

110 Annex II: Overview of Low-Threshold Limited …

(continued

)

Country

Defi

nitionan

dman

datory

componen

tofthe

corporate

nam

e(ifan

y)

Legal

basisfor

low-threshold

LLC

Minim

um

capital

requirem

ents

(ifan

y)/

registrationrequirem

ents

Req

uirem

ents

concerning

shareh

olders/balan

ceshee

trequirem

ents

Malta

Kumpan

ijab’responsabbilta

limitata,

i.e.gen

eral

codificationofLL

C

Compan

yAct

of19

95Minim

um

sharecapital

EUR1,16

4.69

;gen

erally

authorisedsharecapital

shallb

esubscribed

byat

leasttw

opersons

Single-m

ember

compan

ypossible;gen

erally

min.

two,max

.50

shareh

olders

Netherlands

Beslotenve

nnootsch

ap(BV),i.e

.gen

eral

codificationofLL

C

Flex

ibiiisationofLLCAct

of01

.10.12

Nominim

um

share

capital;BVcan

den

ominateitsshare

capital

inacu

rren

cyother

than

theEu

ro

Single-m

ember

compan

ypossible

Austria

Gesellsch

aftmit

besch

ränkter

Haftung

(GmbH

withaffix

‘gründungsprivilegiert’in

commercial

register);a

qualificationofthe

conve

ntional

LLC

IntroducedbyArticle

24AbgÄG

2014

of28

.02.14

as§10

bGmbHG

(in

forcesince

01.03.14

)

Privile

ged

LLCwithlower

minim

um

sharecapital

ofEU

R10

,000

(atleast

EUR5,00

0hav

eto

be

paidin

cash);

contributionsin

kind

notallowed

Single-m

ember

compan

ypossible,§3II;

privilege

endsafter10

years,then

sharecapital

must

be

raised

toat

leastEU

R35

,000

asin

regular

GmbH;co

rporate

tax:

Yea

r1–

5EU

R50

0;ye

ar6–

10EU

R1,00

0Po

land

Spółka

zograniczo

ną

odpowiedzialnością

(Sp.z.

o.o),i.e

.gen

eral

codificationofLL

C

Commercial

Compan

ies

Code(CCC)

Minim

um

sharecapital

PLN

5,00

0(*

EUR

1,16

0.54

)

Single-m

ember

compan

ypossible

(continued

)

Annex II: Overview of Low-Threshold Limited … 111

(continued

)

Country

Defi

nitionan

dman

datory

componen

tofthe

corporate

nam

e(ifan

y)

Legal

basisfor

low-threshold

LLC

Minim

um

capital

requirem

ents

(ifan

y)/

registrationrequirem

ents

Req

uirem

ents

concerning

shareh

olders/balan

ceshee

trequirem

ents

Portugal

Limitad

a(Ltda)

also

known

asSo

cied

ades

porQuotas,

i.e.g

eneral

codificationof

LLC

Decree-law

33/201

1reform

edgen

eral

regulationin

Business

Compan

iesAct

Nominim

um

capital

requirem

ent,Article

201

(until20

11EU

R5,00

0);

capital

shares

should

be

atleastEU

R1

Single-m

ember

compan

ypossible

(Socied

ades

unipessoaispoquotas,

Article

270A

ff;

gen

erally

atleasttw

oPa

rtners,Article

7-2in

relationwithArticle

42-1-a

Roman

iaSo

cietatecu

răspundere

limitată(SRL),i.e

.gen

eral

codificationofLL

C

Law

No.31

of19

90,

amen

ded

byLa

wNo.71

/201

1

Minim

um

sharecapital

RON

200(*

EUR44

.56)

Single-m

ember

compan

ypossible;min.one,

max

.50

shareh

olders

(natural/leg

alpersons)

Slove

nia

Družb

azomejen

oodgovo

rnostjo

(D.o.o.),

i.e.g

eneral

codificationof

LLC

Commercial

Compan

ies

Act;

Court

Reg

isterAct

Minim

um

sharecapital

EUR7,50

0;in

kind

contributionspossible

Min.one,

max

.50

shareh

olders

(Natural/leg

alpersons);

specialregulationsfor

single-m

ember

compan

y(bookofdecisions)

Slova

kRep

ublic

Spoločn

osť

sruče

ním

obmed

zeným

(Spol.s.r.o.),

i.e.g

eneral

codificationof

LLC

Commercial

Code;

Trad

eLicensingAct

Minim

um

sharecapital

EUR5,00

0;in

case

of1

single

mem

ber,the

registeredcapital

must

bepaidin

full

Single-m

ember

compan

ypossible;min.one,

max

.50

shareh

olders

(natural/leg

alpersons)

(continued

)

112 Annex II: Overview of Low-Threshold Limited …

Annex II: Overview of Low-Threshold Limited … 113(continued

)

Country

Defi

nitionan

dman

datory

componen

tofthe

corporate

nam

e(ifan

y)

Legal

basisfor

low-threshold

LLC

Minim

um

capital

requirem

ents

(ifan

y)/

registrationrequirem

ents

Req

uirem

ents

concerning

shareh

olders/balan

ceshee

trequirem

ents

Finland

Osake

yhtiö(O

y),i.e.g

eneral

codificationofLL

CLimited

Liab

ility

Compan

iesAct

(LLC

A),

amen

dmen

ts98

1/20

11

Minim

um

sharecapital

EUR2,50

0(Section3

para1LL

CA)

Min.ofoneshareh

older

(naturalperson/le

gal

entity);shares

donot

nee

danominal

value

Swed

enAktiebolag(A

B),i.e

.gen

eral

codificationof

LLC

Compan

iesAct

of20

05,

SFS20

05:551

Minim

um

sharecapital:

SEK50

,000

(*EU

R5,41

4.98

);co

ntribution

inkindpossible

Min.ofoneshareh

older

(naturalperson/le

gal

entity)withat

leastone

dep

uty

boardmem

ber

appointed;ea

chshare

must

representan

equal

portionoftheshare

capital

UK

Privateltd.,i.e

.gen

eral

codificationofLL

CUK

Compan

iesAct

2006

;CorporationTa

xAct

2010

Minim

um

sharecapital

GBP1(*

EUR1.39

)Min.ofoneshareh

older

Allcu

rren

cytran

slationsarebased

ontheex

chan

geratesfrom

04.12.20

15

Annex III: Overview of ALMP Start-upIncentives in the EU-28

© The Author(s) 2017J. Lowitzsch et al., Spanish Sociedades Laborales—Activating the Unemployed,DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-54870-8

115

116 Annex III: Overview of ALMP Start-up Incentives in the EU-28

Annex III: Overview of ALMP Start-up Incentives in the EU-28 117

118 Annex III: Overview of ALMP Start-up Incentives in the EU-28

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Index

AAbsenteeism, 12Access to bank loans, 81Access to capital, 2, 18, 61, 88, 95,

99Active labour market policy. See

ALMP,Additional employment, 48, 84, 91,

95, 97Age groups, 55–56, 60Agency problem, 10ALMP, 2–7, 16, 18, 51, 74, 80−84,

90, 95, 97−99, 115Annual average capitalisation, 63Assessment review, 82Associations of SLs, 2, 70Autonomos, 45, 48–49, 103

BBankrupt, 56Basque Country, 2, 18, 35–37, 39,

55–67, 75, 78, 80, 82, 84, 94,96, 104

Best practice principles, 74Business experience, 80Business financing, 74, 80Business partners, 69Business plan, 2

CCapital contributions, 63, 65, 96Capitalisation by gender, 65Capitalisation of unemployment

benefits, 2, 5, 7, 53–55, 58–59,68, 82, 103

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Cash approach in VAT, 33Coaching, 2, 4–5, 65, 73–75, 78, 88,

95Coaching and assistance, 2Company culture, 10Company statutes, 26–27Conflict of interest, 14Construction sector, 49Conventional companies, 3, 18, 37,

42, 57, 81, 85, 103, 104Conventional corporations, 3, 10, 68,

94, 97Conventional firms, 5, 14–15, 19,

50, 56, 84–83, 96–97Conversion of unemployment

benefits, 4, 89, 99Co-operatives, 33–34Corporate tax, 32, 106Cost-benefit relation, 6, 74Credit track record, 80Crisis, 42, 44, 49, 50, 56, 59–60, 75,

83–84, 96

DDeadweight losses, 5Decision-making, 13–14, 27–28Deliberate transformation, 68Displacement effects, 5Disqualification, 18, 56, 68–69, 97Disqualification of a SL, 18

EECS, 15EECS own-initiative opinion,

SOC/371, 28

Employee (co-)ownership, 10Employee loyalty, 12, 18Employee owners, 10, 14Employee ownership, 1, 9–19, 26,

57, 97–98, 100–101Employee satisfaction, 10Employee share ownership schemes,

11, 16Employee share schemes, 10Employee turnover, 11–12Employee’s savings, 15Employment effect, 4, 51, 84Employment level, 13, 45, 52Employment stability, 12, 17, 98Enterprise efficiency, 11Enterprise results, 27Entrepreneurs, 2, 4–5, 38–40, 55,

65, 68, 81–82, 90–91, 99, 106European Company Survey. See ECS,Exchange of information, 18External funding, 17, 98External investors, 2, 80

FFalse or bogus self-employment, 4Financial aid, 69Financial and economic crisis, 49Financial assistance, 23, 27Fiscal and other incentives, 22, 31Founding partners, 22, 63–66, 84, 95Free riding, 15

GGender composition, 6General Regime, 30–31, 45, 48–49

126 Index

General shares, 26Governance model, 22Government support, 18

IIdentification with company, 18, 28Identification with firm, 15Industry sector, 58Information asymmetry, 10Intangible assets, 32–33Integration of Persons as Partners, 36, 37Investing partner, 18, 25, 45, 47, 60–67, 70, 80–81, 83, 95–96, 104Investor owned firm, 10, 12–14, 17, 98

JJob creation, 33, 51, 82, 100–101Job satisfaction, 12

KKnow-how, 12

LLabour productivity, 11Labour turnover, 12Law on Worker-Owned and Participatory Companies, 2, 22, 39, 94Legal framework, 6, 22, 85, 86Legislative reform, 94Liquidation, 15Loss of control, 16Low-threshold LLC, 87–88, 98–99, 106

Index 127

MMedian capital in SLLs, 62, 96MEYSS data, 43f, 45, 45f, 50–51f, 83Micro enterprises, 1, 3, 7, 16–17, 100Microfinance, 89, 90, 92Microfinance programmes, 90, 100Micro SLLs, 44Minimum capital requirements, 26, 86–87Minimum share capital, 86–87, 106Motivation, 12, 17, 68Mutual monitoring, 16Mutual trust, 16

NNational company law, 86Non-owner-workers, 18, 23–27, 47, 84Non-profit organisation, 38Nuttall Review, 12

OOutside capital, 80, 82, 95Outside financing, 95Outside investors, 18, 81–82, 95

PParticipatory Company for Employees, 27–28Peer pressure, 16Permanent non-owner-workers, 23, 25–27Permanent workers, 18, 23–27, 39, 69Personal income tax, 33, 39Personal liability, 81, 95Policy recommendations, 99Population of SLs, 2, 6, 104Preemptive rights, 22

128 Index

Pre-start-up phase, 4, 74–75Productivity, 11, 15, 18–19Productivity gains, 18Profit distribution, 22Profit sharing, 13, 19Property rights structure, 14Public authorities, 22Public services, 70Public subsidies, 68, 78Public support, 69

RReduced tax rate, 32Regime of independent workers, 31, 48Regulatory framework, 5–6, 22Requisites to qualify as a SL, 27Resilience, 12–13, 17, 98Restrictions on hiring, 18, 69Retention of staff, 17Risk, 4–5, 7, 12–13, 15, 17, 54, 81, 90, 95, 99, 101

SSALs, 3, 42, 44–45, 49, 51, 70, 77Secondary employment, 6, 17, 74–75, 82–84, 97–99Secondary job creation, 82Self-employment, 4, 6, 74, 82Share ownership, 1, 3, 11, 15–16, 19, 98Share ownership culture, 18Shirking, 11, 15Short- to long-term incentives, 18Single owner, 25SL, 1–3, 5–7, 18, 23–26, 29–32, 36–39, 42, 48–49, 53–56, 58–60, 68–69,

75–82, 94–95, 97, 100SLLs, 3, 32, 42, 44–45, 49, 51–53, 57–58, 60–66, 70, 77, 83–85, 96–97Small and micro enterprises, 1, 3, 16Social aid, 5, 17Social economy, 23, 34, 100–101

Index 129